Turbomachinery

MEng 4151
Contents
• BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TURBOMACHINERY
• GAS AND STEAM TURBINES
• AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS
• CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS, FANS AND BLOWERS
• DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODEL STUDIES
• PUMPS
• HYDRAULIC TURBINES
Pre-requisite
Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
References
Dixon (Fourth and Fifth Edition)
Grant Ingram
White (Fluid Mechanics)
Evaluation Scheme
oTests (20 %)
oAssignments (20 %)
oProjects (20 %)
oFinal Exam (40 %)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
TURBOMACHINES
Contents:
• Comparison between positive displacement machines with
turbomachines.
• Energy equation
• Euler’s equation of energy transfer
• Work and efficiencies in turbines and compressors.
Comparison between positive displacement
machines with turbomachines
• Positive displacement machines are those in which fluid is moved as a
result of displacement of the boundary (e.g.:- Piston).
• A Turbomachine is a device that exchanges energy with a fluid using
continuously flowing fluid and rotating blades.
Applications
• Electricity generation (Hydro Turbines, Steam and Gas Turbines, Wind
Turbines)
• Jet engine (Multi-stage Turbines and Multi-stage Compressors coupled)
• Industrial and miscellaneous service (Air Compressors in Pneumatic
systems, pumps in hydraulic and cooling systems and also in steam
generating cycle)
• HVAC (Pumps, blowers, fans)
• Refrigerators (centrifugal compressor)
• Agriculture (pumps)
• Automobiles (Radiator i.e air fan, Turbocharger i.e energy recovery unit)
• Propellers in ships
Components of A simple turbomachine
• Rotor: It is the main component and consists of the circumferentially
arrayed blades or buckets around a circular disc, a hub or a shaft.
• Stator: It is also called guide vane which directs the flow into the
stator blades for maximum utilization of the fluid energy.
• Casing: It is the component of many turbo machines which distributes
the flow through each rotor blades. It allows flow to enter and leave
the turbomachine after extracting energy and also prevents losses as
a result of splash out flow and leakage.
• Shaft: It transmit energy between the turbomachine and another
coupled system like a motor or generator.
Classification of Turbomachines
• Based on the direction of energy flow
- Machines that extract energy from the fluid are generally termed as Turbines.
- Machines that delivers energy to the fluid are pump, compressor, fan and blower.
• Based on the nature of fluids used (either liquid or gas)
- Liquid operated turbomachines: Water turbines and pumps.
- Gas operated turbomachines: Compressors, Steam turbines, Gas turbines, Wind
turbine Blower and fan.
• Based on the flow direction
- Axial flow turbomachines: In this case the fluid flow is much like parallel to or
along the axis of rotation or shaft alignment.
- Radial flow turbomachines: In this case the fluid flow is much of radially outward
from or inward to the center of the rotor.
- Mixed flow turbomachines: In this case the flow is characterized by both axial and
radial effects.
 Energy extracting
devices

E
Energy delivering
devices

Radial Axial Mixed

Energy Equation
• The Reynolds transport theorem for energy equation is given by
𝜕 1 1
𝑄 − 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑣 = 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑢 + 2 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌𝑑Ω + 𝐶𝑆
ℎ + 2 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 𝜌 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
• Assumption
- Steady flow across the turbomachine blade control volume.
- elevation change is neglected
- Rate of heat flow and viscous work are fairly negligible
compared to the shaft work
• Equation reduces to
1 2 1 2
𝑊𝑠 = [𝑚 (ℎ + 𝑉 )] 𝑖𝑛 −[𝑚 (ℎ + 𝑉 )] 𝑜𝑢𝑡
2 2
• The specific shaft work is
𝑊𝑠 1 2 1 2
𝑤= = ℎ1 + 𝑉1 − ℎ2 + 𝑉
𝑚 2 2 2
Stagnation Enthalpy
• Stagnation enthalpy is the enthalpy attained by the working fluid in
turbomachine when it is brought to rest adiabatically or isentropically.
1 2
ℎ0 = ℎ + 𝑉
2
𝑤 = ℎ01 − ℎ02
 Turbine Compressor

𝑉 2 /2
𝑉 2 /2

ℎ ℎ ℎ0
ℎ0
ℎ
ℎ

𝑠 𝑠
Energy equation from the torque (Euler’s Equation)
• The angular momentum equation of the Reynolds transport theorem for a non
deformable CV is given by
𝑑𝐻0 𝜕
= 𝑀0 = 𝑟 × 𝑉 𝜌 𝑑Ω + 𝐶𝑆 𝑟 × 𝑉 𝜌 (𝑉. 𝑛)𝑑A
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑀0 = 𝑇 = (𝑟 × 𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑟 × 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚[ 𝑟 × 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑟 × 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 ]
• The cross product implies the radius is multiplied by the component of the velocity
perpendicular to the radius, which is the tangential velocity.
𝑇 = 𝑚(𝑟2 𝑣2𝜃 − 𝑟1 𝑣1𝜃 )
This is the torque applied on or by the shaft.
• The resulting power is simply the product of the torque and the angular velocity of the
turbomachine.
𝑃 = 𝑚𝜔(𝑟2 𝑣2𝜃 − 𝑟1 𝑣1𝜃 )
 Differential volume element
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑Ω 𝑑Ω = 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 crossing a surface boundary

Surface
𝑑𝑚 Boundary

𝑉𝜃
𝑑𝐴
𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝑆

𝑟 𝑉𝑟 𝑉 𝑉
Work and Isentropic efficiency
• Thermodynamically, interpretation of efficiency
𝑤𝑇 = ℎ01 − ℎ02 𝑤𝐶 = ℎ02 − ℎ01
• Literally efficiency is defined as the ratio of output work to input
work.
𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑤𝑖𝑛
• Loss in thermodynamic sense is irreversibility that gives rise to change
in entropy. Therefore, isentropic efficiency compares the irreversible
process to the reversible one.
ℎ01 −ℎ02 𝑤𝑇 ℎ02𝑠 −ℎ01 ℎ02𝑠 −ℎ01
𝜂𝑖𝑇 = = 𝜂𝑖𝐶 = =
ℎ01 −ℎ02𝑠 ℎ01 −ℎ02𝑠 ℎ02 −ℎ01 𝑤𝐶
For liquids like water the enthalpy is directly referred from thermodynamic table with the
knowledge of the state temperature and pressure as ℎ = ℎ@𝑇,𝑃
• In case of gas compression in compressors and gas expansion in gas
turbines, polytropic state relation is defined as: 𝑃𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑛
= , where 𝑛 is termed as polytropic index and is
𝑃1 𝑉2
dependent on the process.
• For isothermal process (𝑛 = 1)
𝐶𝑃
• For isentropic process (𝑛 = 𝛾), where 𝛾 =
𝐶𝑉
• Ideal gas approximation can be fairly applied to compressors and gas
turbines which involves either high temperature or pressure or both.
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
• Substituting 𝑣 from the ideal gas equation into the polytropic state relation
𝑅𝑇 𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃
𝑛
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑛−1
=
𝑃1 𝑇1
• For isentropic process
𝛾−1
𝑇2𝑠 𝑃2 𝛾
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
• Employing ideal gas approximation
ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 or 𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝛾−1
𝑃02 𝛾
ℎ01 − ℎ02𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01 − 𝑇02𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01 −1
𝑃01
ℎ01 −ℎ02 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01 −𝑇02 𝑇01 −𝑇02 1−(𝑇02 /𝑇01 ) 1−(𝑇02 /𝑇01 )
• 𝜂𝑖𝑇 = = = = = 𝛾−1
ℎ01 −ℎ02𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01 −𝑇02𝑠 𝑇01 −𝑇02𝑠 1−(𝑇02𝑠 /𝑇01 ) 𝑃
1− 02 𝛾
𝑃01
𝛾−1
𝑇02𝑠 𝑃02 𝛾
ℎ02𝑠 −ℎ01 𝐶𝑝 𝑇02𝑠 −𝑇01 𝑇02𝑠 −𝑇01 −1 −1
𝑇01 𝑃01
• 𝜂𝑖𝐶 = = = = 𝑇02 = 𝑇02
ℎ02 −ℎ01 𝐶𝑝 𝑇02− 𝑇01 𝑇02 −𝑇01 −1 −1
𝑇01 𝑇01
Infinitesimal Stages efficiency
Infinitesimal stage efficiency
Ideal gas Consideration
• The polytropic efficiency for an infinitesimal compressor stage is
𝑑ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝜂𝑃 = = 0 𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 Ideal gas
𝑑ℎ 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
• For isentropic process 𝑑ℎ𝑖𝑠 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃 = 𝑣𝑑𝑃
• Substituting,
(𝑅𝑇/𝑃)𝑑𝑃 𝑅 𝑇 𝑑𝑃
𝜂𝑃 = =
𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 𝐶𝑃 𝑃 𝑑𝑇
• Rearranging,
𝑑𝑇 1 𝑅 𝑑𝑃
=
𝑇 𝜂𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝑃
• Integrating both sides,
1 𝑅
ln 𝑇 = ln 𝑃
𝜂𝑃 𝐶𝑃
 𝑅 𝐶𝑝 −𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑝 /𝐶𝑣 −1 𝛾−1
= = = 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣
𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃 /𝐶𝑣 𝛾
• Again substituting,
1 𝛾−1
ln 𝑇 = ln 𝑃
𝜂𝑃 𝛾
• Between two points
1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝜂𝑃 𝛾
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
• Derive the polytropic efficiency for infinitesimal turbine stages
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝜂𝑃 𝛾
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
 2 1
2𝑠 𝐴
C𝑠
𝐶 𝐴𝑠
𝐵
ℎ B𝑠
𝐵 ℎ 𝐵𝑠 𝐶
𝐴𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝐴
2
1 2𝑠

𝑆 𝑆
ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1 < ℎ𝐶𝑠 − ℎ1 + ℎ𝐵𝑠 − ℎ𝐴 + ℎ𝐶𝑠 − ℎ𝐵 + ⋯ ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 < ℎ1 − ℎ𝐴𝑠 + ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵𝑠 + ℎ𝐵 − ℎ𝐶𝑠 + ⋯
0 0
𝜂𝑖𝐶 < 𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑖𝑇 > 𝜂𝑃
Reheat factor
• It applies for steam turbines since vapor do not obey the ideal gas
relations.
𝑅𝐻 = [ ℎ1 − ℎ𝐴𝑠 + ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵𝑠 + ℎ𝐵 − ℎ𝐶𝑠 + ⋯ )]/(ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 )
𝑅𝐻 = ( ∆ℎ𝑖𝑠 )/ (ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 )
ℎ1 −ℎ2 ℎ1 −ℎ2 ∆ℎ𝑖𝑠
𝜂𝑡 = = × = 𝜂𝑃 × 𝑅𝐻
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠 ∆ℎ𝑖𝑠 ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠

When the difference between inlet and exit velocities are negligible
Conservation of mass
• For steady flow through a control volume of a system inlet mass flow
rate is equal to exit mass flow rate .
𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑥1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉𝑥2
𝜋
• Area for axial flow : 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑚 𝑏 or 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = (𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )
4
• Area for radial flow : 𝐴1 = 2𝜋𝑟1 ℎ and 𝐴2 = 2𝜋𝑟2 ℎ
Radial Axial
Velocity Triangles for Stages
• A stage is a combination of a stator and rotor blades either in
compressor or turbine. It can be a single stage or multi stages.
• Since most turbomachines are assumed to be steady flow systems, the
parameters of interest are the ones on the surface boundaries (inlet and
exit boundaries) of the CV. So we are going to deal with velocity triangles
at the inlet and exit of the rotor and stator blades of a stage.
Example
Example
Example
Example
Solution
Adiabatic flow through Nozzles and Diffusers
• Nozzles and diffusers are important parts of a turbomachine. Nozzles
usually comes at the entrance of the turbomachine where diffuser is
placed at the exit side.
• Stator blades or guide vanes also form a nozzle flow.
• During the adiabatic expansion and compression, the stagnation
enthalpies are the same at inlet and exit.
• For irreversible process where losses are accounted, dimensionless
loss coefficients are defined for nozzles and diffusers.
1 2
𝑐2 ℎ01 − ℎ2 Nozzle loss 1 2
𝜂𝑁 = 2 = coefficient 𝜁𝑁 = (ℎ2 − ℎ2𝑠 )/ 𝑐2
1 2 ℎ 01 − ℎ2𝑠 2
𝑐2𝑠
2 Enthalpy loss
coefficient
 Algebraic manipulation of the above loss coefficient equations yields
1 Velocity 𝐾𝑁 = 𝐶2 /𝐶2𝑠
𝜂𝑁 = = 𝐾𝑁 2 coefficient
1 + 𝜁𝑁

Adiabatic expansion in nozzles Adiabatic compression in diffusers

• Diffuser efficiency

• Fluid flows in most turbomachines are subsonic (have a Mach number

value below 1), so that compressibility effect can be neglected.

• To define the diffuser loss coefficient entirely by pressure terms

• Other alternative diffuser performance parameters are:
- Pressure rise coefficient

- Total pressure recovery factor

Optimum diffuser divergence angle is 7 deg.