CH 3 The Wave Properties of Particles

Chapter 3: The Wave Properties of Particles

3.1. Introduction
3.2. Wave Motion
3.3. Wave (phase) and group velocities of a wave
3.4. The wave function Ψ and probability
3.5. The uncertainty principle
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Applied Modern Physics, ECEG 2101: Extractions by Tezazu Bireda, AAU, AAiT, SECE, July 2022
3.1. de Broglie matter wave
According to the theory of relativity, energy and matter are inter-convertible. Furthermore, radiant energy has
dual character of wave and particle as verified by experiments. It is thus logical to conclude that the converse
is also true ‘’matter should also have a dual character (particle and wave)’’. This was the chain of reasoning
that led the French physicist de Broglie to postulate the existence of matter waves in 1924 (just after 19 years
after Einstein had shaken the world). de Broglie intuitively reasoned that since nature loves symmetry, the
duality of radiation points to the duality of matter, and no laws of physics prohibit it. That is, if light waves
could have a particle like nature, material particles should also have wave-like nature.
With no experimental evidence to go on, de Broglie reasoned by analogy with Einstein equation E = hf for a
photon and some of his theory of relativity.
Since for a photon 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 = ℎ𝑓 ⇒ 𝑝 = =
Or
𝜆= ….3.1.
and thus any material particle of mass m, velocity v, and momentum p = mv will have a wave nature with a de
Broglie wavelength given by a general formula:
𝜆= …… 3.2
where 𝑚 = is the relativistic mass of the particle.
We note the larger p is the shorter the wavelength.
Example:
Determine the de Broglie wavelength of a 1.0 eV electron.
Solution.
The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is 𝜆 =
A 1.0 eV electron has a K.E. of Ek =1.6 x 10-19 J which is too smaller than its rest energy of E 0 =0.511 MeV.
We can thus employ the classical K.E. equation to obtain its velocity:
2𝐸 2 × 1.602 × 10 𝐽
𝑣= = = 5.9 × 10 𝑚/𝑠 ≪ 𝑐
𝑚 9.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔
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[𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − would also give us the same velocity.! ]
. × .
Thus, 𝜆 = = = = 1.2 𝑛𝑚
. × × . ×
This wavelength is
 small but still greater than that of x-ray and

 greater than the approximate 10-10 m spacing of atoms in crystals.
Exercise
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of
a. A rock of mass 2 kg moving at a speed of 5 m/s

b. An electron of energy 50 eV.
Although the existence of de Broglie waves was not demonstrated until 1927, the duality principle that they
represent provided the starting point for Schrodinger successful development of quantum mechanics in the
previous year.
Equation 3.2. has been verified by a number of experiments. The experiment of Davisson and Germer, whose
verified that a beam of electrons reflected from the surface of a nickel crystal forming diffraction patterns
exactly analogous to the diffraction of light by a grating, is one among others.
3.2 Wave Motion
It is known that in a light wave EM field varies in space and time, and a sound wave pressure varies in space
and time.
What is whose variation constitute de Broglie waves? That is, what kind of wave phenomenon is involved in
the matter waves of de Broglie?
Consider the mathematical description of a mechanical wave (say of a vibrating string in the y-direction)
The displacement 𝜓 as a function of time t of a single point (say x = 0) on a vibrating string whose wave is
propagating in the x-direction at speed v is given by (assuming 𝜓 max occurs at t = 0 for x=0)
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 …..3.3
where
 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is the angular frequency of oscillation of the wave (or the frequency of the up-down motion
of the string)
 𝐴 = the amplitude of the wave
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The variation of the displacement 𝜓 at any point x and time t can be obtained by considering the wave travels
the distance x = vt in time t with a time interval between the formation of the wave at x = 0 and its arrival at
point x is x/v.
Thus the displacement 𝜓 of the string a x at any time t is exactly the same as the value of 𝜓 at x = 0 at the
earlier time t –x/v.
Thus, replacing t in eqn 3.3 by t –x/v, we will have (i.e displacement variation at x lags in time behind the
variation at x = 0) gives a travelling wave (one dimensional/planar).
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑡 −
Now since 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑥
We define the propagation constant k as:
𝑘= ……..3.4
where k is equal to the number of radians corresponding to a wave train 1 m long.
Thus we write,
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) …. 3.5
The wave function in eqn 3.5. is a one dimensional (a planar) travelling wave and satisfies the scalar wave
equation:
− =0
Whose solutions have the forms 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) and 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡) where f and g denote any functions with variables
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 and 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡 respectively.
For example, 𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡), 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡), 𝑒 ( ± )

