Metallurgy For Non Metallurgist - Module-1

Energising a Brighter Tomorrow
Metallurgy
For Non Metallurgist
MODULE-I: Science & Engineering
PRESENTER: AJAY KUMAR SHARMA

METALLURGY ?
The science and technology of

extracting metals from their
natural sources and preparing
them for practical use
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HMEL A GREAT PLACE TO WORK
2
MATERIALS
and its
SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
UNDERSTANDING
 What is Engineering Materials

 Materials Science & Engineering
 Universe & Materials
 Significance of Materials
 Why Study Materials
 Materials & Metallurgy
WHAT IS ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 Materials constitute foundation of technology. The
history of human civilization evolved from the Stone age
to Bronze Age, Iron age , Steel age (1850 AD) and to the
Space age (contemporaneous with Electronic age).
 Each age is marked by the advent of certain materials.
Iron sometimes referred as democratic material.
 Substances of which something is composed or made is
called Materials. Substances which are
useful in the field of engineering are
called Engineering materials.

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Materials Science & Engineering
• There are four essential elements in materials science
and engineering.
 Processing/Synthesis; Structure/Composition; Properties;
Performance/Application.
• STRUCTURE depend on PROCESSING
• PERFORMANCE depends on PROPERTIES

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Materials Science & Engineering
• To understand subdivide into “Materials
Science” and “Materials Engineering”.
• MATERIALS SCIENCE involves investigating the
relationship that exists between the structures and
properties of materials.
• MATERIALS ENGINEERING is on the basis of these
structure-property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce a
predominant properties

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UNIVERSE & MATERIALS

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SIGNIFIACANCE of MATERIALS
Without Materials,
there is no Engineering

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SIGNIFIACANCE of MATERIALS

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WHY STUDY MATERIALS
• To be able to select a material for a given use based on
considerations of cost and performance.
• To understand the limits of materials and the change of
their properties with use.
• A particular material is selected is on the basis of
following considerations:
 Material Properties (Mechanical/Physical/Chemical/Manufacturing).
 Cost of material.
 Availability of material (desired shape and size and quantity) & reliability
of supply.
 Service in life of material (material wear & corrosion etc.).

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MATERIALS and METALLURGY
MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
Science of METALLURGY METALLURGY
 Thermodynamics  Kinetics
PHYSICAL MECHANICAL ELECTRO- TECHNOLOGICAL

CHEMICAL
• Extractive
• Structure • Deformation • Corrosion • Casting
• Physical Behaviour • Metal Forming
Properties • Welding
• Powder Metallurgy
• Machining

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CLASSIFICATION of MATERIALS
TYPES OF MATERIALS
 Based on State
 Based on Band Structure
 Based on Structure
 Natural / Man made Materials
 Common Types of Engineering Materials
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
• Based on state (phase) a given material can be Gas, Liquid or
Solid.
• Based on Band Structure we can classify materials into Metals,
Semi-metals, Semiconductors and Insulators.
• Based on Structure (arrangement of atoms/molecules/ions)
materials can be Crystalline or Amorphous.
• Crystalline materials containing one or many crystals. In
each crystal, atoms or ions show a long range periodic
arrangement. All metals and alloys are crystalline materials.
• Amorphous materials that do not have regular, periodic

arrangement of atoms. Glass is an amorphous material.

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TYPES of ENGINERING MATERIALS
• Natural Materials are Stone, Clay, Leather, Wood, Sand. Metals &
alloys, Ceramics, Polymers, Composites are Man Made Materials.
• Common types of Engineering Materials are Metals, Ceramics,
Polymers and various types of composites.
• The type of atomic entities (ion, molecule etc.) differ from one
class to another, which in turn gives each class a broad ‘flavour’
of properties. Bonding and structure are key
factors in determining the
 Like metals are usually ductile and ceramics are usually hard & brittle.
properties of materials
 Polymers have a poor tolerance to heat, while ceramics can withstand high temperatures.
 Metals are opaque (in bulk), while silicate glasses are transparent/translucent.
 Metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity, while ceramics are poor in this
aspect.
 If you heat semi-conductors their electrical conductivity will increase, while for metals it
will decrease.
 Ceramics are more resistant to harsh environments as compared to Metals

