CHE106 FM Lab Manual 18feb22 1

SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL & BIOTECHNOLOGY
CHE106
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
Page | 1
LABORATORY RECORD NOTE BOOK
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the bona-fide record of work done by

Mr./Ms.______________________________________________________
with Reg. No. _________________________ during his/her _______ semester
in the ________________________________________________ Laboratory
during the academic year _____________
Staff In-charge
Submitted for the University examination held on _________
Examiner – I Examiner - II
Page | 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Expt. Page Lab Work

Date Name of the Experiment
No. no. (10)
Page | 3
Expt. Page Lab Work
Date Name of the Experiment
No. no. (10)
Page | 4
L T P C
0 0 2 1
Course Code: CHE106

Semester: IV/V
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
Course Objective:
The objective of the course is to:
1. To train the students to measure pressure drop in systems involving flow though
closed conduits, open channels, fixed and fluidized beds
2. To train the students to conduct experiments to study the performance of fluid
machinery
3. To train the students to perform experiment for calibration of fluid measuring
devices.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Calibration of Venturimeter
2. Calibration of Orificemeter
3. Calibration of Flow Nozzle
4. Calibration of Rotameter
5. Calibration of V-notch
6. Major loss for flow through pipe
7. Minor loss for flow through pipe
8. Efflux time
9. Valve Characteristics
10. Flow through annular pipe
11. Flow through helical coil
12. Flow through packed bed
13. Flow through fluidized bed
14. Non-Newtonian flow
15. Characteristics of reciprocating pump
16. Characteristics of centrifugal pump
17. Characteristics of gear pump
18. Drag studies
19. Open experiments
UNIT-WISE LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of each experiment, the learner will be able to
Expt. No. 1 Calibrate and compute discharge coefficient for venturimeter

Expt. No. 2 Calibrate and compute discharge coefficient for orificemeter
Expt. No. 3 Calibrate and compute discharge coefficient for flow nozzle
Expt. No. 4 Prepare calibration chart for rotameter
Page | 5
Expt. No. 5 Calibrate and compute discharge coefficient for V-notch
Expt. No. 6 Measure and compute pressure drop in flow through pipes and compare
it with theoretical value
Expt. No. 7 Measure and compute minor loss in pipe flow systems
Expt. No. 8 Compute time taken to discharge water from tank
Expt. No. 9 Measure flow through valve and draw its characteristics
Expt. No. 10 Measure and compute pressure drop in flow thorough annulus / non-
circular conduits
Expt. No. 11 Measure and compute pressure drop in helical coil
Expt. No. 12 Measure and compute pressure drop for flow through packed bed
Expt. No. 13 Measure and compute pressure drop in fluidized bed system and
thereby estimate minimum fluidization velocity
Expt. No. 14 Quantify stress-strain relationship in fluid and classify the fluid behaviour
Expt. No. 15 Measure and draw characteristic performance curve for reciprocating
pump
Expt. No. 16 Measure and draw characteristic performance curve for centrifugal
pump
Expt. No. 17 Measure and draw characteristic performance curve for gear pump
Expt. No. 18 Measure terminal settling velocity for freely falling body through a
viscous fluid
Expt. No. 19 Perform an self-designed experiment to demonstrate the principles of
fluid mechanics
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
After the successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
Knowledge
CO No. Course Outcome
Level
Perform experiments on fluid flow systems, obtain experimental
CO 1. data, analyse the data to obtain key hydrodynamic features of the K3
experimental system
Compare the experimental data with appropriate theoretical
CO 2. K3
calculation to make suitable inference.
CO 3. Perform experiment to calibrate head meters and rotameter K3
Perform experiment to measure frictional pressure drop (major and
CO 4. K3
minor loss) in flow through pipes
Perform experiment to measure frictional pressure drop in flow
CO 5. K3
through systems such as helical coil, annular, bed of particles
Perform experiment to quantitatively study the characteristics of
CO 6. K3
fluid machinery.
Perform experiment to study the fluid stress-strain relationship and
CO 7. K3
flow through viscous fluids
Page | 6
General Instructions
The general instructions for the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory course are as follows:
1. Every student should go through the suggested readings / procedure of their

corresponding experiment before coming to the lab and is expected to have a fair knowledge
of the experiment they ought to perform for the day.
2. Every student is expected to bring plain A4 sheets, graph sheets and required stationery
for the lab. Borrowing in lab for performing experiment is discouraged.
3. The laboratory notebook / bounded A4 sheets will serve as both observation and record
notebook. The same notebook will be presented for the end semester examination. This lab
manual need not be printed and attached to the student laboratory notebook / record.
However, every student is expected to have soft copy of this laboratory manual in their
mobile for ready access during lab
4. The students will be divided into groups with 2 or 3 members per group and experiments
will be performed by every group following an order for the experiments.
5. All members of the group should actively participate and perform the experiment. Strict
adherence to the same is expected failing which the concerned member will repeat the
experiment individually.
6. Every member of the group, in essence, every student, should be fully aware of the
experiment in totality and should be in a position to perform the experiment individually.
7. Once the readings are noted, every student should get the attestation of the staff in-charge
in the observation table against the readings noted. Students should not leave the lab class
without getting the attestation on the observation table. Attestation is for every
individual and not for team.
8. Calculation for the experiment performed on a given day should be most preferably
completed on the same day. However, if not possible, it should be completed within the same
week (before the next lab class for that batch). If a student fails to complete the same before
his/her next immediate lab class, the student has to repeat the experiment again from start and
the old data has to be discarded.
9. Calculations for an experiment shall be done collectively / upon consultation with

previous batches. However, it is earnestly expected that every student should be fully
accustomed with the calculation procedure independently.
10. Students are encouraged to meet/e-mail the concerned faculty in-charge to clarify their
genuine doubts.
11. The manual should be treated as a guideline.
12. Late attendance to the lab class is strictly discouraged. Late comers will have to lose
attendance for the entire lab session of the day (2 periods)!
Page | 7
General structure of laboratory note book
Use A4 sheets to maintain laboratory notebook. This lab manual need not be printed and kept
as part of the laboratory notebook / record. Towards the end of the semester, all the A4 sheets
shall be soft bound and presented for the semester examination. Maintain 1.5” margin on left
side of A4 for binding and 1” on top, right side and bottom. Use only one side of the A4
sheet paper.
Every experiment shall contain the following -
1. Objective: Should explicitly state the objective or purpose of the experiment.
2. List of formulae/ expressions/ correlations used in the calculation
3. Observation table. Indicate units for all physical quantities
4. Calculation section: Show step by step detailed model calculation for one reading. Each
student will do model calculation for a unique experimental reading. For the rest of the
experimental readings, tabulate the final results. Results should not be tabulated in the
observation table but to be done separately. Graphs should be neatly pasted in the A4
sheet.
5. Results and discussion giving major outcome/ inferences made from the experiment. Each
student is expected to write inference in his/her own words based on their understanding
of the experiment.
Instructions for graphs

1. Choose appropriate scale to draw graphs
2. Scale should be mentioned in the graph clearly.
3. Experimental data points should be represented in symbols only.
4. Mention S.I units for physical quantities in axis titles.
5. Write physical variable name in the axis title and NOT notations. Axis title should be
written in raised caps and not in running or small case letter. For example write as
‘PRESSURE DROP, (kPa)’

6. Graphs should be pasted (stuck) on A4 bond sheet, leaving 1.5” on left margin for
binding.
Page | 8
Typical Model Calculation
Given
Pipe Diameter D = 15mm = 0.015 m
Fluid density  = 1000 kg/m3
Fluid viscosity  = 1cP = 0.001 Pa s
Length of pipe between tappings = L = 2000 mm = 2 m
Experimental Observation (Sr. No. 5)

Manometer reading
Height of mercury on upstream end = h1 = 19 cm = 0.19 m
Height of mercury on downstream end = h2 = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Dimensions of the water collection tank = wt X bt = 40 cm X 40 cm = 0.4 m X 0.4 m

Change in water level in the level meter = ht = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Time taken for rise of water in tank = t = 10 s
Calculation
Cross section area of tank = At = wt X bt = 0.4 X 0.4 = 0.16 m2
Volume of water collected in t s = Vwater = At X ht = 0.16 X 0.05 = 0.008 m3
Volumetric flow rate = Q = Vwater / t = 0.008 / 10 = 0.0008 m3/s
 2 
= A= ( 0.015) =1.767E-4 m2
2
Cross section area of pipe D =
4 4
Q 0.0008
Superficial velocity in the pipe = u= = = 4.5 m/s
A 1.767E − 4
Difference in manometer reading = h = h2 – h1 = 0.6 – 0.19 = 0.41 m

Pressure drop = P = h  g
= 0.41 X 1000 X 9.81
= 4.022 kPa
Du
Reynolds no = ReD = = XYZ ..

(Continue accordingly)
Page | 9
Scheme of Internal Assessment
The internal assessment for the Fluid mechanics laboratory course shall be as follows
Component Expectation from Student Marks

Lab Work - Pre-lab work including reading of suggested material 15
/ theory
- Timely completion of lab exercises with model
calculation, graphs and interpretation of obtained
results and submission of the same latest by the next
lab class
Model Exam - Perform appropriate experiment, note down the 25
And Viva readings with units, do the calculation for the
Voce experiment, plot graphs (if any) and arrive at
appropriate conclusion and make inference
Open - ended - Perform any experiment of choice on available set up 10
activity Self- - (or) Explain the fluid phenomena/principle inferred
Designed from the chosen experiments using calculations/
Experiment presentation/ videos etc.
Total 50
• Details regarding the open-ended activity shall be discussed during the course of
performing each experiment. Open-ended activity can either be an individual or a team
activity and shall be decided within 9 weeks of the beginning of the semester
• Open-ended activity experiment will also be part of the laboratory observation notebook /
record and shall be soft bound along with other experiments
HONOR CODE
Any kind of malpractice or copying or submission of others’ records as own will attract
strict penalty. Every student is expected to work independently with utmost sincerity
Page | 10
List of Experiments
Expt
Title Page no.
No.
1. Calibration of Venturimeter 12
2. Calibration of Orifice Meter 17
3. Calibration of Flow Nozzle Meter 22
4. Determination of Pipe Friction Factor: Major Loss 26
5. Determination of Minor Losses in Flow System 30
6. Flow through a Triangular Notch 36
7. Determination of Efflux Time 40
8. Flow through Annular Section 44
9. Flow through Helical Coil 48
10. Non-Newtonian Flow 52
11. Calibration of Rotameter 57
12. Valve Characteristics 60
13. Pressure Drop for Flow through Packed Bed 64
14. Performance Test on Reciprocating Pump 69
15. Performance Test on Single Stage Centrifugal Pump 75
16. Verification of Bernoulli’s Principle 80
17. Drag Studies on Spheres Falling Through Viscous Fluid 88
18. Performance Test on Gear Pump 91
19. Pressure Drop for Flow through Fluidized Bed 95
Page | 11
Ex. No. 1 Date:
CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER
Aim
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the venturimeter
Apparatus Required
1. Venturimeter 2. Pressure Gauge 3. Collecting tank set up
3. Stop watch 5. Meter scale
Suggested Readings
• McCabe, W. L., J. C. Smith and P. Harriot. Unit operation in chemical engineering, 7/e.
New Delhi: Mc-Graw Hill, 2005, Chapter 8, p 225 - 227
• Munson B. R., D. F. Young, T. H. Okiishi and W. W. Huebsch. Fundamentals of Fluid
mechanics, 6/e, New Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter 8, p 441 – 445
• Fox, R. W, P J Pritchard and A. T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 7/e, New
Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter 8, p 358 - 365
• Coulson, J.M., J. F. Richardson, J. R. Backhurst and J. H. Harker, Coulson & Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering, Volume 1: Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer, 6/e,
Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann, 2010, Chapter 6, p 255 - 256
• www.pages.drexel.edu/~choyi/mem220-SU09_files/Chapter%203%20new%20SU09.pdf
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUd4WxjoHKY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qz1g6kqvUG8
• http://fm-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp5/index.html
• http://mfts-iitg.vlabs.ac.in/VenturiMeter.html
• http://ce-
iitb.vlabs.ac.in/exp1/Aim.html?domain=%20Chemical%20Engineering&lab=Chemical%
20Engineering
Setup Description
Venturi, the Italian engineer, discovered in 1791 that a pressure difference related the rate of
flow could be created in pipe by deliberately reducing its area of cross-section. The modern
version of the venturimeter was first developed and employed for measurement of flow of
water by Clemens Herschel in 1886. Venturimeter continues to be the best and most precise
instrument for measurement of all types of fluid flow in pipes. The meter consists of a short
length of gradual convergence throat and a longer length of gradual divergence. The semi-
angle of convergence is 8 to 10 and the semi-angle of divergence is3 to 5. A pressure
tapping 1 is provided at location before the convergence commences and another pressure
tapping 2 is provided at the throat section of the venturimeter. The pressure difference (p1-p2)
between the two tapings is measured by means of a U-tube manometer (manometer may
contain water or mercury as the manometric fluid depending upon the pressure difference
expected) or mechanical pressure gauge (Gauges are used for higher value of pressure).
Page | 12
Theory
Venturimeter is a device, used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through a
pipeline. The pressure difference between the inlet and throat of the venturimeter is recorded
using piezometer and the time is recorded for a measured discharge.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections (1) and (2)
p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
w 2g w 2g
p 
The difference of the piezometer heads  + z  between inlet and throat sections is usually
 w 
called “Venturihead” h.
p  p 
h =  1 + z1  −  1 + z1 
 w   w 
v 22 v12
− =h
2g 2g
Pressure Gauges
Diverging Cone
Throat
Converging cone
Using continuity equation: a1v1=a2v2

