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Intelligence

Definition.
• Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing
conditions (Wagnon: 1937)
• Intelligence involves 1. The capacity to learn from experience and 2. The ability
to adapt to the surrounding environment.
• Intelligence may be regarded as a sort of mental energy (in the form of mental or
cognitive abilities) available with an individual to enable him to handle his environment
in terms of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as possible

Theories of Intelligence

Classical Theories
• Unitary theory
• Multifactor theory of E.L. Thorndike
• Spearman's two factor theory
• Group factor theory
• Vernon's Hierarchical theory
• Guilford’s model of intellect

Recent Theories
Examples:
• Information processing theories.
• Multiple Intelligence theory of Gardner
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligence

Unitary theory of Intelligence

• Intelligence consists of one factor namely a fund of intellectual competence,
which is universal for all the activities of the individual. (if one is bright in some area, he
has the possibility to be bright in any area- eg. mathematics,…..music)
 This theory has been rejected experimentally.

Multifactor Theory
• This theory considers intelligence as a combination of numerous separate
elements or factors, each one being a minute element of one ability.
Chief proponent: E.L. Thorndike.
• So there is no general factor. (g). But only highly independent specific abilities
meant for different tasks.
 Opposite of the first, namely the unitary theory. But experimentally, this theory has
gained value as authors have found that there are some common factors of intelligence.
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Spearman’s Two Factor Theory

• Every different intellectual activity involves a general factor called ‘g’, which is
shared with all intellectual activities and a specific factor ‘s’ which it shares with none. (g
= general intelligence; s = specific intelligence). He believed that ‘g’ to be the result of
‘mental energy’.
• So the total ability of an individual is
g + s1+s2+s3+…………= A.
 Many Psychologists believe that this theory is essentially true.

Group factor theory

• L.L. Thurstone, an American psychologist, while working on a test of primary
mental abilities, came to the conclusion that certain mental operations have in common a
primary factor which gives them psychological and functional unity and which
differentiates them from other mental operations.
The Factors are:
• Verbal factor (V)
• Spatial factor (S)
• Numerical factor (N)
• Memory factor (M)
• Word fluency factor (W)
• Inductive Reasoning Factor (RI)
• Deductive Reasoning Factor(RD)
• Perceptual Factor (P)
• Problem Solving Factor (PS)

Hierarchical Theories
Raymond Catell
• He proposed that general intelligence comprises two major sub-factors, :-
• Fluid intelligence: speed and accuracy of abstract reasoning, especially for novel
problems. (process)
• Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge and vocabulary. (Storing)

• Philip E. Vernon (1971):

Vernon made a general division between verbal-educational abilities (Ved) and
practical-mechanical –spatial-physical abilities (KM). These major factors are divided
into minor factors and they in turn are divided into specific factors.
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Guilford’s model of Intelligence

• Guilford and his colleagues, proposed that every mental process or intellectual
activity can be described in terms of three different basic dimensions or parameters
known as Operations-the act of thinking (5); contents- the terms in which we think (4)
(words and symbols ); and products – the ideas we come up with (6).
• Each dimension is further divided into different factors

Information Processing Models of Intelligence

• Information processing theorists are interested in studying how people mentally
manipulate what they learn and know about the world.
• Speed and accuracy are the important measures.
• Verbal, spatial and attentional skills & problem solving abilities are important.

Speed
(process timing theories)
• Inspection time: According to Ted Nettlebeck, the length of time for the
presentation of the target stimulus after which the participant still responds with at least
90% accuracy in indicating the side on which the shorter line appeared.

Reaction Time
• Arthur Jensen: intelligence can be understood in terms of speed of neural
conduction, that is smarter person’s neural circuits conduct information faster.
• Experiment: putting off the light that appear at different places with the right
switch. (the speed is calculated)

Working memory
• Some psychologists suggested that the ability to store and manipulate information
in working memory may be an important aspect of intelligence.
• Eg. problems were shown to be solved, each problem was followed by a word.
eg. (3x5)-6=7? TABLE.
After solving 2 to six problems, the participants were asked to recall the words that
followed the problem. Higher recall correlated with higher IQ.
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Multiple Intelligences of Howard Gardner

• Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not just a single, unitary construct.
He speaks of eight intelligences. Each is a separate system of functioning, although these
systems can interact to produce what we see as intelligent performance.
• This concept is not factorial. He gives different evidences for this-like potential
isolation by brain damage, existence of exceptional individuals, distinctive
developmental history, core operations etc.

• Linguistic Intelligence
• Logical Intelligence
• Spatial Intelligence
• Musical Intelligence
• Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
• Interpersonal Intelligence
• Intrapersonal Intelligence
• Naturalist Intelligence (understanding patterns in nature)

Tri-archic model of intelligence

• Sternberg emphasized the extent to which different aspects of intelligence work
together. According to him intelligence comprises three aspects: related to 1. Internal
world (componential), 2. To experience (experiential), 3. External world (contextual).

Individual Differences

• IQ varies. Majority are at the average and a few very bright and a few very dull.
(normal curve)
• As the age increases, I.Q increases. IQ comes to the zenith by the age of 16 to 20.
But horizontal growth continues- accumulation of knowledge and skills.
• Sex differences do not contribute to IQ differences. But there are biased authors
• Culture, caste, race do not contribute to IQ differences. But there are biased
authors.
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• Environment plays a big role in determining the IQ. Enriched environment

enhances IQ.

Improving Intelligence

• “Human intelligence is highly malleable- it can be shaped and even increased

through various kind of interventions” Sternberg 2003. Though intelligence is genetic, it
is environmentally malleable.

An enriched home environment:

• emotional and verbal responsivity of the primary caregiver, avoidance of
restrictions and punishments, appropriate play materials, organization of physical
environment, proper activity schedule, and opportunity for daily stimulations.

Socio-economic factors:
Though often in the past many groups of people have been considered inferior members
of the social order (caste, race, tribals, slum dwellers and poverty stricken etc.), whose
IQ also was lower than that of others.
But, once they have been given chances equal to that of those considered higher in the
social order, they too do well in IQ tests on par with those considered high in the
social order. Thus socio-economic factors, because it denies opportunities, influence
IQ.

Motivation:
people’s motivation and training can profoundly affect their IQ according to Cllier, 1994,
and Sternberg &Ruzgis, 1994.

Heredity:
• Genetic inheritance may set some kind of upper limit on how intelligent a person
may become. But expression of any attribute has its potential range. So within such
range, we can develop intelligence….for normally, people do not reach their potential
highest limit. There will always be ample room for development.
Help
• ultimately, if we help persons to better perceive, learn, remember, represent
information, reason , decide and solve problems, we can help develop their intelligence.
(Sternberg), because human cognition (which involve above skills) forms the core of
intelligence.

Assessment of Intelligence
Assessment or Test
• Assessment is preferred as measurement of intelligence is not possible, in the
same way as we use the term measurement in measuring a piece of cloth or temperature
of our body.
• Intelligence is not a thing, it is an idea, an abstraction.
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• there are no absolute scales. the norms used compare the place of an individual
with the scores of a big population.

History
• Francis Galton (1822-1911) believed that intelligence is a function of
psychophysical abilities. He had a laboratory to test these abilities. (weight
discrimination, pitch sensitivity, etc.) but in the long run, this method failed to predict
intelligent performance.

Alfred Binet
• The French king asked Binet to devise a method to distinguish normal from
mentally retarded learners. Binet and his collaborator Simon, developed a method.
• their basic ideas was that judgement is the basic expression of intelligence.
• to measure intelligent thought (mental judgement), they included three elements,
-direction, adaptation and criticism.
• direction = knowing what has to be done and how to do it.
• adaptation = customising strategies to finish a task according to situation and
monitoring
• criticism = your ability to critique your own abilities and thought.

William Stern (1912)

• William Stern brought out the formula for calculating the intelligence of people of
all chronological ages, which he called Intelligence Quotient.
• a ratio of mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100.
• IQ = (MA/CA)100.

Bell curve or normal curve:

Nowadays instead of presenting IQ scores in numbers only, psychologists present it by
the IQ normal curve. This representation expresses the score of the person in comparison
to universal average. (the universal average being 100).

Types of IQ tests
From administrative point of view
• Individual Tests
• Group Tests.
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From the form of the tests point of view

• Verbal tests or language tests
• Non-verbal tests

Verbal tests
• Language is used not only for giving instructions, but also in the tests.
• Respondents are to use language in answering tests, use paper and pencil
 The test content is loaded with verbal material.

Non-verbal tests
• language is used only for instructions.
• no language is used in the content of the test, nor do the respondent use language
to respond to the questions.
• most of the non-verbal test are performance tests when conducted in groups.
• there are also individual non verbal tests.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)

• Lewis Terman of Stanford University developed on the Binet-Simon test. This
test is widely used now.
• there are four major parts in the test, namely, Verbal reasoning, Quantitative
reasoning, Figural/abstract reasoning and Short-term Memory.

Verbal reasoning.
• Vocabulary: Define the meaning of a word. eg. what does the world diligent mean?
• Comprehension: show an understanding of why the world works as it does. eg. why
do people sometimes borrow money?
• Absurdities: Identify the odd or absurd feature of a picture: (wind blowing from one
side and the tree swaying towards the same side)
• Verbal relations: tell how three of four items are similar to one another yet different
from the fourth item. ( apple, banana, orange and mug)

Quantitative Reasoning
• Number series: complete a series of numbers (1,3,5,7,9, ?)
• Quantitative: Solve simple arithmetic –word problems eg. if Maria has six apples,
and she wants to divide them evenly among herself and her two friends, how many apples
will she give to each friend.

Figural/ abstract reasoning.

• Figure out a puzzle in which the test-taker must combine pieces representing parts
of geometric shapes, fitting them together to form a particular geometric shape.
Short term memory
• memory for sentences: Listen to a sentence and then repeat it back exactly as the
examiner said it.
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• memory for digits: listen to a series of digits and then repeat the numbers either
forward and backward.
• Memory for objects: watch the examiner point to a series of objects in a picture,
and then point to the same objects in exactly the same sequence, as the examiner did.

Wechsler Intelligence Scales.

there are three:
• WAIS-III.: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (third edition)
• WISC-III : Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (third edition).
• WPPSI : Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence.

Caution
• IQ tests are often Culture biased.
(for Indian situations, Dr. C.M. Bhatia has developed an IQ test).
• IQ measures predict only less than 50% of the successful performance.
• measures like Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ) and Social intelligence
Quotient (SQ) needs to be combined to get higher rate of predictability.

Classifications based on IQ
• general:
<70 mentally defectives
70-75 borderline (feeble minded)
75-90 Dull and Backward.
90-95 Low average
95-105 Average
105-125 Superior
125-140 very superior
>140 Genius.

Aptitudes

Definitions for Aptitude

• Freeman: An aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of an
individual’s capacity to acquire (with training) some specific knowledge, skill or set of
organized responses, such as the ability to speak a language, to become a musician, and
to do mechanical work.
M.Asch: the ability to profit readily from instruction, training or experiences in a defined
area of performance. (apt = inclination)

Hereditary or environment or learning

• There is a possibility for some hereditary factor. eg. musical ability.
• But the environment ( the company of musicians) and even learning and hard
work can develop certain aptitudes.
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• so it is safe to include all the three, and especially, the possibility of learning is
important pedagogically.

Aptitude, ability and achievement.

• Aptitudes are potentialities, internal dispositions, waiting for a spark to flame.
(future oriented)
• Present ability is therefore different from aptitude. (present)
• Achievement: is past oriented. It looks backwards and points out what a person
has learned or achieved.

Intelligence and aptitude

• Intelligence tests are for general mental abilities whereas aptitude tests are for
specific abilities.
• So to predict success in a particular field, one needs know one’s aptitudes. eg. in
vocational guidance.

Aptitude and Interest

• A person may be interested in an area of work, but may not have the aptitude.
• Interest happens as a result of some other temptation or persuasion like ambitions,
getting an easy job, a friend studying with him etc.
• In other cases, some may have aptitude, but may not show any interest in an
area...may be because some bad experience ( a person is afraid of blood, as she saw a
cruel accident)

Measuring aptitudes.

There are various aptitude tests.

• Mechanical (Minnesota mechanical Assembly test)
• Musical (pitch, time, rhythm, tonal memory etc. )
• Art judgement (the Meier Art Judgement test)
• Professional aptitude tests
• Scholastic aptitude tests (Moss Scholastic Aptitude test for medical students)
• Clerical aptitudes tests. Perceptual ability, intellectual ability, motor ability etc. (eg.
Detroit Clerical Aptitude Examination, or Minnesota vocational test for clerical
workers)

Comprehensive testing
• DAT : Differential Aptitude Test. (from: Psychological Association of US)
• General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) (from: Employment Service Bureau of
US)

Uses of Aptitude testing

• Personal understanding.
• For guidance and counselling services
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• Educational and vocational guidance and selection

• Employment selection
• Personnel management.