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Flow measurement

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1 FLOW MEASUREMENT
1.1 Introduction
Measurement of velocity is typically done using:
i) Pitot Tube;
ii) Flow through a constriction (orifice meter, Venturi meter, nozzle);
iii) Flow through a variable area meter (rotameter);
iv) Weirs (or notches); or
v) Other flow measurement methods.

1.2 Flow through a Constriction

Measurement of velocity using a constriction is typically done using:
i) Orifice meter;
ii) Venturi meter; or
iii) Nozzle

From the mechanical energy balance we have:

v2  v2 P,out
dP Ws
(gz + ) + = (gz + ) − ∫ +
2 out m 2 in P,in ρ m

Typically the unknown value is the velocity – which is not easy to measure when inside a metal pipe.
However, if we know the pressure and height terms we can calculate this.

If we assume there is no friction (sometimes not a good assumption) AND no work, the energy balance
becomes:

v2 v2 Pin Pout
(gz + ) = (gz + ) + −
2 out 2 in ρ ρ

Vout 2 Vin 2 Pin Pout

2
− 2
= g(zin − zout ) + ρ
− ρ
[1]

Now:
From a mass balance; mass in = mass out

Min = Mout
ρvin Ain = ρvout Aout

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
Assuming an incompressible fluid:
vin Ain = vout Aout
Aout
vin = vout
Ain

Substitute into [1]:

Vout 2 Vout 2 Aout 2 Pin Pout

− 2 = g(zin − zout ) + −
2 2Ain ρ ρ
Vout 2 Aout 2 Pin Pout
(1 − 2 ) = g(zin − zout ) + −
2 Ain ρ ρ
P P
2.[g(zin −zout )+ in − out ]
Vout 2 = 1−
ρ ρ
[2]

Assuming a horizontal pipe: zin = zout

1
2. [ ( Pin − Pout )]
ρ
Vout 2 = 2
A
1 − ( Aout )
in
2
( Pin −Pout )
ρ
Vout = √ 2 [3]
A
1−( out )
Ain

Orifice Meter
An orifice plate is a device used to constrict the flow through a pipe. By manipulating the flow, we also
manipulate the pressure and, by the calculations above, we can thus measure the flow rate.

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 1 0 2 3

Orifice Plate Pipe

U-Tube Manometer

where:
1: Point before the orifice plate where the pressure and density ( or v) equals the original
pressure and density, i.e. before any influence of the orifice meter
0: Point of the orifice plate
2: Vena contracta. Point where the flow diameter is at its minimum
3: Pount after the orifice plate where the pressure and density ( or v) equals the original
pressure and density, i.e. after the fluid has returned to its original flow patterns

Rules of Thumb: (orifice plates work best under these conditions)

- An orifice should be 50D (50 times the pipe diameter) away from the nearest fitting (to allow for
settling of flow and pressure measurements)
- Pipes should be at least 150 mm in diameter to allow for turbulent flow conditions

Pressure drop is difficult to recover and orifice plates are inefficient.

Calculating flow rate using an orifice meter:

It was shown earlier that:
2
( )
ρ Pin − Pout
Vout =√ 2
A
1 − ( Aout )
in

Using notation for orifice meters:

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 2
( P1 −P2 )
V2 = √ρ A 2 [4]
1−( 2)
A1

Defining: G = mass flow rate = ṁ = v2A2

Into Equation [4]:

2
( P1 −P2 )
G = ṁ = ρA2 √ρ A 2 [5]
1−( 2)
A1

Now: The diameter of the vena contracta is not measured easily. Therefore, define the co-efficient of
contraction:

A2
CC =
A0

where:
Cc: co-efficient of contraction
A0: Area of the orifice plate
A2: Vena contracta. Area where the flow diameter is at its minimum

Therefore: A2 = CcA0

Substituting onto [5]:

2
( P1 −P2 )
ρ
G = ṁ = ρCc A0 √ C A 2
[6]
1−( c 0 )
A1

The flow before, inside and after the orifice plate may be laminar and/or turbulent. Therefore we need
to re-introduce the alpha () term to account for turbulence.