where k = constant.
In three dimensions k becomes a vector 𝑘⃗ normal to the wave fronts and x is replaced by the radius (position)
vector 𝑟⃗. The scalar 𝑘⃗ . 𝑟⃗ is then used instead of kx in equation 3.5.
3.3. Wave (phase) and group velocities of a wave
These are important concepts or notions to understand the characteristics of wave propagation.
Equation 3.5 can be used to deterministically obtain the exact displacement of the wave at a particular
position and instant of time.
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However, the nature of de Broglie wave is such that the amplitude of the wave corresponding to a moving
body is a non-deterministic variable that represents/reflects the probability that the body is found at a
particular place and a particular time.
Mathematically, the amplitude variable is characterized by the ‘wave function’ of the moving body and is
denoted by Ψ (read as psi).
The wave representation of a moving body thus corresponds to a wave packet or wave group whose
constituent waves have amplitudes which vary with the likelihood of detecting the body as shown below:
A way of mathematically describing a wave group is in terms of a series of individual waves, differing slightly in
wavelength, whose interference with one another results in the variation in amplitudes that defines the group
shape.
The important property of the wave group is that its net amplitude differs from zero only over a small region
∆x. Its amplitude also rises and falls periodically.
If the speeds of the waves are the same, the speed with which the wave group travels is identical with the
common wave speed. Otherwise, the speed of the wave group will be different.
Suppose a wave group arises from a combination of two waves 𝜓 and 𝜓 of the same amplitude A but
differing by dω in angular frequency and by dk in propagation constant. i.e.
𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠[(𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘)𝑥]
The resultant displacement 𝜓 at any time t and any position x is
𝜓 = 𝜓 +𝜓
and noting the identities:
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cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
1 1
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔)𝑡 − (2𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘)𝑥]𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝑑𝜔𝑡 − 𝑑𝑘𝑥]
2 2
Since 𝑑𝜔 ≪ 𝜔 and 𝑑𝑘 ≪ 𝑘, then 2𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔 ≈ 2𝜔 and 2𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘 ≈ 2𝑘
Therefore,
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡− 𝑥 ……. 3.6
Equation 3.6 represents a wave of angular frequency 𝜔 and propagation constant k that has superimposed
upon it an amplitude modulation of angular frequency 𝑑𝜔 and propagation constant 𝑑𝑘.
The effect of the modulation is to produce successive (periodic) wave groups.
The wave (phase) velocity from Eqn 3.6 is [𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 = 𝜆 = = ]
𝑣 = ….. 3.7
while the group velocity is
𝑣 = ….. 3.8
The angular velocity & propagation constant as well as the phase and group velocities of the de Broglie wave
associated with a body of rest mass 𝑚 moving with velocity v are as follows:
2𝜋𝑓ℎ 2𝜋𝑚𝑐 2𝜋𝑚 𝑐