a2
v1 = v 2
a1
v 22 v12 a 2 gh
− = h (or) v 2 = 2
2g 2g a12 − a 22
The ideal or theoretical discharge is given by:

a a 2 gh
Qt = a 2 v 2 = 1 2
a12 − a 22
The actual rate of flow is written as:
a a 2 gh
Qa = C d 1 2
a12 − a 22
Page | 13
where Cd is called the co-efficient of discharge which accounts for losses of head
Expression for theoretical discharge (Qt)
a1 a 2 2 gh
Qt =
a12 − a 22
where a1 = Area of the inlet pipe in m2
a2 = Area of the throat section of the venturimeter in m2
h = Venturi head in terms of flowing fluid in m
h = h1 – h2
h1= Piezometric head at the inlet pipe in m ( = p1*10 if p1 is expressed in kg/cm2)
h2= Piezometric head at the throat section of venturi meter in m
( = p1*10 if p1 is expressed in kg/cm2)
g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (Take the value of g as 9.81 m/s2)
Expression for actual discharge (Qa)
AH
Qa =
T
where A = Area of the collecting tank in m2

H = Rise of liquid in m
T = Time of collection in seconds
Co-efficient of discharge
Qa
Cd =
Qt
Procedure
1. The diameter of the pipe and throat are recorded and the internal plan dimensions of the
collecting tank are measured.
2. Start the pump and adjust the control valve in the pipeline for maximum discharge
3. Measure the pressure difference across the meter
4. By closing the outlet value of collecting tank, the time taken for 5 cm rise of water in the
piezometer is noted. After taking set of reading the collecting tank outlet valve is fully
opened to drain the water
5. Decrease the flow rate through the system by regulating the control valve
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for at least 5 different settings of the control valve.
Page | 14
Observation
Diameter of the inlet pipe (d1) =
Diameter of the throat section (d2) =
Inner length of the collecting tank (L) =
Inner breadth of the collecting tank (B) =
Density of water (water) =
Observation Table
S. Upstream Downstream Time taken for 5 cm

No. pressure, P1 pressure, P2 rise of water, t
kg/cm2 kg/cm2 s
0. Zero error reading
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculation: Model Calculation for Reading No. __________

A tan k x 5cm
1. Actual volumetric flowrate Qact = = _____ m3 s
t
Atank: Cross section area of collecting tank, m2
2. Pressure drop P = P1 − P2 = ___________ kg cm 2 = _________x 9.81x10 4 Pa
Note: Indicate how zero error reading is accounted
P
3. Pressure drop in terms of head of water column h = = ___________ m
water g
A pipe A throat 2g h
4. Theoretical flow rate Q theo =
A 2pipe − A 2throat
Apipe: Cross section area of pipe, m2
Athroat: Cross section area of venturimeter throat, m2
Q
5. Discharge coefficient CD = act
Q theo
Actual Theoretical
Upstream Time taken Head Discharge
S. Downstream volumetric Pressure volumetric
pressure, for 5 cm rise of Coefficient,
No. pressure, P2 flowrate, drop flowrate,
P1 of water, t water CD
Qact Qtheo
kg/cm2 kg/cm2 s m3/s Pa m m3/s -
1.
Page | 15
5.
Average Discharge Coefficient = CD
Graph
Abscissa: Theoretical volumetric flowrate Qtheo

Ordinate: Actual volumetric flowrate Qtheo
Slope: CD
Y = Qact = m X = CD Q theo
Result
Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter
From calculation =
From graph =
Discussion / Inference
Based on the experiment performed, the following are observed:
Additional Information
• You can also use linear regression function in calculator to get slope (discharge
coefficient) and verify with graphical solution
• If you have conducted experiment in 3 trials for error bar, the use average time ‘tavg’
instead of time ‘t’
N
t i
t avg = i =1
N
ti : Time taken for 5 cm rise of water in the ith trial
N: No. of trials
Page | 16
Ex. No. 2 Date:
CALIBRATION OF ORIFICEMETER
Aim
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter
Apparatus Required
1. Orifice meter 2. Pressure Gauge 3. Collecting tank set up
Suggested Readings
Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann, 2010, Chapter 6, p 248 – 257
• www.pages.drexel.edu/~choyi/mem220-SU09_files/Chapter%203%20new%20SU09.pdf
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUd4WxjoHKY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qz1g6kqvUG8
• http://eerc03-
iiith.vlabs.ac.in/exp6/Introduction.html?domain=Civil%20Engineering&lab=Hydraulics
%20and%20Fluid%20Mechanics%20Lab
• http://ce-
20Engineering
Setup Description
An orifice meter or a pipe orifice consists of a plate containing a sharp-edged orifice inserted
into a pipe normal to the flow direction, in such a way that the orifice is concentric with the
internal section of the pipe.
Page | 17
Theory
Orifice meter is a device, used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through a
pipeline. The pressure difference between the inlet and at vena-contracta of the orifice meter
is recorded using pressure gauges. The fluid contracts as it approaches the section (2) where
the jet area is the least. This section is at a distance of about D/2 downstream of orifice. In
distance of 4 to 8 D thereafter, the jet expands and fills the pipe again. Considerable energy is
lost in the turbulent eddies that are formed in the expanding portion of fluid jet.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections (1) and (c)
p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 = c + c + z c
w 2g w 2g
p 
The difference of the piezometer heads  + z  between inlet and venacontracta is h.
 w 
p  p 
h =  1 + z1  −  c + z c 
 w   w 
vc2 v12
− =h
2g 2g
Taking ac/a, ie, the ratio of jet area at section C to orifice area as co-efficient of contraction
Cc, and
Using continuity equation: a1v1=a2v2
ac Ca
v1 = vc = vc
a1 a1
Pc
vc2 v12 a1 2 gh
− = h (or) vc =
2g 2g a12 − C 2 a 2
The actual velocity is given by

1 2 c
Page | 18
C v a1 2 gh
vc =
a12 − C 2 a 2
where Cv is a co-efficient of velocity that accounts for the small velocity reduction due to
friction.
The ideal or theoretical discharge is given by:
C v Caa1 2 gh
Qt = ac vc =
a12 − C 2 a 2
It is found to be more convenient in practice to drop Cc from the denominator of the above
equation and use a single co-efficient Cd in place of two co-efficients CcCv in the numerator.
The actual rate of flow is written as:
a1 a 2 gh
Qa = C d
a12 − a 2
where Cd is called the co-efficient of discharge which accounts for losses of head
a1 a 2 gh
Qt =
a12 − a 2
a = Area of the orifice in m2
h = Head in terms of flowing fluid in m
h = h1 – h2
h2= Piezometric head at the throat section of venturi meter in m
( = p1*10 if p1 is expressed in kg/cm2)
AH
Qa =
T
Qa
Cd =
Qt
Procedure
Page | 19
1. The diameter of the pipe and orifice are recorded and the internal plan dimensions of the
3. Measure the pressure difference h across the meter
piezometer is noted. After taking the reading, collecting tank outlet valve is fully opened
to drain the water
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for at least 5 different settings of the control valve.
Observation
Diameter of the pipe (d1) =
Diameter of the orifice (d2) =
Inner length of the collecting tank (L) =
Inner breadth of the collecting tank (B) =
Density of water (water) =
Observation Table
S. Upstream Downstream Time taken for 5 cm
No. pressure, P1 pressure, P2 rise of water, t
kg/cm2 kg/cm2 s
1.
5.

A tan k x 5cm
t
2. Pressure drop P = P1 − P2 = ___________ kg cm 2 = _________x 9.81x10 4 Pa
P
3. Pressure drop in terms of head of water column h = = ___________ m
water g
A pipe A o 2g h
A 2pipe − A o2
Ao: Cross section area of orifice, m2
Q
Q theo
Page | 20
Calculation table
Actual Theoretical
Upstream Time taken for Head Discharge
S. Downstream volumetric Pressure volumetric
pressure, 5 cm rise of of Coefficient,
No. pressure, P2 flowrate, drop flowrate,
P1 water, t water CD
Qact Qtheo
kg/cm2 kg/cm2 s m3/s Pa m m3/s -
1.
5.
Graph
Slope: CD
Result
Coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter
From calculation =
From graph =
N
t i
t avg = i =1
N
N: No. of trials
Page | 21
Ex. No. 3 Date:
CALIBRATION OF FLOW NOZZLE METER

Aim
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the flow nozzle meter
Apparatus Required
1. Flow nozzle 2. Pressure Gauge 3. Collecting tank set up
Suggested Readings
Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann, 2010, Chapter 6, p 254
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUd4WxjoHKY&t=1s
Setup Description
A flow nozzle meter is a device in which the contraction of area is brought about by nozzle.
One of the pressure tapping provided at a distance of one diameter upstream the nozzle plate
and other at the nozzle exit.
Theory
Flow nozzle meter is a device, used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through a
pipeline. The pressure difference between the inlet and at the nozzle jet is recorded using
piezometer / mechanical pressure gauge.