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TYPES of ENGINERING MATERIALS

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COMMON ENGINERING MATERIALS

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PROPERTIES of MATERIALS
BASICS & TYPE
 Important Properties of Materials

 The Materials Tetrahedron
 What determines the Materials Properties?
 Structure/Crystal Structure
 Grain/Microstructure
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 Mechanical properties (Elasticity/Ductility, Strength, Hardness,
Toughness, Fatigue , Creep)
 Electrical properties (electrical conductivity, resistivity)

 Dielectric properties (capacitance, Piezoectric properties etc.)
 Magnetic properties (Paramagnetic/Diamagnetic/Ferromagnetic)
 Optical properties(Refractive Index, Absorption/Reflection transmission)
 Corrosion properties (Resistance in corrosive environment)
 Biological properties (bio-compatibility)

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Materials Tetrahedron
The broad goal of Materials Science & Engineering is to

understand and ‘engineer’ this tetrahedron

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Materials Tetrahedron
• When a certain performance is expected from a component
(and hence the material constituting the same), the
‘expectation’ is put forth as a set of properties.
• The material is synthesized and further made into a
component by a set of processing methods.
• The structure (at various lengthscales) is determined by
this processing.
• The structure in turn determines the properties, which will
dictate the performance of the component.
• Hence each of these aspects is dependent on the others.

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What determines Materials Properties?
• Properties of a material are determined by two important
characteristics:
 Atomic structure
(The way atoms, ions, molecules arranged in the
material).
 Electromagnetic structure – the bonding character.
Atomic structure
Properties influenced by
Electromagnetic structure
(Bonding characteristics)

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• Structure could imply two types of structure:
 Crystal structure
 Electromagnetic structure
• There are microstructure ‘sensitive’ properties (often called structure sensitive
properties) and microstructure insensitive properties (note the word is
sensitive and not dependent).
• Microstructure ‘sensitive’ properties → Yield stress, hardness, Magnetic
coercivity etc.
• Microstructure insensitive properties → Density, Elastic modulus.
• Electronic interactions are responsible for most the material properties.

Electronic
• Hence to understand the properties one has to keep in focus. Interactions
 Atomic structure.
 Electromagnetic structure/Bonding.
Bonding Structure
 Microstructure
.
Weak Interactions Strong Interactions
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STRUCTURE
• The structure of a material relates to the arrangement of its
internal components at various lengthscales.

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CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
• CRYSTAL STRUCTURE = LATTICE + BASIS (Motif)
• Lattice : “It is an infinite array of points in space
(1D/2D/3D) in which every point has surroundings
identical to every other point in the array“.
• Basis (Motif) : “Typically an atom or a group of atoms
associated with each lattice point”.
• Lattice The underlying periodicity of the crystal.
• Basis Entity associated with each lattice points.

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CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
• When atoms are placed at lattice points, it is called CRYSTAL.
• CRYSTAL – Atoms arranged in a periodic array.
• When we show BASIS (MOTIF) by a point in a crystalline state

solid we get a 3D array of points called LATTICE

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CRYSTALS
 Crystals are classified into two types.
1) Poly crystal
2) Single crystal
 Poly Crystal: In this type of crystal periodicity is not
maintained throughout the body.
 Single Crystal: In this type of crystal periodicity is
maintained throughout the body.

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UNIT CELL
Fundamental block or smallest

geometrical object which repeats
periodically in lattice
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UNIT CELL
 Atoms or group of atoms forming a building block
of the smallest acceptable size of the whole
volume of a crystal is defined as a unit cell ".
 A Unit Cell is a minimum volume cell of a crystal

structure with translational symmetry in (2D/3D/
other) space.
 A single crystal can have many unit cells.
A Crystal can be characterized by the

geometry of its Unit Cell.
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TYPICAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Characterized by UNIT CELL
• Four relatively simple crystal structures are found for

most of the common metals.
a) Simple Cubic (SC) – rare, only Polonium (Po) has this
b) Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
c) Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
d) Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
• These simple crystal structures are understood by;

 Number of atoms per Unit Cell (n)
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
 Closed packed directions
 Co-ordination Number (nearest neighbours)
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SIMPLE CUBIC (SC)
Rare due to poor packing
• Number of atoms per unit cell = 8(1/8)= 1 atom
• Co-ordination # (nearest neighbours) = 6
• Close-packed directions = Cube Edge
• Atomic Packing Factor = 0.54

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FACE CENTERED CUBIC (FCC)
Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag, Fe (γ)
• Number of atoms per unit cell = 4*

*4 atoms/unit cell: 8 corners x 1/8 + 6 face x 1/2
• Co-ordination # = 12
• Close-packed directions = Face Diagonal
All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded

differently only for ease of viewing.

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BODY CENTERED CUBIC (BCC)
Cr, W, Fe (α), Ta, Mo

*2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8
• Co-ordination # =8
• Close-packed directions = Cube Diagonal
All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded

differently only for ease of viewing.

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HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED (HCP)
Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn, Quartz

*6 atoms/unit cell: (12corners x 1/6 )+(2 faces x ½) + 3 inside
• Co-ordination # = 12
• Atomic Packing Factor = 0.74**
**FCC & HCP (Closed Packed Structure) have similar APF, which is the most efficient packing
of equal-sized atoms

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POLYMORPHISM & ALLOTROPY
• Knowledge of the crystal structure of metallic solids
permits computation of its theoretical density (ρ);
• Some metals as well as non metals may have

more than one crystal structure, a
phenomenon known as polymorphism. When
found in elemental solids, the condition is often
termed allotropy.
− Titanium: α-Ti /β-Ti
− Carbon: Graphite (sheet) & Diamond (tetrahedral)
− Iron : α-Fe, γ-Fe
• Modification of density & other physical properties
accompanies a polymorphic Transformation.

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GRAINS
• A GRAIN is a single crystal, within which the
atomic lattice and its orientation are
continuous. Adjacent grains of the same phase
with different orientations are separated by an
immaterial surface called a grain boundary.
The two crystal lattices extend regularly right
up to the boundary.
• Thickness of this boundary region (grain
boundary) is a few atomic diameters .
• In the vicinity of the boundary, the atoms are
displaced from their normal lattice positions
to minimize the excess energy associated
with the discontinuity. Nevertheless, the
transition from one grain to the other
introduces a large number of defects as
vacancies and dislocations, so that a
boundary represents a region of high local
energy. Hence grain boundaries are
chemically more reactive.

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MICRO STRUCTURE
• The overall arrangement of grains, grain boundaries, phases
present in an alloy is called its microstructure.
• Microstructure is largely responsible for the properties of
the metal.
• The microstructure is affected by the composition or alloy
content and by processing methods such as hot/cold
working, straining, heat treatment etc.
Microstructure of TIMETAL 685 (Near α-Ti alloy) having α (HCP) & 5-10% β (BCC) phases
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 STRENGTH: Ability of material that can resist or withstand mechanical load
 DUCTILITY: Ability to material to form wires
 MALLEABILITY: Ability of material to form sheets
 BRITTLENESS: Ability of a material to withstand mechanical load without
plastic deformation
 HARDNESS: Ability of a material that can offer resistance against mechanical
deformation
 TOUGHNESS: Ability of a material that can absorb energy at the time of
failure
 ELASTICITY: Ability of a material that can resist mechanical deformation
under stress
 RESILIENCE: Ability of a material that can absorb energy against failure,
without undergoing shape change
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METALS & ALLOYS
Understanding through
Crystal, Phase & Grains
 Introduction to Metals , Alloys

 Solid Solutions (substitutional/interstitial)
 Phase & Phase Transformations
METALS & ALLOYS
• METALS:
 Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements
and about 24% of the mass of the planet.
 Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility,
high melting points, thermal and electrical conductivity,
and toughness.
• ALLOYS:
 An alloy is a metallic-solid solution, composed of two or
more elements (a metal with another element, either metal or nonmetal).
 Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase
microstructure. Partial solutions give two or more phases.
 An alloy’s properties are different from its elements.
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SOLID SOLUTIONS
• SOLID SOLUTIONS:
 Solution in solid state i.e. one solid dissolved in other solid.
 Examples are Ni in Cu (Cu-Ni), C in Fe (Fe-C). Ni & Cu are of
(approx.) similar atomic sizes whereas C is much smaller
than Fe.
• SOLUTIONS:
 It is homogeneous mixture of solute & solvent (It is necessary
condition but not sufficient condition to define SOLUTION).
 Solute & solvent in solution lose their independent identity
(this will happen when mixing is at atomic/molecular level).
 Constituent having majority in solution is termed as solvent
& minority constituents are solute.
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TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
• The crystal lattices are only for pure metals that are
composed of one type of atom. However, most commonly
used metal materials are alloys. In alloys, the crystals will
change due to different types of atoms .
• According to the composition of the alloy (solid solution),
there will be three types of formation :
 SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION : Solute atom replaces
solvent in solid solution. This occurs in system where solute
& solvent are of similar sizes.
 INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION: Solute atom adjusts itself
(due to smaller size) in interstitial spaces of solvent.
 Intermetallic Compound
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 SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION : The atoms of the solute
(minor portion of the alloy) will at random replace some of
the atoms of solvent (majority of the alloy).
 INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION: The atoms of solute are much
smaller than those solvent; they do not replace atoms of
solvent in the lattice but rather locate in points between or
intervening spaces known as interstices in the lattice.
 Intermetallic Compound: the solute atoms in the alloy cannot
completely dissolve either interstitially or substitutionally.
They will form the type of chemical compound that
composition of which corresponds roughly to the chemical
formula. This results in the formation of mixed kinds of
atomic groupings consisting of different and complicated
crystalline structure. [Fe3C/Cementite/Iron-Carbide]
43

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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTIONS

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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTIONS
Fe at Room Temperature is BCC structure & Fe-C is an
interstitial solid solution (alloy) where C enters at
octahedral voids (at face centers) of solvent (α-Fe) crystal

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SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTIONS
 Partial Solubility of
alloying element.
the components in
the solid state (e.g.
Cu-Al system).
 HUME ROTHERY
Rule for complete
solubility
 Perfect solubility of
the components in
the solid state (e.g.
Cu-Ni system).

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SOLID SOLUTIONS
 According to the composition of the alloy (solid solution), each
group (substitutional/interstitial/intermetallic) with its own
crystalline structure is referred to as a phase.

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PHASE
• PHASE: There are 3 phases of matter i.e. SOLID,LIQUID, GASES.
 Chemically homogeneous.
 Physically Distinct.
 (sometimes) mechanically separable part of system
Example: Water ICE (s) / WATER (l) / STEAM (g)
• Phase of a substance is a form of matter that is uniform
throughout in chemical composition & physical state.
• Physical properties of any material depends on different

phases in which that material exists thus change of phase
will result in change of properties.
• To exploit materials properties we need to understand

PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS.

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PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
• Why Phase Transformations occurs: To attain
minimum energy ( Gibb’s Free Energy) state. Example- at room
temperature ICE(solid) & WATER(liquid) exists. Ice is metastable state ( free energy
is higher) & water is stable state (minimum energy state); as time passes ice melts to
water because room temperature gives ice sufficient activation energy.
 Free Energy of the system (G) : This decides whether PHASE

TRANSFORMATION will take place or not. For any phase the free energy, G,
is dependent on the temperature, pressure and composition. Temperature
of the system will quantify free energy ( assuming pressure & composition
constant).
 TIME for Phase Transformation : This is an important factor when

matter is in metastable state. If sufficient time not given transformation
may be otherwise i.e. it will remain in metastable state (though its G is not
minimum).
 KINETIC FACTORS like QUENCHING changes liquid to solid state in glassy

phase although of being crystalline material ( as in liquid state atoms are
randomly arranged then suddenly it is quenched thus it doesn’t get time to
arrange). Sufficient Mobility of atoms are required for transformations.

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PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
This curves represents the plot of free energies of
the liquid and solid phases of a pure metal
• Tm = Melting Temperature
• GS = Free Energy of Solid
• GL = Free Energy of Liquid
• ∆G = GS - GL
• Free energy changes as a result of a transformation:
 difference between the solid and liquid phases (volume

free energy, ΔGV); and
 solid-liquid phase boundary (surface free energy, ΔGS).
• The change in free energy ΔG must be
negative for a transformation to occur.
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MECHANISM OF SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
• Phase Transformation occurs when metal melts or solidifies:
 In melting, arrangement of atoms disappears and atoms move
randomly.
 In solidifying, crystalline arrangement reestablish itself.
• Most phase transformations begin with the formation of numerous
small particles of the new phase that increase in size until the
transformation is complete.
• The solidification of metals occur by nucleation and growth
transformation.
 Nucleation – The physical process by which a new phase is produced in
a material. In the case of solidification, this refers to the formation of
tiny stable solid particles in the liquid.
 Growth - The physical process by which a new phase increases in size.
In the case of solidification, this refers to the formation of a stable solid
particle as the liquid freezes.
 In nucleation and growth transformation, the nuclei of the solid phase are formed and then they grow.
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(a) Nucleation (b) Grain Growth (c) Solidified Metal

53
• At the solidification temperature, atoms
from the liquid, such as molten metal,
begin to bond together and start to form
crystals.
• The moment a crystal begins to grow is

know as nucleus and the point where it
occurs is the nucleation point.
• When a metal begins to solidify, multiple

crystals begin to grow in the liquid.
• The final sizes of the individual crystals

depend on the number of nucleation
points.
• The crystals increase in size by the

progressive addition of atoms and grow
until they impinge upon adjacent growing
crystal.
54
NUCLEATION & GROWTH TRANSFORMATION
• The Nucleation and Growth Transformation may be of two
types
1. Homogeneous Nucleation.
2. Heterogeneous Nucleation
 Homogeneous Nucleation - nuclei form uniformly throughout the
parent phase; requires considerable supercooling (typically 80-300°C ).
 Heterogeneous Nucleation - form at structural inhomogeneities

(container surfaces, impurities, grain boundaries, dislocations) in liquid
phase much easier since stable “nucleating surface” is already present;
requires slight supercooling (0.1-10ºC ) .

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NUCLEATION of a SPHERICAL SOLID
particle in LIQUID
Homogeneous Nucleation & Energy Effects

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PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS & GRAIN SIZE
• Phase transformation is predominantly controlled by temperature.
Transformation never really start at transformation temp rather it starts
at a temp much below the temp predicted for the transformation to
occur.
• Undercooling: It is the gap between the temp predicted for the

transformation to occur and the temp at which the transformation
actually occurs.

57
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS & GRAIN SIZE
• During the cooling of a liquid, solidification (nucleation) will
begin only after the temperature has been lowered below
the equilibrium solidification (or melting) temperature Tm.
This phenomenon is termed supercooling (or
undercooling).
• The driving force to nucleate increases as ∆T increases
• Small supercooling slow nucleation rate – few nuclei - large
crystals.
• Large supercooling rapid nucleation rate -many nuclei -
small crystals.
• Metal structures can be characterized as having large grains
(coarse grained) or small grains (fine grained) or a mixture
of large and small grains (mixed grain).

58
GRAIN SIZE EFFECT (Hall Petch Eq)

59
Any Questions ?
60
End of Module-I
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Energising a Brighter Tomorrow

PRESENTER: AJAY KUMAR SHARMA

The science and technology of

Proprietary & Confidential

 What is Engineering Materials

Proprietary & Confidential

Proprietary & Confidential

Proprietary & Confidential

Proprietary & Confidential

Proprietary & Confidential

Proprietary & Confidential

Proprietary & Confidential

Science of METALLURGY METALLURGY

PHYSICAL MECHANICAL ELECTRO- TECHNOLOGICAL

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• Amorphous materials that do not have regular, periodic

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Proprietary & Confidential

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 Important Properties of Materials

 Electrical properties (electrical conductivity, resistivity)

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The broad goal of Materials Science & Engineering is to

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• Electronic interactions are responsible for most the material properties.

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• CRYSTAL – Atoms arranged in a periodic array.

• When we show BASIS (MOTIF) by a point in a crystalline state

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Fundamental block or smallest

 A Unit Cell is a minimum volume cell of a crystal

 A single crystal can have many unit cells.

A Crystal can be characterized by the

• Four relatively simple crystal structures are found for

• These simple crystal structures are understood by;

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• Number of atoms per unit cell = 4*

All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded

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• Number of atoms per unit cell = 2*

All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded

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• Number of atoms per unit cell = 6*

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• Some metals as well as non metals may have

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 Introduction to Metals , Alloys

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