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = = =
ℎ ℎ 𝑣
ℎ 1−
𝑐
𝑘= = 2𝜋 =
We note that
𝜔 𝑐
𝑣 = = > 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣 < 𝑐!
𝑘 𝑣
i.e. 𝑣 exceeds both the velocity of the body v and the velocity of light, c, since v < c. From our 1 st
intuition/expectation that de Broglie wave travels a the same velocity v of the body, this is unexpected and
impossible!.
Clearly thus, v and 𝑣 are never equal for a moving body.
𝑣 of de Broglie waves has no simple physical significance in itself.
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For a traditional wave (non-de Broglie), the phase (wave) velocity 𝑣 is the velocity of a point on the wave that
has a given constant phase (for example, the crest):
i.e 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 from which 𝜔 − 𝑘 =0
where =𝑣 = = 𝜆𝑓 = 𝑣
Thus, 𝑣 =𝑣=
Finally the group velocity associated with the moving body is
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔/𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = =
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘/𝑑𝑣
Where
⎡ ⎤
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2𝜋𝑚 𝑐 2𝜋𝑚 𝑣
= ⎢ ⎥=
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ⎢ /
𝑣 ⎥ 𝑣
⎣ 1−𝑐 ⎦ ℎ 1−𝑐
And
⎡ ⎤
𝑑𝑘 𝑑 2𝜋𝑚 𝑣 2𝜋𝑚
= ⎢ ⎥=
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ⎢ /
𝑣 ⎥ 𝑣
⎣ 1−𝑐 ⎦ ℎ 1−𝑐
And thus,
𝑣 =𝑣
That is, the de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with the same velocity as the body.
The group velocity is related to the phase velocity by : [Noting 𝑣 = ]
𝑣 = = 𝑘𝑣 =𝑣 +𝑘 ……. 3.10
Thus, depending on the manner in which 𝑣 varies with λ in a particular medium, 𝑣 > 𝑣 or 𝑣 < 𝑣 .
If 𝑣 is the same as for all constituent wavelengths, 𝑣 = 𝑣 . A medium is called non-dispersive when
𝑣 = 𝑣 for all frequencies (or wavelengths).
An example is an EM wave in vacuum.

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Water wave is a good example of waves in dispersive media (𝑣 ≠ 𝑣 ).
3.4. The wave function Ψ (read as psi) and probability
The variable quantity used to characterize de Broglie waves is called a wave function denoted by Ψ.
Ψ(x,t) is used to denote the superposition of many waves to describe a de Broglie wave group and is used to
determine the likelihood or probability of finding the particle at a particular position in space at a given time.
The value (magnitude) of Ψ(x,t) has no physical significance as it may assume even a negative quantity that
can’t be used to quantify probability.
However, since Ψ2 (or Ψ Ψ*=| Ψ|2 if Ψ(x,t) is complex) ≥ 0 and for other reasons Ψ2 is known as probability
density.
The probability of experimentally finding the body (described by Ψ) at the point x,y,z at time t is proportional
to Ψ2 there at t.
The larger Ψ2 is the most probable the body’s presence and this interpretation was made by Max Born in 1926.
Alternatively, if an experiment involves a great many identical bodies all described by the same wave function
Ψ, the actual density of bodies at x,y,z at time t is proportional to the corresponding value of Ψ2.
Determining the amplitude Ψ of de Broglie waves as a function of position and time usually presents a
formidable challenge.
For a known Ψ(x,t), Ψ Ψ*(x,t)dx =|Ψ|2dx is the probability of observability of the particle in the interval
between x and x + dx at a given time, i.e.
𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)| 𝑑𝑥
In general, for a particle in a volume V enclosing the point x,y,z at time t,
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)Ψ ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1 = p(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
This is called the condition of normalization of the wave function.
Since the particle exists in the volume, it has a probability of unity (1) of being observed somewhere in the
volume.
3.5. The uncertainty principle
The fact that a moving body must be regarded as a de Broglie wave group rather than as a localized entity
suggests that there is a fundamental limit to the accuracy with which we can measure its particle property
such as the position and momentum.
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The uncertainty to the accuracy was obtained by Werner Heisenberg in 1927 and is called the uncertainty
principle which states that
“it is impossible to determine precisely and simultaneously the values of both members of a pair of
physical variables which describe the motion of atomic system”
Such pairs of variables are called canonically conjugate variables. Examples are
 position x & momentum p,