Pc
a1 a 2 2 gh
Qt =
a12 − a 22
a2 = Area of the nozzle in m2 1 2
h = Head in terms of flowing fluid in m
h = h1 – h2
h2= Piezometric head at the throat section of venturi meter in m ( = p1*10 if p1 is expressed in
kg/cm2)
Page | 22
AH
Qa =
T
Qa
Cd =
Qt
Procedure
1. The diameter of the pipe and nozzle are recorded and the internal plan dimensions of the
3. Measure the pressure difference across the meter
piezometer is noted. After taking the reading, collecting tank outlet valve is fully opened
to drain the water
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for at least ten different settings of the control valve.
Observation
Diameter of the inlet pipe (d1)
Diameter of the nozzle (d2)
Cross section dimensions of the collecting tank = ____________ X ______________
Density of the manometer fluid manometer =
Density of the fluid  =
Observation Table
S. Upstream manometer Downstream Time taken for 5 cm

No. reading, z1 manometer reading, z2 rise of water, t
cm cm s
1.
2.
3.
Page | 23
A tan k x 5cm
t
2. Manometer deflection = z = z2 – z1 = = ______ m

3. Pressure drop P =  z g = ____________ Pa

 = manometer -  = ___________ kg/m3
4. Pressure drop in terms of head of water column (process fluid column)

P
h= = ___________ m
water g
A pipe A nozzle 2g h
A 2pipe − A nozzle
2

Anozzle: Cross section area of nozzle, m2
Q
Q theo
Time taken Actual Theoretical

Upstream Downstream Head Discharge
S. for 5 cm volumetric Pressure volumetric
manometer manometer of Coefficient,
No. rise of flowrate, drop flowrate,
reading, z1 reading, z2 water CD
water, t Qact Qtheo
cm cm s m3/s Pa m m3/s -
1.
5.
Page | 24
Graph

Slope: CD
Result
Coefficient of discharge of Flow nozzle meter
From calculation =
From graph =
Page | 25
Ex. No. 4 Date:
DETERMINATION OF PIPE FRICTION FACTOR: MAJOR LOSS
Aim
• To determine experimental pressure drop for flow through circular cross section pipe
• To compare experimental pressure drop with theoretical pressure drop
Apparatus
1. Pipes of different diameters 2. Piezometers 3. Stop watch
4. Collecting tank fitted with a piezometer 5. Metre scale
Suggested Readings
mechanics, 6/e, New Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter 8, p 410 - 415
Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter 8, 328 - 333
• http://mfts-iitg.vlabs.ac.in/PipeFlow.html
• http://ce-
iitb.vlabs.ac.in/exp7/Aim.html?domain=Chemical%20Engineering&lab=Chemical%20En
gineering%20Lab
Theory and Description of set up

When the fluid flows through a pipe the viscosity of the fluid and the inner surface of the pipe
offers resistance to the flow. In overcoming the resistance some energy of the flowing fluid is
lost. This is called the major loss in pipe flow. Boundary roughness, which has little
significance in laminar flow, plays a vitally important role in turbulence. This, together with
what is known as the
transverse momentum
exchange of fluid particles
due to the perpetual
turbulent intermixing, are
the chief sources of
tangential or shear stresses
in turbulent flow. Various
equations have been
proposed to determine the
head losses due to friction,
including the Darcy-
Weisbach, Chezy, Manning,
Page | 26
Hazen-Williams, and Scobey formulae. These equations relate the friction losses to physical
characteristics of the pipe and various flow parameters.
fLV 2
The Darcy’s formula h f =
2 gD
Where hf – Head loss due to friction (m)
L - Distance between the pressure tappings (m)
D – Diameter of the pipe (m)
g – Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
f – Friction factor
Moody chart provides the friction factor for pipe flows with smooth and rough walls in
laminar and turbulent regimes. The friction factor depends on Re and relative roughness k/D
of the pipe (for large enough Re, the friction factor is solely dependent on the relative
roughness).
Laminar and turbulent flow regimes are distinguished by the Reynolds number defined as
VD 4Q
Re = =
 D
where V is the pipe average velocity, D is the pipe diameter, Q is the pipe flow rate, and ν is
the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
The experimental set up consists of 3 pipes of different diameters and about 3 meters long
connected to a main pipe. An inlet valve is provided in the main pipe to regulate the
discharge of different pipes. Two pressure tapings 2.5 m apart are fitted to each pipe. These
tapings are connected to two piezometer (manometer) using rubber tubes to measure the
heads h1 and h2.
Procedure
1. The diameter of the pipe for which the friction factor is to be calculated, is recorded.
2. The internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank and the distance between the two
pressure tapings are recorded.
3. The inlet valve is opened keeping the outlet valve partly closed.
4. The heads in the peizometer tubes z1 and z2 are noted.
5. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is tightly closed and the time ‘t’ required for the
rise ‘H’ mm in the collecting tank is observed using a stopwatch.
6. The above procedure is repeated by varying the rate of flow and also using other pipes of
different diameter.
Observation
Diameter of the pipe D =

Length of the pipe L =
Cross section dimensions of the collecting tank = ___________ X ______________
Density of manometer fluid mano =
Viscosity of the fluid  =
Page | 27
Observation Table

cm cm s
1.
5.

2. Experimental Pressure drop Pexp =  z g = ____________ Pa

 = manometer -  = ___________ kg/m3
A tan k x 5cm
3. Volumetric flowrate Q = = _____ m3 s
t
Q
4. Superficial velocity u = = _____ m s
A
A: Cross section area of pipe, m2
Du
5. Reynolds no. ReD = = _____

D: Diameter of pipe, m
: Density of fluid, kg/m3
: Viscosity of fluid, Pa s
6. Darcy Friction factor
64
fD = for Re D  2100
ReD
0.316
= for ReD  2100
Re0.25
D
Note: Other appropriate correlations can also be used.

1 2 L
7. Theoretical pressure drop Ptheo = f D u
2 D
Pact − Ptheo
8. Percentage deviation %dev = x100 = ________ %
Ptheo
Page | 28
Calculation Table
Upstream Downstream Time taken Experimental Darcy Theoretical

S. Volumetric Superficial Reynolds Percentage
manometer manometer for 5 cm rise pressure Friction pressure
No. flowrate, Q velocity, u no., ReD deviation
reading, z1 reading, z2 of water, t Pexp factor, fD drop, Ptheo
cm cm s Pa m3/s m/s - - Pa %
1.
5.
Graph
• Parity plot for pressure drop
o Abscissa: Theoretical pressure drop
o Ordinate: Experimental pressure drop
Result
The experimental and theoretical pressure drop was found for the pipe at different flow rates. The average deviation was found to be
_______________________
Page | 29
Ex. No. 5 Date:
DETERMINATION OF MINOR LOSSES IN FLOW SYSTEM

Aim
To determine the loss coefficient for flow through pipes due to (i) Sudden enlargement (ii)
Sudden contraction and (iii) Elbow
Apparatus
1. Pipe with sudden enlargement, contraction and bend 2. Piezometers
3. Stop watch 4. Collecting tank fitted with a piezometer 5. Metre scale
Suggested Readings
New Delhi: Mc-Graw Hill, 2005, Chapter 5, p 121- 125
Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter 8, p 333- 339
• http://mfts-iitg.vlabs.ac.in/PipeFlow.html
• http://mfts-iitg.vlabs.ac.in/Nozzle.html
• http://ce-
iitb.vlabs.ac.in/exp7/Aim.html?domain=Chemical%20Engineering&lab=Chemical%20En
gineering%20Lab
Theory and Description of set-up

Whenever the velocity of a fluid is changed, either in direction or magnitude, by a change in
the direction or size of the pipe, friction is generated in addition to the skin friction from flow
through the straight pipe. Such friction includes form friction resulting from vortices that
develop when the normal streamlines are distributed and when boundary layer separation
occurs. The expressions for loss of head due to sudden expansion, sudden contraction and
elbow are obtained based on equation of continuity and Bernoulli’s theorem.
P 1
Friction loss per unit mass of fluid = h f = = K V2
 2
Sudden contraction (Nozzle)  D 22 
K c = 0.4 1 − 2  ;
 D1 
D2 < D1
Kc based on V2
Page | 30
2
Sudden expansion (Diffuser)  D12 
K e = 1 − 2  ;
 D2 
D1 < D2
Ke based on V1
Elbows
45o standard 0.4
90o standard 0.9
The experimental set up consists of 3 pipes with sudden enlargement, sudden contraction
sections and elbow. All the pipes have a common inlet valve and separate delivery valves,
fittings and pressure tapings. A collecting tank with control valve, piezometer and scale is
used to measure the discharge through the pipes.
Procedure
1. The diameter of the pipe for which loss coefficient is to be calculated, is recorded.
2. The internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank and the distance between the two
pressure tapings are recorded.
3. The inlet valve is opened keeping the outlet valve partly closed.
4. The pipe section having sudden contraction is connected to piezometers by flexible tubes.
5. The heads in the peizometer tubes z1 and z2 are noted.
6. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is tightly closed and the time ‘t’ required for the
rise ‘H’ mm in the collecting tank is observed using a stopwatch.
7. The above procedure is repeated by varying the rate of flow and also flow through other
pipes.
Observation Table
• Dimensions of the collecting tank

o Length l =
o Breadth b =
• Density of manometer fluid mano =
• Density of the fluid  =
• Viscosity of the fluid  =
Diameter of the pipe
• Sudden Expansion (D1 < D2 )
o Diameter of the pipe before expansion (smaller diameter, upstream side) = D1 =
_________
o Diameter of the pipe after expansion (larger diameter, downstream side) = D2 =
___________
Page | 31
cm cm s
1.
2.
3.
• Sudden Contraction (D1 > D2 )

o Diameter of the pipe before contraction (larger diameter, upstream side) = D1
= _________
o Diameter of the pipe after contraction (smaller diameter, downstream side ) =
D2 = _________

cm cm s
1.
2.
3.
• Elbow
o Diameter of the pipe before and after the elbow remains the same = D1 = D2 =
D = ________

cm cm s
1.
2.
3.
Page | 32
Calculation: Sudden Expansion: Model Calculation for Reading No. __________

 = manometer -  = ___________ kg/m3
A tan k x 5cm
t
4. Cross section area of the pipe element
 2
Before expansion (smaller diameter, upstream side) = A1 = D1 = _____ m 2
4
 2
After expansion (larger diameter, downstream side) = A 2 = D 2 = _____ m
2
5. Superficial velocity through the pipe element
Q
Superficial velocity at the upstream side = u1 = = _____ m s
A1
Q
Superficial velocity at the downstream side = u 2 = = _____ m s
A2
1 kg
6. Mean kinetic energy per unit volume of the flow = KE =  u 2 = _____
2 m s2
Note: Mean KE is to be calculated based on the higher velocity.
For sudden expansion, it is based on u1
For sudden contraction, it is based on u2
For elbow, u1 = u2
7. Experimental Loss coefficient
P = k KE
P
k=
KE
8. Theoretical loss coefficient

2
 D2 
k exp = 1 − 12 
 D2 
Page | 33
 D2 
k contra = 0.4 1 − 22 
 D1 
kelbow refer to Perry’s handbook or McCabe
Do model calculation for Sudden Contraction and for Elbow also appropriately
Graph
• Abscissa: Mean kinetic energy
• Ordinate: Experimental pressure drop
Result / Inference
• Report the graphical and experimentally determined loss coefficient for all the pipe
elements
• Can you infer for which pipe element it is more? Can you articulate why it is so
Page | 34
Calculation Table
Superficial Superficial Mean kinetic

