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Energy
Energy Procedia
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Introduction
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technologies such as
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∗ Corresponding
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[1].
∗ author. Tel.: +41 78 9444 221
Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 78 9444 221
E-mail
E-mail addresses:
addresses: jayathissa@arch.ethz.ch
jayathissa@arch.ethz.ch (P. (P. Jayathissa).,
Jayathissa)., zarbj@student.ethz.ch
zarbj@student.ethz.ch (J.
(J. Zarb).,
Zarb)., maurol@student.ethz.ch
maurol@student.ethz.ch (M.
(M. Luzzatto).,
Luzzatto).,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: 78 9444 221
hofer@arch.ethz.ch (J. Hofer)., schlueter@arch.ethz.ch
+41 (A. Schlueter).
hofer@arch.ethz.ch (J. Hofer)., schlueter@arch.ethz.ch (A. Schlueter).
E-mail addresses: jayathissa@arch.ethz.ch (P. Jayathissa)., zarbj@student.ethz.ch (J. Zarb)., maurol@student.ethz.ch (M. Luzzatto).,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 78 9444 221
hofer@arch.ethz.ch (J. Hofer).,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: schlueter@arch.ethz.ch
+41 78 9444 221 (A. Schlueter).
1876-6102
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E-mail  © 2017 The jayathissa@arch.ethz.ch
addresses:
addresses: Authors. Published by Elsevier
jayathissa@arch.ethz.ch (P. Ltd.
(P. Jayathissa).,
Jayathissa)., zarbj@student.ethz.ch
zarbj@student.ethz.ch (J.
(J. Zarb).,
Zarb)., maurol@student.ethz.ch
maurol@student.ethz.ch (M.
(M. Luzzatto).,
Luzzatto).,
1876-6102
1876-6102 c 2016
c under The
2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier
Authors.schlueter@arch.ethz.ch
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd. of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
Peer-review
hofer@arch.ethz.ch
hofer@arch.ethz.ch responsibility
(J.
(J. Hofer).,
Hofer)., of the Scientific Committee
schlueter@arch.ethz.ch (A.
(A. Schlueter).
Schlueter).
1876-6102 ©under
Peer-review 2017responsibility
The Authors. Published bycommittee
Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the CISBAT 2017 International Conference Future Buildings & Districts Energy
of the scientific of the CISBAT 2017 International Conference Future Buildings & Districts Energy
Peer-review
1876-6102
Efficiency c under
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Ltd. of the CISBAT 2017 International Conference – Future Buildings &
Efficiency from
Districts – EnergyNano to Urban Scale.
Efficiency from
Peer-review under responsibility of theNano to Urban
scientific Scaleof the CISBAT 2017 International Conference Future Buildings & Districts Energy
committee
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.07.319
1876-6102 cc 2016 Theto Authors. Published
Efficiency
1876-6102 
from
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2016 The Published by
Urban Scale.
Authors. by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd.
Peer-review
Peer-review under
under responsibility
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scientific committee
committee of of the
the CISBAT
CISBAT 2017
2017 International
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Conference Future
Future Buildings
Buildings &
& Districts
Districts Energy
Energy
Efficiency from Nano to Urban
Efficiency from Nano to Urban Scale. Scale.
140 P. Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 139–144
2 Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2016) 000–000
importance
ASF min max
PV

daylighting

views

Cooling
ASF

Fig. 1: Left: An example of an ASF constructed at the House of Natural Resources. Right: a schematic describing how the facade can mediate
solar radiation to optimise the internal environmental conditions [6]

Thin film photovoltaics (PV) in particular have improved in terms of efficiency, cost, and light weight integration
[2,3,4,5], which influenced the development of the adaptive solar facade (ASF) [6]. The adaptive solar facade consists
of an array of independently actuated photovoltaic panels that can move in two axes at a range of 90◦ . An example of
this technology was built at the House of Natural Resources at the ETH Zurich Campus as seen in Figure 1. Through
the control of solar radiation, the ASF is capable of minimising the building energy consumption in terms of heating,
cooling and lighting demands, while simultaneously generating electricity on site.

The optimum panel angles of the ASF are determined through a model control algorithm [7]. Simulations of build-
ing energy performance and photovoltaic electricity supply are performed for every possible combination of angles
for each time step. Through an exhaustive search, the optimum combination is chosen. An ASF built on a building
with an inefficient heating system will tend to exist in a more open position in winter so that the room can heat natu-
rally through solar radiation. Likewise, a building with an efficient heating system will tend to optimise more for the
generation of electricity on site. This sensitivity to the building typology leads to an energy saving variation of 20% -
80% compared to an equivalent static system [7] [8].