 energy E & time t,
 angular momentum L & angular position θ,
 rotational inertia I & angular velocity ω.
For instance, position uncertainty ∆x and momentum uncertainty ∆P of a particle may be related considering
the particle as a wave group formed by two waves Ψ1 and Ψ2 such that ω1=ω, k1 = k and ω2 = ω + ∆ω & k2 =
k+∆k.
Thus, if
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠[(𝜔 + Δ𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + Δ𝑘)𝑥]
we see that
Δ𝜔 Δ𝑘
𝜓 = 𝜓 +𝜓 = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡− 𝑥
2 2
It is reasonable to suppose that the width of the wave group is the same order of magnitude as the inherent
maximum (irreducible) uncertainty ∆x in the position of the group.
That is,
1
Δ𝑥 ≈ 𝜆
2
where
𝜆 = = = ⇐ modulation w.t.
and
Δ𝑥 = = ….. *
Similarly, the best propagation constant k we can accurately measure will have an inherent uncertainty of ∆k.
Eqn * =>
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2𝜋
Δ𝑘 =
Δx
The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of momentum p is λ =
and the corresponding propagation constant
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑘= = 𝑝
λ h
Uncertainty ∆k produces uncertainty
ℎ
Δ𝑝 = Δ𝑘
2𝜋
in the particle’s momentum.
Thus,
ℎ
Δp =
Δx
and a more realistic approach would give the uncertainty principle:
𝒉
𝚫𝐱. 𝚫𝐩 ≥ =ℏ
𝟐𝝅
The principle states that
“the product of the uncertainty ∆x in the position of a body at some instant and the uncertainty ∆p in
its momentum at the same instant is at best equals .’’
This is a strict law of nature. We cannot measure simultaneously both position and momentum with perfect
accuracy.
If x = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 &
p = 𝑝 + ∆𝑝
Noting, Δx. Δp ≥
∆𝑥 ↓→ ∆𝑝 ↑→ 𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

but x becomes more accurate
∆𝑥 ↑→ ∆𝑝 ↓→ 𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

but x becomes less accurate
∆𝑥 ↓→ ∆𝑝 ↑→ 𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Fig. Illustration of the uncertainty principle relating ∆x & ∆p
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The ≥ sign/operation is used since ∆x & ∆p are irreducible minima that are consequences of the wave nature of
moving bodies.
These uncertainties are not in our measurement apparatus but basically in nature.
Of course, any instrumental or statistical uncertainties that arise in the actual conduct of the measurement
only augment (worsens) the product ∆x .∆p.
Since ℏ is so minute, the accuracy limitation imposed by the uncertainty principle are significant only in the
realm of atoms.
The uncertainty principle can be derived in a variety of ways.
The following is based on the particle nature of waves (not de Broglie wave group).
 Here the act of measurement of the position and momentum of an electron with optical apparatus
makes photons to strike the electron.
 This introduces in the momentum of the electron a likely uncertainty of [Note: for a photon, p = = = ]
∆p = …..* (i.e a photon imparts all its momentum to electron)