2α2
( )
ρ P1 − P2
G = ṁ = ρCc A0 √
α Cc A 0 2
1 − α2 ( A )
1 1

[7]
1 1
Reminder: ≡ γ and : ≡ ρ
ρ γ

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 Cc A0 2α2 . γ( P1 − P2 )
G = ṁ =
γ √ α C A 2
1 − 2 ( c 0)
α1 A1

In order to account for all the unknown terms and the unknown co-efficient of contraction, new term is
defined: Co-efficient of Discharge (CD)

This is effectively a fudge factor to take in to account the unknowns, turbulent and laminar flow,
frictional losses and alpha () terms.

Now, from (7):

2
( )
ρ P1 − P2
G = ṁ = ρCD A0 √
A 2
1 − ( A0 )
1

[8]
CD is obtained from a graph.

Additional Notes:
1) If the orifice meter diameter is much smaller than the diameter of the pipe:
D0 << D1
A0 << A1

This means that:

A 2
√1 − ( 0 ) → 1
A1

And Equation (8) becomes:

2
G = ṁ = ρCD A0 √ ( P1 − P2 )
ρ

G = ṁ = CD A0 √2ρ( P1 − P2 )

2) Pressure can be recorded as a height:

G = ṁ = CD A0 √2ρ( P1 − P2 )

But:
∆P = ρgh

G = ṁ = CD A0 ρ√2gh
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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
NOTE: The height here is the equivalent height of the fluid in the pipe. This can be converted to a
height of mercury (or other material) as required.

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 Example:
Water flows through an orifice meter at a rate of 300 cm3/s. Calculate the height of a mercury manometer
(pressure drop) given a pipe diameter of 75 mm and an orifice diameter of 25mm as in the figure below.

dorifice = 25 mm

Water

3
300 cm /s

dpipe = 75 mm

h=?

𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = . (25)2 = 491 𝑚𝑚2 = 4.91 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
4

𝑐𝑚3
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 300 = 3.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑠
3.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠
∴ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 0.61 𝑚/𝑠
4.91 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2

𝜌𝑣𝐷 1000 𝑥 0.61 = 25 𝑥 10−3

𝑅𝑒 = = = 15 250
𝜇 1 𝑥 10−3

𝑑𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 0.025 1
= =
𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 0.075 3

Cd = 0.61 (from graph)

2
( 𝑃 − 𝑃2 )
𝜌 1
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 √
𝐴 2
1 − ( 0)
𝐴1
𝐴0 2 25 2
1 − ( ) = 1 − ( ) = 0.994 ≈ 1
𝐴1 75
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 𝜌√2𝑔ℎ

10−4 𝑚3 1000𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 3.0 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.30𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑠 𝑚3
0.30 = (0.61 𝑥 4.91 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 1000)√2.9.81. ℎ
√ℎ = 0.266
ℎ = 0.051𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂 = 51𝑚𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂

Converting to mmHg
Pressure of water = Pressure of Mercury
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐻𝑔
7
1000. 9.81. ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13 600.9.81. ℎ𝐻𝑔
K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
1000. ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13 600. ℎ𝐻𝑔
ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 3.75 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
 Example:
Sulphuric acid flows through a pipe of diameter 50 mm. An orifice plate of 10 mm is used determine the flow. If a mercury
manometer gives a reading of 0.1 m, what is the mass flowrate through the pipe?
dorifice = 10 mm

H2SO4

dpipe = 50 mm

h = 0.1m

Checking if 1 – (A0/A1)2 is equal to 1:

2
2 0.01 2 2
𝐴0 2 𝜋𝑟02 𝜋( ) (0.005)2 0.000025 2
1 − ( ) = 1 − ( 2) = 1 − ( 2 ) = 1 − ( ) = 1 − ( ) = 1 − 0.042 = 0.9984 ≈ 1
𝐴1 𝜋𝑟1 0.05 2 (0.025)2 0.000625
𝜋( )
2
Therefore:
2
( 𝑃1 −𝑃2 ) 2
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 √𝜌 𝐴0 2
→ 𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 √ ( 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) [1]
1−( ) 𝜌
𝐴1

Now:
𝜌𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 = 1300 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
0.01 2
𝐴0 = 𝜋 ( ) = 7.85398 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2
2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ∆𝑃 = ∆𝜌𝑔ℎ = (13600 − 1300). 9.81.0.1 = 12066.3 𝑃𝑎
Cd  Guess value of 0.61

Into [1]:

2 2
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 √ ( 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 1300. (0.61). 7.8539 𝑥 10−5 . √ ( 12066.3) = 0.0622√18.563 = 0.268345𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝜌 1300

Now check value of Cd:

Calculating Reynolds number:
𝑚̇ 0.268345 0.268345
𝑣= = = = 2.628211𝑚/𝑠
𝜌. 𝑋𝑆𝐴 1300. 𝐴0 1300.7.8539 𝑥 10−5
Viscosity of Sulphuric acid = 26.7 cP
𝜌. 𝑣. 𝐷 1300. (2.68345). 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1279.653 ≈ 1.28 𝑥 103
𝜇 0.0267
D0/D1 = 0.2
Which gives a new Cd value of: 0.68

Repeating the above steps for new Cd

2 2
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 √ ( 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 1300. (0.68). 7.8539 𝑥 10−5 . √ ( 12066.3) = 0.0694√18.563 = 0.299139𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝜌 1300
𝑚̇ 0.299139 0.299139
𝑣= = = = 2.929809𝑚/𝑠
𝜌. 𝑋𝑆𝐴 1300. 𝐴0 1300.7.8539 𝑥 10−5
𝜌. 𝑣. 𝐷 1300. (2.929809). 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1426.499 ≈ 1.426 𝑥 103
𝜇 0.0267
Which gives a new Cd value of: 0.65 (Which is the same as previous Cd value)
8
K.Therefore
Hardingmass flow rate is: 0.299
University
kg/s of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 Example:
Sulphuric acid flows through a pipe of diameter 50 mm. An orifice plate of 10 mm is used determine the flow. If we
assume the ratio of (A0/A1)2 is negligible and a mercury manometer gives a reading of 0.1 , the mass flow rate can be
shown to be 0.299139 kg/s. What is the relative error of this reading due to the simplification assumption?
dorifice = 10 mm

H2SO4

dpipe = 50 mm

h = 0.1m

2
( 𝑃 − 𝑃2 ) 2 ( 12066.3)
𝜌 1
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴0 √ 2 = 1300.
(0.68). 7.8539 𝑥 10−5 . √ = 0.0694√18.5932
𝐴 1300 0.9984
1 − ( 0)
𝐴1
= 0.299378𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Therefore the relative error = (0.299378 – 0.299139)/0.299139 = 0.08%

1.3 Flow Through a Variable Area Meter

Rotameter
A rotameter is a tapered device placed horizontally (or at an angle) in a length of pipe to determine the
flow rate of the fluid in it. A float placed inside the device is pushed upwards by the water flowing
through the pipe. Since the rotameter is slightly tapered, the higher it is pushed the greater the annulus
around the float and the less the force pushing upwards. Once the forces are balanced (buoyancy,
gravity, flow force upwards) the float comes to rest and a reading of the flow can be taken.