Upstream Downstream Time taken Experimental
S. Volumetric velocity in velocity in energy per Loss
manometer manometer for 5 cm rise pressure
No. flowrate, Q upstream downstream unit volume, Coefficient
reading, z1 reading, z2 of water, t Pexp
side, u1 side, u2 KE
cm cm s Pa m3/s m/s m/s kg/m s2 -
SUDDEN EXPANSION
1.
2.
3.
Mean value for loss coefficient
SUDDEN CONTRACTION
1.
2.
3
ELBOW
1.
2.
3.
Page | 35
Ex. No. 6 Date:
FLOW THROUGH A TRIANGULAR NOTCH
Aim
To find the co-efficient of discharge of a triangular notch
Apparatus
1. Notch setup 2. Piezometer 3. Metre scale
4. Stop watch 5. Collecting tank 6. Hook gauge
Suggested Readings
mechanics, 6/e, New Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter3, p 123; Chapter 8, p
561 - 564
Theory and Description of setup
A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the
free surface. It is, in effect, a large orifice, which has no upper edge, so that it has a variable
area depending upon the level of the free surface. Notches are used for measuring small
discharges in open channels. A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or
reservoir extending above the free surface. It is, in effect, a large orifice, which has no upper
edge, so that it has a variable area depending upon the level of the free surface. Notches are
used for measuring small discharges in open channels. A notch is an obstruction placed
across the channel so as to cause the water to back behind it and flow over it. Since the depth
of flow above the sill of the notch is related to the discharge, the rate of flow may be
determined by measuring the depth of flow of water (usually referred to as the ‘head’ causing
flow) above the notch. Notches could be constructed out of smooth, plane sheet of metal.
When the edges are beveled on the downstream side to give minimum contact with upstream
face. Such notches are called “sharp crested weirs” and are widely used for measuring
discharges in laboratory channels, irrigation channels, etc.
The notches are usually classified according to the shape of the opening as rectangular
notch, triangular notch (V-notch), trapezoidal notch, parabolic notch and stepped notch.
Generally a triangular notch is preferred to a rectangular notch for measuring the low
discharges. This is because the crest length for triangular notch is equal to zero and therefore
even for a low discharge, the head over the crest is fairly large and which can be measured
more accurately.
The experimental setup consist of a notch to be calibrated is fitted in a steel flume.
Water is supplied to the flume by pump. To make the water reaching the notch steadily,
Page | 36
baffle walls are provided. A pointer gauge is used to measure the head over the notch. A
collecting tank is used to measure the discharge flowing over the notch.
Formulae
AH
Actual discharge Qa =
t
A = Internal plan area of the collecting tank (m2)
H = Rise of liquid in the collecting tank
t = Time taken for 5 cm rise of the liquid
 
5
8
Theoretical discharge Qt = 2 g tan h 2
15 2
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
θ = Angle of the triangular notch
h = Head over the sill of the notch in metres
Procedure
1. Record initial reading of the hook gauge, when no water is flowing over the notch and
water level is up to the sill level of the notch.
2. Open the inlet valve to get a suitable flow over the notch.
3. When the head over notch is constant, note the level of water surface with the help of
hook gauge.
4. Collect the water flowing over notch in a collecting tank and note time taken 5 cm rise of
liquid in collecting tank.
5. Repeat the experiment for six different flow rates.
Observation
Internal pan dimensions of the collecting tank

Length l =
Breadth b =
Angle of the triangular notch (θ) =
Position of the pointer (water level) at static condition (zero flow) = h0 = ______
Observation Table
Position of the
S. Time taken for 5 cm
pointer (water
No. rise of water, t
level), h1
cm s
1.
5.
Page | 37
A tan k x 5cm
t
2. Water head h = h1 − h 0 = ___________ cm = _________m

8 2g  5 3
3. Theoretical flow rate Q theo = tan   h 2 = ________ m
15 2 s
Q
Q theo
Calculation table
Time
Position
taken Actual Theoretical
of the Discharge
S. for 5 volumetric volumetric
pointer Coefficient,
No. cm rise flowrate, flowrate,
(water CD
of Qact Qtheo
level), h1
water, t
cm s m3/s m3/s -
1.
5.
Mean discharge coefficient
Graph
Slope: CD
Page | 38
N
t i
t avg = i =1
N
N: No. of trials
Result
The co-efficient of discharge (Cd ) of triangular notch is

From calculation =
From graph =
Page | 39
Ex. No. 7 Date:
DETERMINATION OF EFFLUX TIME

Aim
To determine the time required for emptying a tank under transient conditions
Apparatus
1. A rectangular tank (elevated in position) 2. Stopwatch
Suggested Readings
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzBTVT43s6o
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vyJUP3i4fQU
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torricelli%27s_law
Industries employ large storage tanks for liquids. At times, the inflow may not be there and
outflow alone may take place through a valve. The rate of out flow is a function of the head
available in the tank. An unsteady flow case of such a problem exists some practical interest
when determining the time to lower the tank/reservoir surface a given distance. Theoretically,
Bernoulli’s equation applies only to steady flow, but if the tank surface drops slowly enough,
the error from using Bernoulli’s equation is negligible. The volume discharged from the
orifice in time δt is Qδt, which must just equal the reduction in volume in the reservoir/tank
in the same time increment, A(-δy), in which QA is the area of the liquid surface at height y
above the orifice. Equating the two expression gives
Qt = − Ay
Solving for δt and integrating between the limits y = y1, t = 0 and y = y2, t = t yields
t y2
Ady
t =  dt = − 
0 y1
Q
The orifice discharge Q is C d a 2 gy . After substitution for Q,
y2 1
1 −
t=−  Ay dy
C d a 2 g y1
2
For tank of constant cross-section

t=
2A
Cd a 2g
( y1 − y 2 )
The apparatus consists of rectangular tank placed over a raised support. The tank consists of a
circular opening fitted with a pipe of diameter. The pipe in turn fitted with a gate valve that
facilitates the immediate release of water after opening it. The tank is fitted with piezometer
to read the level of water inside the tank.
Page | 40
Procedure
1. The tank is fitted up and the initial reading is noted.

2. The gate valve is opened quickly synchronizing with the rate of a stopwatch and water is
allowed to pass through.
3. For different heads, note the corresponding time until the tank is emptied.
4. The dimensions of the tank are noted.
Observation
Size of the Efflux tank
Breadth (b) =
Length (l) =
Diameter of the orifice =
Observation Table
Note: Time to be taken in continuous mode.
S. Level of the
Time of fall, t
No. water, z
cm s
1. 90 0
2. 85
3. 70
i z ti
N 10 tN

1. Time taken for water to drain from ‘z’ to 10 cm
t10 = t N − t i
Where
tN: Time corresponding to10 cm mark from the beginning (time corresponding to Nth reading)
ti: Time corresponding to the ith reading (corresponding to z level)
2. Compute zi
3. Analytical efflux time

Compute time taken to reach z = 0 cm from the beginning using the analytical expression
t=
2A
CD a 2g
( )
zinitial − z final where
zinitial = z corresponding to the first reading
Page | 41
zfinal = 0
Assume CD = 0.6
A = Cross section area of the tank
a = Cross section area of orifice hole in the outlet of the tank
Graph 1: Graphical Efflux time

Abscissa: Level of water, z
Ordinate: Time, s
• Extrapolate the points through a

smooth curve and find the time
when z goes to 0 (time taken for
the water to completely empty).
This is termed as graphical efflux time
Graph 2: Determination of discharge coefficient from graph and estimation of efflux

time
Abscissa: t10
Ordinate: zi - 10
• Find the slope from the graph by fitting a best fit straight line
2A
• Slope m =
CD a 2 g
• Calculate discharge coefficient
• Re-compute the time taken to drain from zinitial till zfinal using the discharge coefficient
estimated from graph
Calculation Table
Time zi zi - 10
Level of
Time of taken to
S. No. the water,
fall, t reach 10
z
cm, t10
cm s s m1/2 m1/2
1.
Page | 42
Result
• Report all the results
o Analytical efflux time (assuming CD = 0.6) = ________s
o Graphical efflux time (from extrapolation) = _________s
o Discharge coefficient from graph = ___________
o Computed efflux time based on graphical CD = ____________s
Inlet
Sca
Efflux
Outl
Page | 43
Ex. No. 8 Date:
FLOW THROUGH ANNULAR SECTION
Aim
To find the theoretical pressure drop in a given length of annular pipe and to compare it with
the actual pressure drop.
Apparatus
1. Pipe having an annular cross section 2. Piezometer

2. Metre scale 4. Stop watch 5. Collecting tank
Suggested Readings
New Delhi: Mc-Graw Hill, 2005, Chapter 5, p 101, p 106 - 107
mechanics, 6/e, New Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter6, p 316 – 317; Chapter
8, p 426
Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann, 2010, Chapter 3, p 81 – 82, p 86
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WvWGRxJmViY
Formulae
(i) Actual pressure drop (Δp)a = ρgh
flu 2
(ii) Theoretical pressure drop (Δp)t =
2rH
Where l = Length of annular pipe
Q
u = Velocity of flow
 ( d − d i2 )
2
o
4
D = 4rH
rH = Hydraulic radius
d2 d2
 0 − i
rH = 4 4
d o + d i
f – friction factor
ρ – Density of liquid
Dv
Reynolds Number N Re =

(p ) a D
Shear stress  =
4L
Procedure
1. The inlet valve is fully opened
Page | 44
2. By adjusting the outlet valve from fully closed conditions a particular discharge is
allowed to flow through the annular pipe. The difference in piezometer readings is noted.
3. The actual discharge is measured with the help of a collecting tank by noting the time
taken for ‘H’ cm rise
4. By adjusting the outlet valve for various discharges different difference in pressure heads
are obtained and tabulated.
5. The Reynolds number for each discharge is computed and corresponding friction factor is
obtained from the graph.
6. The theoretical pressure drop is computed using Darcy Weisbach equation and compared
with the actual pressure drop.
Observation
Area of measuring tank = Atank =
Outside diameter of inner pipe =D=
Inside diameter of outer pipe =d=
Distance between pressure tapings =L=
Observation Table

cm cm s
1.
5.


 = manometer -  = ___________ kg/m3
A tan k x 5cm
t
Q
A
 2 2
A: Cross section area of flow = Annular flow area = A =
4
(D − d ), m s
DH  u

DH: Hydraulic diameter of pipe, m
Page | 45
6. Darcy Friction factor
64
fD = for Re D  2100
ReD
0.316
= for ReD  2100
Re0.25
D
Note: Other appropriate correlations can also be used.

1 L
7. Theoretical pressure drop Ptheo = f D  u 2
2 DH
Ptheo
Page | 46
Calculation Table
Upstream Downstream Time taken Experimental Darcy Theoretical

S. Volumetric Superficial Reynolds Percentage
manometer manometer for 5 cm rise pressure Friction pressure
No. flowrate, Q velocity, u no., ReD deviation
reading, z1 reading, z2 of water, t Pexp factor, fD drop, Ptheo
cm cm s Pa m3/s m/s - - Pa %
1.
5.
Graph
Result
The experimental and theoretical pressure drop was found for the pipe at different flow rates. The average deviation was found to be
_______________________
Page | 47
Ex. No. 9 Date:
FLOW THROUGH HELICAL COIL
Aim
To study the coil characteristics using helical coil and to determine
1. Critical Reynolds number of a fluid flowing a helical coil (NRe)c
2. The friction factor fc, for flow of a fluid through a helical coil
3. To calculate the head lost due to friction in a coil
Apparatus
1. Set of coils with pipes 2. Manometers 3. Collecting tank
4. Scale and stop watch
Suggested Readings
• Maloney, J. O. Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, 8/e, New York: The McGraw Hill
Companies, 2008, Chapter 6, p 6-19
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1bDf-Xks9vw

When the fluid flows through a pipe the viscosity of the fluid and the inner surface of the pipe
offers resistance to the flow. In overcoming the resistance some energy of the flowing fluid is
lost. Boundary Roughness, which has little significance in laminar flow, plays a vitally
important role in turbulence. This, together with what is known as the transverse momentum
exchange of fluid particles due to the perpetual turbulent intermixing, are the chief sources of
tangential or shear stresses in turbulent flow. The transition between laminar and turbulent
flow is often indicated by a critical Reynolds number (NRec), which depends on the exact flow
configuration and must be determined experimentally. Within a certain range around this
point there is a region of gradual transition where the flow is neither fully laminar nor fully
turbulent, and predictions of fluid behaviour can be difficult. Laminar flow will continue until
a critical Reynolds number is reached, at which point, turbulence will develop. Pressure drop
in a helical coil depends on diameter of pipe, diameter of coil, nature of inner surface, type of
fluid and its flow. The apparatus consists of three helical coils of different helical diameter. A
mercury manometer is connected at the inlet and outlet of the coil to read the drop in
pressure. To calculate the actual flow in helical coil, collecting tank with piezometer is
provided.
Procedure
1. The manometers are connected to the pressure tapings of the helical coils.
2. Flow rate of the fluid through the coil is adjusted to minimum.
3. After the steady state is reached the manometer readings z1 and z2 are noted.
4. The flow rate is measured by collecting the fluid in a collecting tank for a given height
and time required for collection or directly noting down the flowrate in the rotameter
5. The same procedure is repeated for various flow rates.
6. The procedure is repeated for the other sets of helical coils also and the readings are
tabulated.
Page | 48
Formulae
 D 
Critical Reynolds Number Recrit = 2100 1 + 12 
 Dc 

D
Dean Number De = Re
Dc
0.316 D
Friction Factor f c = 0.25
+ 0.0292
Re Dc
Observation
Diameter of straight tube =D=
Diameter of helical coil = Dc =
No. of turns in coil =n=
Observation Table
Volumetric flow rate, Upstream Downstream

Sr. manometer manometer
Q
No. reading, z1 reading, z2
LPH cm cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.


 = manometer -  = ___________ kg/m3
3. Volumetric flowrate Q = _________LPH = _____ m3 s
Q
A
 2
A: Cross section area of flow in helical coil A = D ,m s
4
Page | 49
Du

D: Diameter of pipe, m
6. Friction factor for the helical coil
0.316 D
fc = 0.25
+ 0.0292 = ___________________
Re Dc
1 2 L
7. Theoretical pressure drop Ptheo = f c u
2 D
L: Length of the helical coil = L =  n Dc = __________ m
Ptheo
D
9. Dean Number De = Re D = __________________
Dc
Pexp
10. Frictional head loss h = = _______ m
g
 D 
11. Critical Reynolds no. Recrit = 2100 1 + 12  =_______________
 Dc 

Page | 50
Calculation Table
Theoretical
Upstream Downstream Experimental Darcy
S. Volumetric Superficial Reynolds pressure Percentage Head
manometer manometer pressure Friction Dean No.
No. flowrate, Q velocity, u no., ReD drop, deviation Loss, h
reading, z1 reading, z2 Pexp factor, fc
Ptheo
cm cm LPH Pa m/s - - Pa % % m
1.
5.
Graph
• Head loss vs. Reynolds no.
o Abscissa: Reynolds No.
o Ordinate: Head loss
Extrapolate and find the head loss at Critical Reynolds no.
Result
Head Loss due to friction corresponding to the Critical Reynolds Number =
Value of Critical Reynolds Number =
Page | 51
Ex. No. 10 Date:
NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW
Aim
To conduct a flow experiment in smooth circular pipe of uniform section under laminar flow
condition for a Non-Newtonian fluid and to estimate the parameters
Apparatus
1. Non-Newtonian flow experimental setup 2. Stopwatch
Suggested Readings
New Delhi: Mc-Graw Hill, 2005, Chapter 3, 52; Chapter 5, p 98 – 99
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2EReSt8QhQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gs3gfwG9a7k
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHX1e-FoUhA
Fluids obeying Newton’s law of viscosity and for which μ has a constant value are
known as Newtonian fluids. Most common fluids fall into this category, for which shear
stress is linearly related to velocity gradient. Fluids, which do not obey Newton’s law of
viscosity, are known as non-Newtonian and fall into one of the following groups.
(i) Plastic, for which the shear stress must reach a certain minimum value before flow
commences. Thereafter, shear stress increases with the rate of shear according to the
n
 du 
relationship  = A + B 
 dy 
(ii) Where A, B and n are constants. If n=1, the material is known as a Bingham plastic
(e.g. sewage sludge)
(iii) Pseudo-plastic, for which dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases
(e.g. Colloidal solutions, clay, milk, cement).
(iv) Dilatant substances, in which dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear
increases (e.g. Quicksand)
(v) Thixotropic substances, for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for
which shearing forces are applied (e.g. thixotropic jelly paints)
(vi) Rheopectic materials, for which the dynamic viscosity increases with the time for
which shearing forces are applied.
(vii) Viscoelastic materials, which behave in manner similar to Newtonian fluids under
time-invariant conditions but, if the shear stress changes suddenly, behave as if plastic
Page | 52
The equation which related the shear stress to the shear rate is called a "constitutive
equation". Pseudoplastic and Dilatant fluids can be modelled by the Power Law equation
n
 du 
 = −K 
 dr 
The behaviour of these fluids can be represented well by a graph (referred to as a flow
curve) of shear stress () versus shear rate (du/dr) as below.
14
12 Bingham Dilatant
10
8
New tonian
6
4
2 Pseudoplastic
0
0 5 10
Shear Rate du/dy
Flow curves of different types of fluid
The setup consists of a vertical graduated glass container fitted with a horizontal tube
of known diameter.
Formulae
2
 dH  D 
Velocity of flow v = −   m/s
 dt  d 
Where D – Diameter of vertical graduated container (0.02 m)
d – Diameter of horizontal glass tube
dH
- Rate of fall of liquid (negative sign shows for fall in level)
dt
Pressure Drop − p = gH N/m2
Where ρ- mass density of liquid = 960 kg/m3
g – Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
d ( − p )
Shear stress = N/m2
4L
Where d – Diameter of horizontal glass tube (0.008 m)
-Δp – Pressure drop (N/m2)
L – length of the tube (0.61m)
8v
Shear rate = s-1
d
Procedure
1. The vertical graduated container is fitted with the fluid.

2. The line is cleared off any bubbles.
3. The flow through the tube is established.
Page | 53
4. A stopwatch is started when the fluid reaches zero reading.
Observation Table
Diameter of the burette column Dburette =

Diameter of the capillary Dcapillary =
Note: Time to be taken in continuous mode. Height to be measured from the bottom of
burette
S. No. Level of fluid in burette, h Time, t
cm s
1 90 0
2 80
h i + h i +1
1. Average height of fluid in burette h = = __________ m
2
Where i and i+1 denote consecutive readings
2. Pressure drop P = h g = __________ Pa

Where  is the density of the fluid (Castor oil, get from standard reference)
P Dcapillary
3. Wall shear stress w = = __________ Pa
L 4
4. Compute ln(w)
h − ( h i +1 − h i )
5. Velocity of fluid in burette u burrete = − = = __________ m s
t ( t i+1 − t i )
A burette
6. Velocity of oil in capillary u capillary = u burrete = __________ m s
A capillary
Where Aburette and Acapillary denote the cross section are of burette and capillary
Page | 54
u capillary
7. Shear rate  = = _________ 1 where Rcapillary is the radius of the capillary
R capillary s
8. Compute ln(  )
9. Perform linear regression to compute flow characteristic parameters  =  n as
ln  = ln  + n ln 
Slope = m = n
Intercept = C = ln 
Calculation Table
Pressure Wall ln (w) Velocity Velocity Shear ln(shear
Sr. Average drop shear in burette in rate rate)
No. height (P) stress capillary
(w)
Unit m Pa Pa m/s m/s 1/s
1
2
Graph
Abscissa: ln(  )
Ordinate: ln(w)
Page | 55
Result
• Flow consistency index =  = _____________ (units to be written appropriately based

on n)
• Flow behaviour index = n =
• Type of fluid
Page | 56
Ex. No: 11 Date
CALIBRATION OF ROTAMETER
Aim
To calibrate the given rotameter
Apparatus Required
1. Rotameter 2. Collecting tank set up 3. Stop watch 4. Meter scale
Suggested Readings
Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann, 2010, Chapter 6, p 257- 261
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pz-Mvdc6nf4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSXS4FqzxAQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELJoieQDe6w
Theory
The rotameter is the most popular flowmeter. It consists essentially of a plummet or float
which is free to move up or down in a vertical slightly tapered tube having its small end
down. The fluid enters the lower end of the tube and causes the float to rise until the annular
area between the tube and the float is such that the pressure drop across this construction is
just sufficient to support the float. Typically, the tapered tube is of glass and caries etched
upon it a nearly linear scale on which the position of the float may be usually noted as an
indication of the flow.
Rotameter have proved satisfactory both for gasses and for liquids at high and low pressures.
Rotameter required straight runs of pipe before or after the point of installation. Pressure
losses are substantially constant over the whole flow rang. In experimental work, for greatest
precision, a rotameter should be calibrated with the fluid which is to be entered. However,
most modern rotameters are precision-mode such that their performance closely corresponds
to a mater calibration plate for the type in question.
Procedures:
1. Select a rate of fluid flow through the rotameter.
2. Opening the inlet valve tell the float reaches the selected flow rate.
3. Estimating the time required to fill a fixed volume of output water.
4. The rotameter reading indicates the rotameter flow rate (Qrot.) in (L/min); while the
volume selected divided by the time measured indicates the actual flow rate (Qact.) in
(L/sec).
Page | 57
5. Repeating the procedures from 1 to 3 for other selecting flow rate.
Calculation and Results:
The actual volume flow rate is found from dividing the selected volume of water by the time
required to accumulate that volume,
AH
Qa =
T
Where
t: is the time it takes to fill the selected volume, sec.
A: is the cross-section area of the storage tank.

H: is the height of water in the storage tank, m.
Observation
• Cross section dimensions of the collecting tank = _________ X _____________
S. Rotameter flowrate, Time taken for 5 cm

No. Qrot rise of water, t
s
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A tan k x 5cm
t
Page | 58
Qact
2. Correction factor Cf = = _____
Qrot
Note: Ensure unit consistency between Qact and Qrot
Calculation Table
S. Rotameter Time taken for 5 Actual flowrate, Correction factor,

No. flowrate, Qrot cm rise of water, t Qact Cf
s
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Average Correction factor
Graph
Abscissa: Rotameter flowrate Qrot
Slope: Cf
Y = Qact = m X = Cf Qrot
Result
Correction factor for the rotameter
From calculation =
From graph =
Indicate whether the rotameter is under-rated or over-rated
Page | 59
Ex. No. 12 Date:
VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
Aim
To study the characteristics of the given valve.
Apparatus Required
1. Pipe fitted width a gate valve
2. Collecting tank fitted with Piezometer and scale.
Suggested Readings
mechanics, 6/e, New Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter 8, p 423
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxAhrF7KZuE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uIGZLpUfPRw&t=211s
Theory
In process engineering, one of the most important actuating devices is the regulating valve.
There are many different kinds of valves, but they all are modeled with the same basic
equation that is based on the use of the Bernoulli equation across an orifice. The key point in
this note is to show how flow rate, and hence the value of the steady state gain of a valve,
may vary with the valve opening.
Procedure
1. The valve is kept in completely closed position.
2. Water is allowed to enter into the pipe.
3. The valve is turned in the anticlockwise direction to 360o (full turn) and now the water is
collected in the tank and the time taken for 5 cm rise is noted.
4. The valve is again turned to 360o and actual discharge is measured.
5. Pressure reading at upstream and downstream of the valve is also noted
6. The procedure is repeated till the actual discharge becomes constant. The position of the
valve is noted (x no. of turns).
7. The valve is turned in the clockwise direction through 360o and the discharge is
measured.
8. The procedure is repeated till the valve is fully closed.
Observations
• Dimensions of the tank = ______X________
• No. of turns from Full close to Full open position = N = _______
Page | 60
Time taken Time taken
Upstream Downstream for 5 cm rise for 5 cm rise
Position of
S. pressure Pressure of water of water
valve from
No. P1 P2 when when
Full open, 
closing the opening the
valve, t valve, t
- kg/cm2 kg/cm2 s s
1 0 (Full Open)
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5

A tan k x 5cm
1. Volumetric flow rate Q = = __________ m3 s
t
Note: find the volumetric flow rate both for closing and for opening mode of operation
2. Percentage opening of the valve = X =

( N −  ) x100 = __________ %
N
3. Pressure drop across the value = P = P1 – P2 = __________ kg/cm2 = ______________ Pa
Page | 61
Calculation Table
Time Time
taken taken
for 5 for 5
Position Volumetric Volumetric
Upstream Downstream cm rise cm rise Average
of valve Percentage Pressure flow rate flow rate
S. pressure Pressure of of volumetric
from opening of drop, P when when
No. P1 P2 water water flow rate
Full valve, X closing opening,
when when Q
open,  valve, Qclose Qopen
closing opening
the the
valve, t valve, t
- kg/cm 2 kg/cm2 s s % Pa m3/s m3/s m3/s
1 0 (Full
Open)
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
Page | 62
Graph
Abscissa: Percentage rise of stem or Pressure drop
across valve
Ordinate: Volumetric flow rate
• On the same graph plot two ordinate – flow rate
while closing and also while opening
• Have legend in the graph
• Use distinct symbols to indicate closing and
opening
Page | 63
Ex. No. 13 Date:
PRESSURE DROP FOR FLOW THROUGH PACKED BED

Aim
To find the pressure drop for flow of water through a packed bed of particles at different rates
of flow and verify the applicability of the following pressure drop estimation equations. a)
Ergun equation b) Kozney-Carman equation c) Burke-Plummer equation
Apparatus
1. Packed bed setup 2. Manometer 3. Stopwatch 4. Scale
Suggested Readings
New Delhi: Mc-Graw Hill, 2005, Chapter 7, 163 - 167
• http://uorepc-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp5/index.html
• http://ce-
20Engineering
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzK7K601cAE

In many chemical processes, liquids or gases flow through beds of solid particles. Important
examples are filtration of solids, ion-exchange beds, catalytic reactor beds and heat transfer
using pebble beds.
The resistance to the flow of fluid through the voids in the bed of solids is the resultant of the
total drag of all particles in the bed. The voids are irregular in shape, roughness and have a
variable cross-section and orientation and are highly inter-connected. An equivalent channel
diameter and porosity are used and pressure drop equations are framed by different authors.
Their equations are verified by actual experimentation in laboratory packed column.
This experiment consists of a column of D diameter and L length filled with glass beads. The
water flows through the inlet at the bottom and discharges through the top. The pressure drop
is measured across the bed length. Some distance from the bottom of the column is left to
ensure that the flow is fully developed. The pressure drop is measured for different flow
rates. The pressure drop across the bed is measured using manometer. The measured
parameters and bed conditions are used to determine the Kozeny-Karman constant. The
pressure loss per unit length is plotted against the velocity head.
Formulae
AH 3
Actual flow Qt = m /s
T
Where A – Area of the collecting tank (m2)
H – 5 cm rise of liquid in a collecting tank
T – Time taken for 5 cm rise of liquid in collecting tank
Page | 64
vd p
Reynolds Number NRe =

 - Mass density of fluid (1000 kg/m3)
v – Velocity of fluid in column
dp – Diameter of the particle
 - Co-efficient of viscosity of water (1x10-3 Ns/m2)
Ergun Factor FE = 150 *

(1 −  ) + 1.75
NRe
 - Void space of the bed
NRe – Reynolds Number
Ergun Equation
Pressure drop per unit length
p 150v(1 − ) 2 1.75v (1 −  )
2
= +
L 2 d 2p 3 d p 3
u0 – the fluid bed superficial velocity
L - Length of the column
-Sphericity (It is defined as surface-volume ratio for a sphere of diameter Dp divided by the
surface volume ratio for the particle whose nominal size is Dp . Its value for cubes, spheres
and short cylinder is 1)
Kozney-Carman equation
p 150v(1 − ) 2
=
L 2 d 2p 3
This is applicable for flow through beds at particle Reynolds number up to 1. For higher
p 3 f (1 −  )v 2
Reynolds number, this is modified as =
L  3 d p
Where f = friction factor and is assumed = 0.01
λ = correction (tortousity) factor (assume as 58)
Burke-Plummer equations
p 1.75(1 −  ) v 2
=
L  3 d p
This equation fits in for NRe above 1000 only. However here verify this equation for several
rates of flow.
Procedure
1. The size range of packing for the bed is chosen from 8 mm to 3 mm.
2. First, the percentage of voids is determined as follows: The packing to be used in the
tower, is taken and filled in a measuring jar of 500 ml mark, shaken well and packed.
Page | 65
3. 500 ml of water is taken in another measuring jar and the water is poured into the first jar
upto 500 ml mark.
4. The amount of water remaining un-poured is noted. The amount of water used up for
filling the voids is equal to the amount of voids.
5. The distance between the pressure taps is noted (L).
6. The water is allowed to run through the packing in the tower. All the air pockets in the
tower and in the manometer are removed.
7. The inlet valve is fully opened and the outlet valve is slowly opened. For every setting of
the outlet valve, the rate of flow is measured and the pressure differential in the
manometer is noted. The full available range of the manometer is coved, thus taking 7 or
8 sets of readings.
8. For each condition of flow, the pressure drop due to the friction of the packing of the bed
is calculated.
Observations
• Dimensions of the tank = ______X________
• Diameter of the fixed bed = D = ______________
• Diameter of the particle = dp = _______________
• Fluid density = = 
• Fluid viscosity =  = ____________________
Observation Table

cm cm s
1.
5.


 = manometer -  = ___________ kg/m3
A tan k x 3cm
t
Page | 66
Q
A
A: Cross section area of pipe, m2
dp  u
5. Particle Reynolds no. ReP = = _____

D: Diameter of pipe, m2
Ptheo Ptheo P
6. Theoretical pressure drop = + theo
L L viscous L inertial
Ptheo 150  u  1.75  u 

2 2 2
= 2 2 3 + s s
L  dp   d p 3
Ptheo
Ptheo = x L = _____________ Pa
L
Ptheo
Graph
Result
The experimental and theoretical pressure drop was found for the pipe at different flow rates.
The average deviation was found to be _______________________
Page | 67
Calculation Table
Time Theoretical
Upstream Downstream Experimental Volumetric Particle
taken for Superficial Pressure Percentage
S. No. manometer manometer Pressure Flow rate, Reynolds
3 cm rise velocity, u drop, deviation
reading, z1 reading, z2 drop, Pexp Q no.
of water, t Ptheo
cm cm s Pa m3/s m/s - Pa %
Page | 68
Ex. No. 14 Date:
PERFORMANCE TEST ON RECIPROCATING PUMP

Aim
To conduct the performance test and to draw performance curves of a reciprocating pump.
Apparatus
1. Reciprocating pump with driving unit 2. Pressure gauges
3. Stop watch 4. Collecting tank 5. Metre scale 6. Techometer
Suggested Readings
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41vb6T42_Tk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H1AsPLYCyWk
Theory
Reciprocating is a positive displacement pump in which the liquid is sucked and then it is
actually pushed or displaced due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving member, which
results in lifting the liquid to the required height These pumps usually have one or more
chambers which are alternatively filled with the liquid to be pumped and then emptied again
As such the discharge of liquid pumped by these pumps almost wholly depends on the speed
of the pump
Description of setup
A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger, which moves, to and fro in a
close fitting cylinder. The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes, each of which
is provided with a non-return or one-way valve called suction valve and delivery valve
respectively. The function of one-way valve is to admit liquid in one direction only. Thus the
suction valve allows the liquid only to enter the cylinder and the delivery valve permits only
its discharge from the cylinder.
Formulae
P0
% Efficiency of the pump = x100
Pi
Output power from the pump Po = Qa H p Watts
Where ω – Specific weight of water (9810 N/m3)
Qa – Actual discharge to the turbine (m3/s)
Hp – Total head in metres of water
AH
t
A – Area of the collecting tank in plan (Inner width x inner length) (m2)
H – Rise of the liquid in collecting tank (m)
t – Time taken for 5 cm rise of liquid in the collecting tank (s)
Page | 69
Total head H p = H s + H d + x
Hs = Suction head in metres of water
Hd = Delivery head in metres of water
x = Difference in level between the centers of suction and pressure
gauges.
3600 N r
Input power to the motor Pi = x1000 watts
N eT
Ne – Energy meter constant in revolutions per kilo watt hour
Nr – Number of revolution in the energy meter disc
T – Time taken for Nr revolutions in the energy meter (s)
naNl
Theoretical discharge Qt =
60
N – Number of strokes
A – Cross sectional area of the cylinder in m2
d 2
A=
4
d - Diameter of the cylinder in (0.045 ) m
l – Length of the stroke (0.045 m)
N – Crank speed in rpm
(Qt − Qa )
% Slip = x100
Qt
Qa
Co-efficient of discharge C d =
Qt
Procedure
1. Clean the set-up and make tanks free from dust
2. Close the drain valves
3. Fill sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are present
4. Open the flow control valve given on the water discharge line and the valve given on
suction line
5. Ensure that all ON/OFF swtiches given on the panel are at ON position
6. Set the desired RPM of pump with the speed control knob provided at the control panel
7. Operate flow control valve to regulate flow of water discharged by the pump
8. Record discharge pressure by pressure gauge, provided on discharge line. Partially close
valve V3 in case of fluctuation
9. Record suction pressure by means of vacuum gauge, provided at suction of the pump.
Partially close valve V4 in case of fluctuation
10. Record time required for 10 – 20 pulses of energy meter with help of stop watch
11. Measure the discharge by measuring tank and stop watch
12. Repeat the same procedure for different discharge with constant speed
13. Repeat the same procedure for different speeds of pump
14. When experiment is over, open the valve V1 provided on the discharge line
15. Reduce the RPM of the pump with the help of DC drive to zero
16. Switch OFF the pump and the power supply to the panel
Page | 70
Observation
• Area of measuring tank = Atank = 0.075 m2
• Efficiency of transmission = t = 0.7
• Length of the stroke = L =0.4 m
• Motor Efficiency = m = 0.8
• Diameter of the cylinder = d = 0.055 m
• Height of the pressure gauge from suction of pump = zs = 0.65 m
• Energy meter constant EMC = 3200 pulses/kW h
Observation Table
Time taken
Discharge Suction
S. Speed, for No. of Time taken for
pressure, pressure,
No. N 5 cm rise of pulses, P P pulses, tp
Pd Ps
water, t
rpm kg/cm2 mm Hg s - s
1.
5.

A tan k x 5cm
t
2ALN
2. Theoretical volumetric flowrate Q theo = = _____ m3 s
60
 2
A: Cross section area of cylinder, A = d = _____ m
2
 P 
3. Total head H = 10  Pd + s  + zs = _________ m
 760 
P 3600
4. Power input Ei = x = ________ kW
t p EMC
5. Power at the shaft (Shaft output) Es = Ei m t = ________ kW
Page | 71
gQH
6. Pump Power E o = = ________ kW
1000
E
7. Overall efficiency o = o x100 = ________ %
Ei
Eo
8. Pump efficiency p = x100 = ________ %
Es
Q
9. Volumetric efficiency vol = x100 = ________ %
Q theo
Page | 72
Calculation Table
Volumetric Theoretical Total Power Power at Pump Overall Pump Volumetric

S.
flowrate, Q volumetric flowrate, head, H input, Pi the shaft, Ps Power, Po efficiency efficiency efficiency
No.
Qtheo
m3/s m3/s m kW kW kW % % %
1.
5.
Page | 73
Graph
• Performance plot of reciprocating pump

o Abscissa: Volumetric flow rate
o Ordinate: Total Head, Pump Power and Overall Efficiency
Result
The pump characteristic curves are drawn. The best driving condition is obtained
corresponding to the maximum efficiency.
Maximum efficiency (η) =

At maximum efficiency
Total Head (H) =
Discharge (Q) =
Pump Power =
Volumetric efficiency =
Page | 74
Ex. No. 15 Date:
PERFORMANCE TEST ON SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Aim
To determine the best driving conditions of the centrifugal pump at constant speed and to
draw the characteristic curves.
Apparatus
1. Centrifugal pump with driving unit 2. Pressure gauges
3. Stop watch 4. Collecting tank 5. Metre scale
Suggested Readings
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_p-A0OCtAl8
Theory
Centrifugal pumps are classified as rotodynamic type of pumps in which a dynamic pressure
is developed which enables the lifting of liquids from lower to a higher level. The basic
principle on which a centrifugal pump works is that when a certain mass of liquid is made to
rotate by an external force, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a
centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level. Now if more liquid is
constantly made available at the center of rotation, a continuous supply of liquid at a higher
level may be ensured. Since in these pumps the lifting of the liquid is due to centrifugal
action, these pumps are called ’centrifugal pumps’. In addition to the centrifugal action, as
the liquid passes through the revolving wheel or impeller, its angular momentum changes,
which also results in increasing the pressure of the liquid. The main advantage of a
centrifugal pump is that its discharging capacity is very much greater than that of a
reciprocating pump which can handle relatively small quantity of liquid only. A centrifugal
pump can be used for lifting highly viscous liquids such as oils, muddy and sewage water,
paper pulp, sugar molasses, chemicals etc. A centrifugal pump can be operated at very high
speeds with out any danger of separation and cavitation.
Description of setup
The experimental set up consists of centrifugal pump with electrical driving unit. The
main component parts of centrifugal pump are impeller, casing, suction pipe and delivery
pipe. Impeller is a wheel or rotor, which is provided with a series of backward, curved blades
or vanes. It is mounted on a shaft, which is coupled to an external energy to the impeller
thereby making it to rotate. Casing is an airtight chamber that surrounds the impeller. Suction
pipe is a pipe that is connected at its upper end to the inlet of the pump or to the center of the
Page | 75
impeller, which is commonly known as eye. The lower end of the suction pipe dips into
liquid in a suction tank or a sump from which the liquid is to be pumped or lifted up. The
lower end of the suction pipe is fitted with foot valve and strainer. The lower end of delivery
pipe is connected to the outlet of pump. The upper end delivers the liquid to the required
height. On the delivery pipe, a pressure gauge is fitted to measure the delivery pressure.
Formulae
P0
Pi
Where ω – Specific weight of water (9810 N/m3)
Qa – Actual discharge from the pump (m3/s)
AH
t
Hs = Suction head in metres of water
Hd = Delivery head in metres of water
gauges.
3600 N r
N eT
N Qa
Specific Speed N s = 3
Hp4
N - Speed of the pump in rpm
Qa - Actual discharge corresponding to the maximum efficiency (m3/s)
Hp – Total head in metres of water corresponding to maximum efficiency
Procedure
1. The internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank and the difference in level between the
suction and pressure gauges (x) are measured.
2. The speed of the pump and the energy meter Ne are noted.
3. With the delivery valve fully opened, driving unit is started.
4. Water is sucked in through the suction pipe and is lifted up by centrifugal action.
5. By varying the pressure gauge fitted to the delivery pipe the delivery head and in turn the
discharge are varied.
6. For each pressure gauge reading the following observations are made
i. Vacuum gauge reading
ii. Pressure gauge reading
iii. Time taken for Nr revolutions of the energy meter disc.
Page | 76
iv. Time (t) for a rise H in the collecting tank keeping the outlet valve
completely closed.
7. The observations are tabulated and the efficiency of the pump is computed.
Observation
Speed of the pump N =
Energy meter constant EMC =
Internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank
Length l = ________m
Breadth b = _______ m
Difference in level between the suction and discharge pressure gauge = z = ____ m
Diameter of the pipe at suction = Ds = _______ m
Diameter of the pipe at discharge = Dd = __________ m
Observation Table
Discharge Suction Time taken for No. of Time taken
S. No. pressure, pressure, 5 cm rise of revolutions on for Nr
Pd Ps water, t energy meter, Nr revolutions, tr
Unit Unit s - s
1
2
3
4
5
6

A tan k x 5cm
t
Q
2. Average velocity at the suction u s = = _____ m s
As
As: Cross section area of suction pipe, m2
Q
3. Average velocity at the discharge u D = = _____ m s
AD
AD: Cross section area of suction pipe, m2
4. Pressure difference = P = Ps − PD = _____ Pa

Think: Will it be +ve or –ve !
Page | 77
5. Pressure increase across pump from Bernoulli equation = WP = ___________ Pa
1
P +  u 2 +  g z + WP = 0
2
6. Pump power Po = ( WP ) x Q = ________W
N r 3600
7. Input Power Pi = x = ________ W
t r EMC
8. Overall Head = H
Po
9. Overall efficiency o = x100 = ________ %
Pi
Calculation Table
Sr. No. Volumetric Pump Input Overall Overall

flowrate, Q power, Po Power, Pi Head efficiency
Unit m3/s W W m %
1
2
3
4
5
Page | 78
Graph
• Performance plot of reciprocating pump

o Abscissa: Volumetric flow rate
o Ordinate: Total Head, Pump Power and Overall Efficiency
Result
The pump performance curves are drawn. The best driving condition is obtained

Head (Hp) =
Discharge (Q) =
Output power =
Page | 79
Ex. No. 16 Date:
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’s PRINCIPLE

Aim
To perform an experiment and verify Bernoulli’s principle of mechanical energy balance
Suggested Readings
• http://ce-
20Engineering
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzK7K601cAE

For a steady state flow of an Newtonian fluid along a streamline, the Bernoulli’s principle
states that the total energy at point in the fluid streamline remains constant. The experimental
set-up for Bernoulli’s principle is self-contained re-circulating unit. The set-up accompanies
the sump tank, overhead tank, centrifugal pump for water recirculation. Control valves and
by-pass valve is provided to regulate the flow of water in constant head tank. A test section
made of Perspex of varying cross section is provided which is having converging and
diverging section. Piezometer tubes are fitted on this test section at specified points. The inlet
of the conduit is connected to overhead tank. Discharge through test section can be measured
with the help of measuring tank and stop watch
Equation
P1 u12 P2 u 22
E= + + z1 = + + z2
g 2g g 2g
Where
E Total energy head, m
P1, P2 Upstream and downstream pressure, Pa
u1 and u2 Average velocity at upstream and downstream section, m/s
z1 and z2 Elevation of upstream and downstream section from a reference, m
Procedure
1. Ensure that all On/Off switches given in the panel are at OFF position
2. Close all the valves
3. Fill sump tank with water
4. Open by-pass valve given on the water supply line
5. Switch ON the main power supply and switch ON the pump
6. Partially close by-pass valve to allow water to fill in overhead tank
7. Wait until overflow occurs from overhead tank.
Page | 80
8. Regulate flow of water through test section with the help of control valve provided at the
end of the test section.
9. Ensure that the overflow still occurs, if not partially close the by-pass valve to do so.
10. Measure the pressure head by piezometer tubes.
11. Measure flow rate of water using measuring tank and stop watch
12. Repeat the steps 8 to 11 for different flow rate of water
13. When experiment is completed, switch OFF pump and the power supply to panel.
Observations
• Area of the measuring tank = ______________
• Fluid density = = 
• Fluid viscosity =  = ____________________
Data on Test Section

Test Distance of test point
Diameter of
section from reference point,
test point, d
point S
mm cm
P1. 28 4
P2. 23.5 7.85
P3. 18.5 9.2
P4. 14 11.05
P5. 18.5 13.585
P6. 23.5 15.62
P7. 28 19.155
Page | 81
Observation Table
Piezometer tube reading (level of water in tube) at different points in the test section, h
Time for 5 cm
S. rise of water in Point P1, Point P2, Point P3, Point P4, Point P5, Point P6, Point P7,
No. measuring h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
tank, t
s cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
1.
2.
3.
Page | 82
A tan k x 5cm
t
2. Calculation of average velocity at test section
Q
2.1. Superficial velocity at test section point P1 = u1 = = _____ m s
A1
A1: Cross section area at test section P1, m2
Q
2.2. Superficial velocity at test section point P2 = u 2 = = _____ m s
A2
Q
A3
Q
A4
Q
A5
Q
A6
Q
A7
3. Calculation of pressure head at test section

P
3.1. Pressure head at Point P1 1 = h1 = __________ m
g
P
3.2 Pressure head at Point P2 2 = h 2 = __________ m
g
P
g
P
g
P
g
P
g
Page | 83
P7
3.7 Pressure head at Point P7 = h 7 = __________ m
g
4. Calculation of total energy head at test section
P u2
4.1 Energy head at point P1 E1 = 1 + 1 = __________ m
g 2g
P2 u 22
4.2 Energy head at point P1 E 2 = + = __________ m
g 2g
P3 u 32
4.3 Energy head at point P1 E3 = + = __________ m
g 2g
P4 u 24
g 2g
P5 u 52
4.5 Energy head at point P1 E5 = + = __________ m
g 2g
P6 u 62
g 2g
P7 u 72
g 2g
Page | 84
Calculation Table
Piezometer tube reading (level of water in tube) at different points in the test section, h
Time for 5 cm
No. measuring h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
tank, t
s cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
1.
2.
3.
Average velocity at different points in the test section, u
Time for 5 cm
No. measuring u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 u6 u7
tank, t
s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s
1.
2.
3.
Page | 85
Total energy head at different points in the test section, E
Time for 5 cm
No. measuring E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7
tank, t
s m m m m m m m
1.
2.
3.
Page | 86
Graph
• Energy profile for each of the flow rate on the same plot
o Abscissa: Distance of the test point from a reference (S1 to S7)
o Ordinate: Energy head (E1 to E7)
Result
Energy head along the fluid flow path is determined and is found out at different flow rates
Page | 87
Ex. No. 17 Date:
DRAG STUDIES ON SPHERES FALLING THROUGH VISCOUS
FLUID
Aim
To perform drag studies on spheres falling through a viscous fluid.
Apparatus
1. Graduated glass tube filled with castor oil 2. Sphere 3. Stopwatch
Suggested Readings
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVvzW_vh-TM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CR0ihuP-V8w
Theory and Experimental setup

A solid body moving through a fluid has a force pushing on it which depends on the type of
fluid. You might imagine that it would be much harder to swim in honey than it is in water.
The parameter, which describes this difference, is the viscosity. The drag force also depends
upon other parameters such as the surface area of the body and the fluid density.
A sphere falling under gravity through a fluid reaches a terminal velocity when the net
downward force due to gravity is equal to the drag on the sphere due to viscosity (liquid
friction). According to Stokes' Law, the viscous drag, Fdrag, on a sphere of radius r is given by
Fdrag = 6 πrv (1)

where
v = Velocity,
r = Radius of sphere and
 = Coefficient of viscosity.
The downward force, Fdown, acting on the sphere is equal to its weight due to gravity minus
the up-thrust (equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the sphere) and is given by
4πr 3 g (  −  )
Fdown = (2)
3
where
g = Acceleration due to gravity,
 = Density of sphere and
 = Density of liquid.
The terminal velocity, vt, of a smooth sphere can therefore be calculated by equating the two
forces, i.e., equating equations (1) and (2). Therefore,
Page | 88
4πr 3 g (  −  )
6πrv t = (3)
3
and solving for the terminal velocity, vt,
2(  −  ) gr 2
vt = (4)
9
Equation (4) can be used as the basis of a method for determining  if vt, r,  and  can be
found. It should be noted that in the derivation of equation (4) it is assumed that:
1. the fluid is of infinite extent;
2. the flow of the fluid past the sphere is laminar (streamline) and not turbulent.
Sphere
Fd Fb falling at
terminal
velocity

V
Fg
At the terminal steady state velocity
48(  −  ) D p
, CD =
3vt 
2
vt D p
Particle Reynolds number N Re p =

The equation reduces to, for stokes region,
For NReP < 1 (laminar), CD vs. NReP is a straight line,

24
CD = where Nrep < 1
N Re p
For intermediate region 1< Nrep< 1000
− 0.6
C D = 18 N Re (Transition)
p
Procedure
1. The apparatus consists of a vertical cylindrical column Dc diameter made of glass. The
tube is fitted with given liquid.
2. Two points at a distance are marked on the column one at top and one at bottom. The
distance between the two points is noted.
3. The particle must achieve steady state velocity before reaching the top point. Various
sizes of spheres both glass and metal are taken and its diameter is found using a screw
Page | 89
gauge (Dp). Particle is dropped and time taken by the sphere to cross the two points on the
glass is noted.
4. This procedure is repeated for all the spheres. The particle should be dropped gently at
the center of the column. Note the viscosity of oil from Perry's Handbook or any standard
table)
Observation
Ball Material Diameter, mm Mass, 10-3 kg Density, kg/m3
Steel 4.43 0.258 5667.74

Lead 3.11 0.140 8888.9
Glass 6.58 0.310 2078.19
Fluid: Castor Oil

Fluid density: 960 kg/m3
Fluid viscosity: 650 cP
Observation Table
Sr. No. Sphere material Travel length (m) Travel Time (s)
1
2
3
Calculation Table
Sr. Archemedes Regime Theoretical Particle Reynolds Drag Experimental

No. No. (or) K Terminal number (NRep) Co-efficient Settling
value Settling Velocity (CD) velocity (m/s)
(m/s)
1
2
3
Result
The experimental and theoretical terminal settling velocities of different materials are found
out.
Page | 90
Ex. No. 18 Date:
PERFORMANCE TEST ON GEAR PUMP
Aim
To determine the best driving conditions of the gear oil pump at constant speed and to draw
the characteristic curves.
Apparatus
1. Gear oil pump with driving unit 2. Pressure gauges
3. Stop watch 4. Collecting tank 5. Metre scale
Suggested Readings
New Delhi: Mc-Graw Hill, 2005, Chapter 8, p 207
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gy42c11Rsds

A rotary gear pump consists essentially of two intermeshing spur gears which are identical
and which are surrounded by a closely fitting casing. One of the pinions is driven directly by
the prime mover while the other is allowed to rotate freely. The fluid enters the spaces
between the teeth and the casing and moves with the teeth along the outer periphery until it
reaches the outlet where it is expelled from the pump. Each tooth of the gear acts like a piston
or plunger of on reciprocating pump and hence the pump can be termed a positive
displacement pump. Gear pump is widely used for cooling water and pressure oil to be
supplied for lubrication to motors, turbine, machine tools etc.
Formulae
P0
Pi
Where ω – Specific weight of oil (0.8 x 9810 N/m3)
Qa – Actual discharge from the pump (m3/s)
Hp – Total head in metres of oil
AH
t
Page | 91
Hs = Suction head in metres of oil
Hd = Delivery head in metres of oil
gauges.
3600 N r
N eT
N Qa
Specific Speed N s = 3
Hp4
N - Speed of the pump in rpm
Qa - Actual discharge corresponding to the maximum efficiency (m3/s)
Procedure
The pump is switched on. By adjusting the delivery valve, the pressure gauge is set. For this
particular pressure gauge reading the time taken T for Nr revolution in the energy meter, time
taken t for a particular volume in the collecting tank and the vacuum gauge reading are
recorded. The experiment is repeated for different delivery pressures and the observations are
tabulated. The internal plan dimension of collecting tank and energy meter constant are
noted.
Observation
Speed of the pump =

Energy meter constant=
Internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank
Length l =
Breadth b =
Difference in level between the centers of vacuum and pressure gauge x in m
Page | 92
Observation Table
Sr No. Delivery Time taken for Nr Time taken for 5 cm

Suction
Pressure revolution of energy rise of liquid in the
Head (Hs)
(Hd) meter disc collecting tank
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6
Calculation Table
Sr. No. Total Head Hp Actual Input Power Output Efficiency

Discharge Power
(Qa)
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6
Graph
The graph is drawn taking head (Hp) along x-axis and Discharge (Qa), Output power (Po) and
efficiency (η) along y-axis.
Result
The pump performance curves are drawn. The best driving condition is obtained
At maximum efficiency
Head (Hp) =
Page | 93
Discharge (Q) =
Output power =
Specific Speed (Ns) =
Page | 94
Ex. No. 19 Date:
PRESSURE DROP FOR FLOW THROUGH FLUIDIZED BED

Aim
1. To determine the minimum fluidization velocity
2. To determine the modified friction factor
3. To find the variation in porosity of the bed with Reynold’s number
4. To plot pressure drop Vs Modified Reynold’s number
Apparatus
1. Fluidized bed apparatus setup 2. Manometer 3. Stopwatch
4. Scale 5. Collecting tank
Suggested Readings
Delhi, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, Chapter
Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann, 2010, Chapter
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFhrpSJZzck
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qmJfOZbNPyQ
Theory and Description of set up

A fluidized bed is a packed bed through which fluid flows at such a high velocity that the bed
is loosened and the particle-fluid mixture behaves as though it is a fluid. Thus, when a bed of
particles is fluidized, the entire bed can be transported like a fluid, if desired. Both gas and
liquid flows can be used to fluidize a bed of particles. The most common reason for fluidizing
a bed is to obtain vigorous agitation of the solids in contact with the fluid, leading to excellent
contact of the solid and the fluid and the solid and the wall. This means that nearly uniform
temperatures can be maintained even in highly exothermic reaction situations where the
particles are used to catalyze a reaction in the species contained in the fluid. In fact, fluidized
beds were used in catalytic cracking in the petroleum industry in the past. The catalyst is
suspended in the fluid by fluidizing a bed of catalytic particles so that intimate contact can be
achieved between the particles and the fluid. Nowadays, you will find fluidized beds used in
catalyst regeneration, solid-gas reactors, combustion of coal, roasting of ores, drying, and gas
adsorption operations. The chief advantages of fluidization are that, the solids are vigorously
agitated by fluid passing through the bed and mixing of solids ensures very high heat and
mass transfer, which is required in organic chemical reactions.
The experimental set up consists of a Perspex pipe (polymethyl methacrylate) 75 mm

diameter and 600 mm long and contains a bed of particles upto a height of 150 mm. [Glass
Page | 95
beads are used as particles]. The ends are attached to two flanged couplings and are joined to
the pipeline. There are two tappings for manometer attachment at the two ends of the Perspex
pipe.
Procedure
1. Initial height of the bed is noted
2. The manometer is adjusted free of air bubbles
3. Water is allowed to pass through the bed by opening the inlet valve
4. When the flow is set, the height of the bed is noted and the corresponding manometer
reading is also noted.
5. The water from the fluidized bed is collected in the collecting tank.
6. The time for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is also noted.
7. Adjusting the inlet valve, the flow rate (discharge) is varied. Correspondingly, the height
of bed, the discharge and pressure drop are noted.
8. Two or three readings are taken with maximum flow (at high velocities)
9. Then gradually, the velocity is decreased and for each case the bed height and pressure
drop are noted
10. At no flow, the final bed height is measured. Now the final bed height may be greater
than the initial value of the fixed bed since the particles are not tightly seated now.
11. The percentage voids of the bed is determined as follows:
The particles inside the Perspex tube are taken out and filled in a short column of the same
diameter and the bed is made compact and initial height L0 is noted.
Observation
Size of the collecting tank (L x B) =

Initial height of the bed (L0) =
Size of the column
(inside diameter of the Perspex pipe) = 74 mm or 0.074 m
Size of the particle = 6 mm or 0.006 m
Distance between manometer tappings = 620 mm or 0.62 m
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water = 0.001 kg/ ms
Formulae
AH
t
vd p
Reynolds Number NRe =

 - Mass density of fluid (1000 kg/m3)
v – Velocity of fluid in column
dp – Diameter of the particle
 - Co-efficient of viscosity of water (1x10-3 Ns/m2)
Page | 96
Lo
Void friction  = 1 −
Li
Where Lo is height of the bed at initial condition
Li is height of bed at any instant
Pressure drop (dimensionless)
D p p
3
k=
2  2 L0
Δp = Pressure variation in manometer (h = h1-h2)
Modified friction factor

p 3 f (1 −  )v 2
=
L  3 d p
where f – modified friction factor
λ = tortousity factor (assume as 58)
ε = void fraction
 =Sphericity (It is defined as surface-volume ratio for a sphere of diameter Dp
divided by the surface volume ratio for the particle whose nominal size is Dp . Its value for
cubes, spheres and short cylinder is 1)
Vmin for fluidisation for NRe < 1

gd p (relative density of glass − relative density of water )  3
vmin =
150 (1 −  )
For NRe >1000
gd p (relative density of glass − relative density of water )  3
vmin =
1.75
Observation Table
Sr. Manometer Time taken for 10 cm rise Height of bed

No. Reading of liquid ‘s’ Li
z1 z2
1
2
3
4
5
6
Page | 97
Calculation Table
Sr. h= Flow Velocity ε = kΔp f NRe

No. h1-h2 rate (v) 1-
(Q) Lo/Li
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6
Graph
The following graphs are to be plotted

a. Reynolds number NRe Vs voids
b. KΔp Vs Reynolds number
c. Modified friction factor Vs Reynolds number (NRe)
Result
1. Reynolds number (NRe) =
2. Voids fraction (ε) =
3. Pressure drop (K) =
4. Modified friction factor (f) =
5. Vmin for fluidization =
Page | 98

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SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL & BIOTECHNOLOGY

Certified that this is the bona-fide record of work done by

Submitted for the University examination held on _________

Expt. Page Lab Work

Course Code: CHE106

FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

UNIT-WISE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of each experiment, the learner will be able to

Expt. No. 1 Calibrate and compute discharge coefficient for venturimeter

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Every student should go through the suggested readings / procedure of their

9. Calculations for an experiment shall be done collectively / upon consultation with

11. The manual should be treated as a guideline.

Instructions for graphs

‘PRESSURE DROP, (kPa)’

Experimental Observation (Sr. No. 5)

Dimensions of the water collection tank = wt X bt = 40 cm X 40 cm = 0.4 m X 0.4 m

Difference in manometer reading = h = h2 – h1 = 0.6 – 0.19 = 0.41 m

Component Expectation from Student Marks

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections (1) and (2)

Using continuity equation: a1v1=a2v2

The ideal or theoretical discharge is given by:

Expression for theoretical discharge (Qt)

Expression for actual discharge (Qa)

where A = Area of the collecting tank in m2

S. Upstream Downstream Time taken for 5 cm

Calculation: Model Calculation for Reading No. __________

Average Discharge Coefficient = CD

Abscissa: Theoretical volumetric flowrate Qtheo

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections (1) and (c)

Using continuity equation: a1v1=a2v2

The actual velocity is given by

The ideal or theoretical discharge is given by:

The actual rate of flow is written as:

Expression for actual discharge (Qa)

Calculation: Model Calculation for Reading No. __________

Average Discharge Coefficient = CD

CALIBRATION OF FLOW NOZZLE METER

Expression for theoretical discharge (Qt)

S. Upstream manometer Downstream Time taken for 5 cm

2. Manometer deflection = z = z2 – z1 = = ______ m

3. Pressure drop P =  z g = ____________ Pa

4. Pressure drop in terms of head of water column (process fluid column)

Apipe: Cross section area of pipe, m2

Time taken Actual Theoretical

Average Discharge Coefficient = CD

Abscissa: Theoretical volumetric flowrate Qtheo

DETERMINATION OF PIPE FRICTION FACTOR: MAJOR LOSS

Theory and Description of set up

Diameter of the pipe D =

S. Upstream manometer Downstream Time taken for 5 cm

Calculation: Model Calculation for Reading No. __________

2. Experimental Pressure drop Pexp =  z g = ____________ Pa

Note: Other appropriate correlations can also be used.

Upstream Downstream Time taken Experimental Darcy Theoretical

DETERMINATION OF MINOR LOSSES IN FLOW SYSTEM

Theory and Description of set-up

2. Water head h = h1 − h 0 = ___ cm = _m

3. Volumetric flowrate Q = _____LPH = _ m3 s