This paper utilises the models proposed by Jayathissa et al. [7] to extend the evaluation to a variety of building
archetypes in Zurich. We will first evaluate the sensitivity of the ASF performance to the envelope resistance, and
infiltration. We will then evaluate 11 building use types spanning six construction periods from the the City Energy
Analyst (CEA) for ArcGIS database [9]. By doing so, we can evaluate the optimum building properties and types for
the application of an ASF.

The remainder of the paper is organised as follows. The next section describes the simulation methodology. In
Section 3 we present the results of the case study which describes the sensitivity of the ASF to the building typology.
Finally, Section 4 concludes the paper.

2. Methodology

A control methodology of adaptive photovoltaic shading systems to maximise PV electricity production while
minimising the building energy consumption was proposed by Jayathissa et al. [7]. It will be briefly reviewed here
for completeness.

• Solar Radiation Model: The radiation on the PV panels and window behind the ASF is calculated for a single
configuration of the ASF using LadyBug/Radiance for a single time step of one hour [10,11].
 P. Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 139–144 141
Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2016) 000–000 3

• PV Electricity Production: The radiation result is coupled to an electrical circuit simulation of monolithically
interconnected, thin-film CIGS PV modules. This model takes into account the effects of module self-shading
and temperature dependence [12].
• Building Energy Model: A 5R1C single zone resistance-capacitance building model based on the ISO 13790
standard computes the heating or cooling demand of the building for the particular timestep [13]. We assume
that the only surface in contact with the external environment is the south facing glazed surface. All other
surfaces are in contact with other thermal zones and modelled as adiabatic surfaces. The climate in Zurich is
defined as an oceanic climate (Cfb) by the Koeppen Index with an average July temperature of 18.4◦ C, and
January temperature of 0.2◦ C [14].
• Daylighting Model: A linear daylighting model based on the total flux methodology is used to determine the
luminosity in the room [15].
• Optimisation: The simulation is conducted for all possible panel angle combinations. The angle combination
with the lowest net energy consumption is chosen for each timestep.

2.1. Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivities in the framework can be modelled by adjusting variables in the resistor-capacitor model. Two envelope
sensitivities will be analysed in this study

• Envelope Thermal Transmittance: The building envelope is characterised in the RC model as Hw which is
the U-value of the envelope.
• Infiltration: The infiltration rate is modified as an air exchange conductance in the ISO RC model Hve [13,7].
This quasi-conductance is modelled as
ρca Vroom  
Hve = ACHin f l + ACHvent (1 − ηvent ) (1)
3600
where:
ρca is the heat capacity per air volume = 1200 J/(m3 K);
ηvent is the efficiency of the ventilation heat recovery unit
ACHvent is the air changes per hour for ventilation of the room volume Vroom
ACHin f l is the air changes per hour for the infiltration of the room volume Vroom which is the variable in this
sensitivity analysis

2.2. Analysis of Archetypes

Building envelope parameters are imported from the CEA Toolbox, an open source urban building simulation
software. The archetype databases are publicly available on the CEA GitHub page [16,17]. From this data, the
following variables are evaluated: envelope U-value, occupancy profile, human heat emissions, lighting control set
point, lighting load, thermal set points, and building thermal capacitance.
One critical component not analysed in the evaluation is the window to wall ratio. This was kept constant to
maintain a valid comparison.

3. Results

3.1. Sensitivity of the Building Envelope

Figure 2a details the performance of the ASF constructed on a typical office building with respect to the envelope
U-value. As expected the heating demand increases with increasing U-value. Interestingly, the photovoltaic electricity
supply decreases. This is because the ASF always optimises for net energy minimisation. With increasing heating
demands, the ASF will optimise for positions that direct solar radiation into the building to minimise the heating loads
as opposed to generating the electricity on the panels. This same characteristic is apparent in 2b which compares
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4 Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2016) 000–000

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2: Influence of envelope thermal transmittance (U-value). a) Details the energetic performance of the ASF with respect to building envelope
U-value. b) compares the energy saving potential of an ASF relative to a facade with no shading system. c) compares the energy saving potential
of an ASF relative to an equivalent static PV system.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3: Influence of infiltration. a) Details the energetic performance of the ASF with respect to building infiltration. b) compares the energy saving
potential of an ASF relative to a facade with no shading system. c) compares the energy saving potential of an ASF relative to an equivalent static
PV system.