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 Side View Top View

A1 (total area)

A2 (annulus area)

Afloat (float area)

NOTE: Taper is exaggerated

i) Tapered tube with smallest diameter at the bottom with free flowing float inside
ii) When fluid is flowing, float will rise until force upward balances with gravity
iii) Pressure difference across float is equal to its weight divided by maximum cross sectional
area in horizontal plane
iv) Area for flow is the annulus between the float and the wall of the tube
v) Consider as orifice meter with variable area
vi) Tube must be tapered otherwise the force upward would be constant (and greater to
gravity) and the float would exit the device
vii) Typically, a rotameter is used instead of an orifice meter since pressure drop is not as high

From orifice plates the mass flow rate was given by:

2
( P − P2 )
ρ 1
G = ṁ = ρCD A0 √
A 2
1 − ( 0)
A1

2ρ( P1 − P2 )
G = ṁ = CD A0
√ A 2
1 − ( A0 )
1

Using a similar derivation as for orifice meters, the relationship as below is obtained for Rotameters:

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 2ρ( P1 − P2 )
G = ṁ = CD A2
√ A 2
1 − ( A2 )
1

2ρ(−∆P)
G = ṁ = CD A2
√ A 2
1 − ( A2 )
1

[1]

Now:
Pressure drop across the float is given by:

Vfloat (ρfloat − ρfluid )g

−∆P =
Afloat
[2]

where:
Vfloat = volume of float
float = density of the float
fluid = density of the fluid
Afloat = area of the float

Substituting (2) into (1)

2ρfluid Vfloat (ρfloat − ρfluid )g

G = ṁ = CD A2
√ A 2
Afloat (1 − (A2 ) )
1

[3]
where:
A1 = area of the pipe at the height of the float
A2 = area of the annulus
CD is dependent on the shape of the float (read off a graph)

Note: If the diameter of the annulus is required, the wetted diameter is to be used.
D2* = D1 – Dfloat

where:
D2* = wetted diameter of the annulus (m)
D1 = diameter of the pipe at the height of the float (m)
Dfloat = diameter of the float (m)

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 Wetted Diameter (also called the Hydraulic diameter):
The wetted diameter is a concept for flow through non-uniform shapes
and is defined as:

Dh = 4.Area/Wetted Perimeter

The wetted perimeter is the perimeter that is in contact with the fluid

Common wetted perimeters include:

Round Tube: Dh = D
Annulus: Dh = D0 – Di
Rectangular duct (completely filled): Dh = (2LW)/((L + W)
Rectangular duct (not filled): Dh = (4LW)/((2L + W)

wat

Example:
A rotameter has a tube length of 0.3 m and internal diameters of 25 mm (top) and 20 mm
(bottom). The float has a co-efficient of discharge of 0.7, a diameter of 20 mm, density of
4800 kg/m3 and a volume of 6.0 cm3.

What is the mass flow rate through the rotameter if the float is half way up the tube?

Solution:
Cross sectional area (top of tube): π.(0.025m/2)2 = 4.91 x 10-4 m2
Cross sectional area (bottom of tube): π.(0.020m/2)2 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
Area of float (Af): 3.14 x 10-4 m2 (same as bottom of tube)
Volume of float (Vf): 6 cm3 = 6 x 10-6 m3
When the float is half way up the tube (A1): π(0.0225m/2)2 = 3.98 x 10-4m2
Area of annulus (A2): A1 – Af = 0.84 x 10-4m2

Mass flowrate:
2𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 (𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 − 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 )𝑔
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴2
√ 𝐴2 2
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 (1 − ( ) )
𝐴1

2(1000)(6 × 10−6 )(4800 − 1000)9.81

𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = (0.7)(0.84 𝑥 10−4 ) 2
√ 0.84 × 10−4
3.14 × 10−4 (1 − ( ) )
3.98 × 10−4
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ ≈ 0.072 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Additional Reading
Coulson, JM, Richardson, JF, Backhurst, JR, Harker, JH, 1999. Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering, Volume 1, 6th Edition, Elsevier.
Crabtree, M, 2000. Mick Crabtree’s Flow Handbook, 2nd Edition, Crown Publications.

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K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
 Perry, RH, and Green, DW, 1984. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition.
Welty, JR, Wicks, CE, Wilson, RE, Rorrer, GL. 2008. Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass
Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley.

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