Thus, if p = 𝑝 + ∆𝑝, then
 if λ is decreased, ∆p increases implying the inaccuracy of p increases (i.e becomes more uncertain)
 if λ is increased, ∆p decreases implying the inaccuracy of p decreases (i.e becomes more certain)
Since light has wave properties, we can’t determine the electron’s position with infinite accuracy; we
reasonably hope the uncertainty ∆x in the position of the electron is
∆x = λ
Thus, if x = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, then
 if λ is decreased, ∆x decreases implying the accuracy of x increases (i.e becomes more certain)
 if λ is increased, ∆x increases implying the inaccuracy of x increases (i.e becomes more uncertain)
Substitute ∆x = λ in ∆p = which would give us the more realistic uncertainty principle:
ℎ
Δx. Δp ≥
2𝜋
Three schools of thoughts about measurement in quantum mechanics (all probabilistic)
e.g. Object of measurement: existence of electron at a certain location in a box
Schrodinger’s cat.
i) Prior to measurement, the object of measurement exists.
The measurement uses probability given that the object of measurement is known to exist.
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 Determinism => why then measure at all?
ii) It is immaterial the existence or absence of the object of measurement prior to measurement; what
matters is the process during measurement in which probabilistic method is used.
iii) The act of measurement enforces the state of the object of measurement. It presumes the object of
measurement exists everywhere simultaneously! in each place with a certain probability function. The
act of measurement makes/enforces the measurement to be described only with one state
corresponding to which a certain probability distribution function is assumed.
Example:
1. Given a typical nuclei are less than 10-14 m in radius, explore if electrons can be present in an atomic
nuclei.
Solution:
For an electron to be confined in a nucleus, the uncertainty in its position may not exceed 10 -14 m. The
corresponding uncertainty in the electrons momentum p is
ℎ 6.63 × 10
Δp ≥ = = 1.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
2𝜋Δx 2𝜋 × 10
i.e
Δp ≥ 1.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
Fig.: Nucleus
Thus, considering the fact that the momentum of an electron must be at least comparable to Δp,
i.e, p = 𝑝 + ∆𝑝 ≈ ∆𝑝 = 1.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
Now, to obtain the corresponding K.E. we need to find its velocity from:
𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑣
𝑣
1−
𝑐
𝑚 1 𝑣 1 1
= 1− = −
𝑃 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑐
Or
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1 1 𝑃𝑐
𝑣= = =
𝑚 1 𝑚 𝑐 +𝑃 𝑚 𝑐 +𝑃
+
𝑃 𝑐 𝑃 𝑐
Thus, for the above electron of P =1 × 10 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
𝑃𝑐 1.1 × 10 × 3 × 10
𝑣= = = 0.9997 𝑐
𝑚 𝑐 +𝑃 (9.11 × 10 × 3 × 10 ) + (1.1 × 10 )
1
𝐸 = (𝑘 − 1)𝑚 𝑐 = ⎛ − 1⎞ 𝑚 𝑐
𝑣
⎝ 1− 𝑐 ⎠
For our electron, the corresponding K.E is
1
𝐸 = − 1 9.11 × 10 × (3 × 10 ) = 3.347 × 10 𝐽 = 20.8956 × 10 𝑒𝑉 = 20.89𝑀𝑒𝑉
√1 − 0.9997
[Alternatively,
1
𝐸 =𝐸−𝑚 𝑐 =⎛ − 1⎞ 𝑚 𝑐 = 40.83𝑚 𝑐 − 𝑚 𝑐
𝑣
⎝ 1−𝑐 ⎠
Thus, since 𝐸 = 40.83𝑚 𝑐 ≫ 𝑚 𝑐 , from the total energy is 𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝑚 𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑐 +𝑃 𝑐
Or 𝐸 ≅ 𝑃𝑐 = 1.1 × 10 × 3 × 10 = 3.3 × 10 𝐽 = 20.63 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ]
This magnitude of K.E. for e indicates a too much excitation confined in the nucleus.
However, electrons even with unstable atoms never have more than a fraction of this energy (as indicated by
experiment).
Thus, electrons can’t be present within the 10 -14 m radius nuclei with this much energy.
This may mean that the nuclear forces or energies (due to protons and neutrons) can’t confine the electron in
any nuclei!
Example 2: How much energy does an electron need to be confined in a hydrogen atom whose radius r = 5 x
10-11 m.
Solution:
The uncertainty in the position of the electron Δx ≈ 5 × 10 𝑚.
Thus,
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ℎ 6.63 × 10
Δp ≥ = = 2.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
2𝜋Δx 2𝜋 × 5 × 10
Considering 𝑝 ≈ Δp and noting
𝑃𝑐 2.11 × 10 𝑐
𝑣= = = 7.72 × 10 𝑐≪𝑐
𝑚 𝑐 +𝑃 (9.11 × 10 × 3 × 10 ) + (2.11 × 10 )
Thus, the motion can be described classically (and not relativistic):

i.e.
. ×
𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑣 = = = = 2.44 × 10 𝐽 = 15.3 𝑒𝑉
. ×
1 1
[E = m v = × 9.11 × 10 × (7.72 × 10 c) = 2.4434 × 10 J = 15.27 eV]
2 2
Uncertainty principle involving energy and time
As outlined earlier, measurement inaccuracies is not limited to position and momentum. Another form of
the uncertainty principle involves energy and time.
Suppose, we wish to measure the energy E emitted during the time interval ∆t in an atomic process in the
form of EM waves.
The limited time available restricts the accuracy with which we can determine the frequency f of the waves.
Fig. Atomic/molecular discharge process