the energy saving potential of the ASF compared to a glazed facade with no shading system. A building with low
envelope U-value will have a large saving potential due to the reduction of cooling loads, and supply of photovoltaic
electricity. As the envelope U-value increases, this saving potential begins to decrease.
Figure 2c compares the ASF to an equivalent static photovoltaic shading system with panels orientated in the most
energetically favourable position. As the U-value increases the net energy saving increases. As mentioned earlier, the
heating demand increases with increasing U-value. For high U-value envelopes, the ASF will adapt and open up the
panels thus reducing the heating demands. The equivalent static system will remain in a semi closed position for the
entire year, and will block the solar heat gains necessary in winter.
Figure 3 details the equivalent analysis with varying infiltration rates. Similar trends can be observed to those in
Figure 2. Leakier buildings lead to high heat demands, which decreases the performance of the ASF compared to a
glazed window with no shading, but increases the performance relative to a static shading system.

3.2. Archetype Evaluation of the ASF

Figure 4 compares the energy saving potential of 11 building use types with six different construction periods
compared to a glazed facade with no shading system. Darker colours indicate larger energy saving potentials. One
clear trend is the increasing saving potential in newer buildings over older buildings. This can be attributed to the lower
envelope U-value in newer buildings, which as discussed in Section 3.1 will increase the energy saving potential. It is
also interesting to note that the ASF performs best in gym use types. Gyms have a large cooling demand due to the
high human heat emissions. Optimum configurations for cooling minimisation generates the maximum photovoltaic
electricity supply.
However, an ASF is not necessarily the best design solution for buildings with a large cooling demand. Figure 5
compares the ASF performance against an equivalent static system. If we once again focus on the modern gym, we
 P. Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 139–144 143
Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2016) 000–000 5

Fig. 4: Annual results detailing the energy saving potential of the ASF vs a glazed window with no shading system

Fig. 5: Annual results detailing the energy saving potential of the ASF vs a static photovoltaic shading system

notice that there is only a small increase in the energy performance of an adaptive system over an optimally configured
static system. When comparing both heat maps we see that an ASF performs best on in a modern office, retail store,
food store, and school. These archetypes perform well due to two reasons. Firstly, they have an even balance of
heating and cooling demands. Thus there is a need for adaptivity in the envelope to reduce these demands. Secondly,
these archetypes are in use during the day. Residential buildings on the other hand are mostly occupied at night where
the ASF has no influence on the building performance.

4. Discussion and Conclusion

In this paper, we have evaluated the energetic performance of the adaptive solar facade (ASF) over 11 building
archetypes spanning six construction periods. We notice that the ASF performs most efficiently in an environment
dominated by cooling demands as the angles of photovoltaic panels to reduce the cooling demand also maximise the
photovoltaic electricity supply. When compared to a plain glazed facade with no shading system, we observe large
energy saving reductions in buildings that have high cooling demands and low heating demands. When compared
to an equivalent static photovoltaic shading system, the inverse is true: larger energy saving potentials are present in
buildings with low cooling demands and high heating demands. This is because the static system is not capable of
opening its panels during times where heating is required, thus disadvantaging buildings with a large heat demand.
For shading system designers, there is an important balance between the building archetype and the type of shading
system to be used. For buildings with poorly performing envelopes, maximising solar heat gains is important to reduce
heating loads. A window without shading, or a system with manually controlled Venetian blinds may be the optimal
144 P. Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 122 (2017) 139–144
6 Jayathissa et al. / Energy Procedia 00 (2016) 000–000

solution. Modern buildings with good insulation and large heat gains have a high cooling demand. In these cases, the
ASF performs very well and would be a recommended solution. However, when the cooling demands are very high,
such as in a modern gym, it would be more cost effective to install a simpler, static photovoltaic shading system at an
optimum solar angle.
Further expansion of this research should be conducted to evaluate the impact of the building system. Increasing
the efficiency of the heating, cooling, or lighting system will give higher preference for configurations optimised for
photovoltaic electricity generation over building thermal management.
The analysis ultimately helped to clearly identify possible application cases of an adaptive solar facade with the
highest benefit in terms of energy efficiency. The methodology proposed may also be useful for the identification of
suitable application cases for other shading system types.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the HiLo and HoNR project members for the design and construction
of the ASF: Supermanoeuvre (Sydney Australia) and the Professorship of Architecture and Structures (BRG, ETH
Zurich) for their work in designing the HiLo building; and the Institute of Structural Engineering (IBK, ETH Zurich)
for their work in designing the HoNR building. The authors would also like to thank other key contributors to the
ASF Project: Bratislav Svetozarevic, Moritz Begle, Stefan Caranovic, and Zoltan Nagy. This research has been
financially supported by CTI within the SCCER FEEB&D and by the Building Technologies Accelerator program of
Climate-KIC.

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