Let us assume the irreducible uncertainty in the number of waves we count in a wave group is one wave.
Since the frequency of the waves under study equals the number of them we count divided by the time
interval, the uncertainty ∆f in our frequency measurement is
1
∆𝑓 =
∆𝑡
The corresponding uncertainty in the energy measurement (energy uncertainty) becomes
∆𝐸 = ℎ∆𝑓 or ∆𝐸∆𝑡 > ℎ
Considering a more realistic calculation
ℎ
∆𝐸∆𝑡 ≥
2𝜋
Example:
Consider the radiation of light (photons) from an excited atom which diverts off its excess energy by
emitting photons of a characteristic frequency.
__________________________________________________________________________ Page 14 of 15
If the average period that elapses between the excitation of the atom and the time it radiates is 10 -8sec,
determine the uncertainty in the emitted photon’s frequency.
Solution
∆𝐸
∆𝑓 =
ℎ
But,
ℎ 6.63 × 10
∆𝐸 ≥
= = 1.1 × 10 𝐽
2𝜋∆𝑡 2𝜋 × 10
Therefore, noting the measured frequency is = 𝑓 ± ∆𝑓 , this frequency of the light is uncertain by
∆𝐸 1.1 × 10
∆𝑓 = = = 1.6 × 10 𝐻𝑧
ℎ 6.63 × 10
×
For instance, a 700nm light has 𝑓 = = = 0.43 × 10 𝐻𝑧
×
∆ . ×
and = = 3.72 × 10 %
. ×
Exercise:
Calculate the momentum uncertainty of
a) A tennis ball constituted to be in a fence enclosure of length 35m surrounding the court.
b) An electron within the smallest radius of a hydrogen atom of radius r = 0.53 x 10 -10m.
__________________________________________________________________________ Page 15 of 15

CH 3 The Wave Properties of Particles

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CH 3 The Wave Properties of Particles

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Chapter 3: The Wave Properties of Particles

Chapter 3: The Wave Properties of Particles

3.2. Wave Motion

3.3. Wave (phase) and group velocities of a wave

3.4. The wave function Ψ and probability

3.5. The uncertainty principle

3.1. de Broglie matter wave

Since for a photon 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 = ℎ𝑓 ⇒ 𝑝 = =

where 𝑚 = is the relativistic mass of the particle.

We note the larger p is the shorter the wavelength.

Determine the de Broglie wavelength of a 1.0 eV electron.

The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is 𝜆 =

[𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − would also give us the same velocity.! ]

 small but still greater than that of x-ray and

Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of

a. A rock of mass 2 kg moving at a speed of 5 m/s

3.2 Wave Motion

𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 …..3.3

Now since 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

We define the propagation constant k as:

where k is equal to the number of radians corresponding to a wave train 1 m long.

𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) …. 3.5

For example, 𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡), 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡), 𝑒 ( ± )

3.3. Wave (phase) and group velocities of a wave

𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠[(𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘)𝑥]

The resultant displacement 𝜓 at any time t and any position x is

and noting the identities:

cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)

Since 𝑑𝜔 ≪ 𝜔 and 𝑑𝑘 ≪ 𝑘, then 2𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔 ≈ 2𝜔 and 2𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘 ≈ 2𝑘

𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡− 𝑥 ……. 3.6

The effect of the modulation is to produce successive (periodic) wave groups.

The wave (phase) velocity from Eqn 3.6 is [𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 = 𝜆 = = ]

while the group velocity is

2𝜋𝑓ℎ 2𝜋𝑚𝑐 2𝜋𝑚 𝑐

Clearly thus, v and 𝑣 are never equal for a moving body.

𝑣 of de Broglie waves has no simple physical significance in itself.

i.e 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 from which 𝜔 − 𝑘 =0

Finally the group velocity associated with the moving body is

The group velocity is related to the phase velocity by : [Noting 𝑣 = ]

An example is an EM wave in vacuum.

Water wave is a good example of waves in dispersive media (𝑣 ≠ 𝑣 ).

3.4. The wave function Ψ (read as psi) and probability

𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)| 𝑑𝑥

In general, for a particle in a volume V enclosing the point x,y,z at time t,

Ψ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)Ψ ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1 = p(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

This is called the condition of normalization of the wave function.

3.5. The uncertainty principle

 position x & momentum p,

𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠[(𝜔 + Δ𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + Δ𝑘)𝑥]

The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of momentum p is λ =

and the corresponding propagation constant

Uncertainty ∆k produces uncertainty

in the particle’s momentum.

and a more realistic approach would give the uncertainty principle:

The principle states that

∆𝑥 ↓→ ∆𝑝 ↑→ 𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

∆𝑥 ↑→ ∆𝑝 ↓→ 𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

∆𝑥 ↓→ ∆𝑝 ↑→ 𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

The uncertainty principle can be derived in a variety of ways.

∆p = …..* (i.e a photon imparts all its momentum to electron)

Substitute ∆x = λ in ∆p = which would give us the more realistic uncertainty principle: