Solutions

and
Mixtures
a presentation by
GREDA G. BALACUIT
What is a solution?
 Mixtures – a review
• Mixture: a combination of two or
more substances that do not combine
chemically, but remain the same
individual substances; can be
separated by physical means.

• Two types:
– Heterogeneous
– Homogeneous
 Heterogeneous Mixture
• “Hetero” means “different”

• Consists of visibly different substances or

phases (solid, liquid, gas)

• Can be separated by physical means

• Example:
 Homogeneous Mixture
• “Homo” means the same
• has the same uniform appearance and
composition throughout; maintain one phase
(solid, liquid, gas)
• Commonly referred to as solutions
• Example:

Salt Water
 Solution
• Solution: a mixture of two or more substances
that is identical throughout (homogeneous)
• can be physically separated Salt water is
• composed of solutes and solvents considered a
solution. How can it
be physically
separated?
the substance being dissolved
the substance that dissolves the solute

Iced Tea Mix Iced Tea Water

(solute) (solution) (solvent)
 Solution
• The solvent is the largest part of the
solution and the solute is the smallest
part of the solution

S OL V E N T
S OL U T E
Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
 Types of Solutions
Gaseous solutions
Liquid solutions
Solid solutions
 Gaseous Solution
• Gas in gas – solvent is gas, solute is gas
ex. air
 Gaseous Solution
• Gas in gas – solvent is gas, solute is gas
ex. air
• Liquid in gas – solvent is gas, solute is liquid
ex. fog
 Gaseous Solution
• Gas in gas – solvent is gas, solute is gas
ex. air
• Liquid in gas – solvent is gas, solute is liquid
ex. fog
• Solid in gas – solvent is gas, solute is solid
ex. smoke
 Liquid Solution
• Gas in liquid – solvent is liquid, solute is
gas. ex. Softdrink
 Liquid Solution
• Gas in liquid – solvent is liquid, solute is
gas. ex. Softdrink
• Liquid in liquid – solvent is liquid, solute
is liquid. ex. wine
 Liquid Solution
• Gas in liquid – solvent is liquid, solute is
gas. ex. Softdrink
• Liquid in liquid – solvent is liquid, solute
is liquid. ex. wine
• Solid in liquid - solvent is liquid, solute is
solid ex. brine
 Solid Solution
• Gas in solid – solvent is solid, solute is
gas. Ex. foam
 Solid Solution
• Gas in solid – solvent is solid, solute is
gas. Ex. Solid foam
• Liquid in solid – solvent is solid, solute
is liquid. Ex. amalgam
 Solid Solution
• Gas in solid – solvent is solid, solute is
gas. Ex. foam
• Liquid in solid – solvent is solid, solute
is liquid. Ex. amalgam
• Solid in solid – solvent is solid, solute is
solid. Ex. Metal alloy,
brass, bronze
 Concentration
• the amount of solute dissolved in a
solvent at a given temperature
•described as dilute if it has
a low concentration of solute
dissolved

•described as concentrated
if it has a high concentration
of solute dissolved
 Concentration
•Unsaturated - has a less than the
maximum concentration of solute
dissolved

•Saturated - has the maximum

concentration of solute dissolved
(can see solid in bottom of solution)

•Supersaturated -contains more

dissolved solute than normally
possible (usually requires an increase
in temperature followed by cooling)
 Solubility
• the amount of solute that dissolves
in a certain amount of a solvent at a
given temperature and pressure to
produce a saturated solution
Factors affecting solubility of solids

Temperature Shaking

increased temperature causes

solids to dissolve faster
Shaking (agitation) causes
solids to dissolve faster
Particle Size

Smaller particles dissolve

Faster because they have
more surface area

Note: Increasing the amount of solute

DOES NOT increase the rate of dissolving
• Miscible liquids can easily dissolve in one
another.
• Immiscible liquids are not soluble in
each other.
 Polarity and Dissolving
• Chemists use the
saying “like dissolves
like”:
ØPolar solutes tend to
dissolve in polar
solvents.
ØNonpolar solutes tend Oil is nonpolar while water is
to dissolve in polar. They are immiscible.

nonpolar solvents.
Solubility Curves
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.
To read the
graph, find the
line for the
substance. The
amount that
dissolves at a
given
temperature is
on the y- axis.
How much KNO3dissolves
in 100g (or 100mL H2O at
50oC?
1.Find the line (green)
2.Find the temperature
and follow up to the line.
(red arrow)
3. Read across to the
y- axis and this is the
answer. (blue arrow)
4. Since it is more than ½-way
between 80 and 90, it is 87.
n A point on the line is a saturated solution.
n Above the line is supersaturated.
n Below the line is unsaturated.
Using Solubility Curves
What is the solubility of
NaNO3 in 100 g of H2O at
0°C?
Using Solubility Curves

How many grams of

KNO3 will dissolve in
200g of H2O at 45°C?
Using Solubility Curves

How much water is

needed to dissolve
190g of NaNO3 at
30°C?
 Methods of expressing
concentration
• Percent by mass
• Percent by volume
• Parts per million (ppm)
• Molality (m)
• Molarity(M)
• Normality(N)
 Percent mass
• Percent mass describes the component in a particular
mixture. It shows the mass of solute present in a given
mass of solution.
• Percent mass is the amount of solute in grams present
in 100 grams of the solution.
• Therefore, the formula will be:

• Solution = solvent + solute

Example 1
Find the percent by mass in which 41.0 g of NaCl is
dissolved in 331 grams of water.
Example 1
Find the percent by mass in which 41.0 g of NaCl is
dissolved in 331 grams of water.

Example 2
Calculate the grams of NaOCl (6.15% by mass) in 285
grams of a billboard bleach solution.
Example 1
Find the percent by mass in which 41.0 g of NaCl is
dissolved in 331 grams of water.

Example 2
Calculate the grams of NaOCl (6.15% by mass) in 285
grams of a billboard bleach solution.

Example 3
How many grams of water is needed to dissolve 6.2 g
CaCl2 in order to prepare 12.5% solution?
 Percent volume
• Percent volume is the amount of solute in ml
present in 100 ml of the solution.
• Therefore, the formula will be:
!"#$%& "' ("#$)&
Volume percentage = x 100
!"#$%& "' ("#$)*"+

• Solution = solvent + solute

Example 1:
What is the percent by volume concentration of a
solution in which 75.0 ml of ethanol is diluted to a
volume of 250.0 ml?
Example 1:
What is the percent by volume concentration of a
solution in which 75.0 ml of ethanol is diluted to a
volume of 250.0 ml?

Example 2:
What volume of acetic acid is present in a bottle
Containing 350.0 ml of a solution which measures
5.00% concentration?
 Parts per million (ppm)
• When a solute is present in trace quantities, it is
convenient to express the concentration of solutions
in parts per million (ppm).
• The formula is as follows:

• In case of mass, we may express it as:

(Mass of solute/Mass of solution )× 106

• In case of volume, we may express it as:

(Volume of solute/Volume of solution) × 106
 Parts per million (ppm)
Example 1
If there is 0.551 mg of As in 348 g of solution, what is
the As concentration in ppm?
 Parts per million (ppm)
Example 1
If there is 0.551 mg of As in 348 g of solution, what is
the As concentration in ppm?

Example 2
The concentration of Cl– ion in a sample of H2O is 15.0
ppm. What mass of Cl– ion is present in 240.0 mL of
H2O, which has a density of 1.00 g/mL?
 Molality (m)
• Molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute
dissolved in 1 Kg of the solvent.

• The unit of molality is mol/kg or molal.

• Molality is the most convenient method to express
the concentration of solutions because it involves the
mass of liquids rather than their volumes.
• A mole is the SI unit of number of particles
and can be used as an expression of the
molecular weight of a substance.

%,((
• Mole(mol) =
%"#,- %,((

The formula weight of an

element is expressed as
grams/mole
• The molar mass of a compound can be
calculated by adding the molar mass of the
individual elements.

22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 g/mol

 Molality (m)
Example 1.
What is the molality when 0.750 mol is dissolved in
2.50 L of solvent?
 Molality
Example 1.
What is the molality when 0.750 mol is dissolved in
2.50 L of solvent?

Example 2.
Suppose you had 58.44 grams of NaCl and you
dissolved it in exactly 2.00 kg of pure water (the
solvent). What would be the molality of the solution?
 Molality
Example 1.
What is the molality when 0.750 mol is dissolved in
2.50 L of solvent?

Example 2.
Suppose you had 58.44 grams of NaCl and you
dissolved it in exactly 2.00 kg of pure water (the
solvent). What would be the molality of the solution?

Example 3.
How many grams glucose is present in 1kg solution
with a concentration of 0.5 molal
 Molarity (M)
• Molarity is the concentration of a solution
expressed in moles of solute per Liter of
solution.
• Molarity is a conversion factor for calculations
• The unit for molarity is mol/L or molar

Molarity (M) = moles of solute

Liters of solution
 Making Solutions
• You just calculated the molar mass of sodium
chloride to be 58.44 g/mol.
• To determine how to make a stock solution of
sodium chloride, use the formula:

g = M x L x molar mass
 Making Solutions
• How many grams of NaCl would you need to prepare
200.0 mL of a 5 M solution?
g = M x L x molar mass
g = (5mol/L) (0.2L) (58.44g/mol)
g = 58.44 g
 Molarity (M)
Example 1:
What is the molarity of a solution that has
2.3 moles of sodium chloride in 0.45 liters
of solution?

M = mol (solute)
L (solution)
 Molarity
Example 2:
How many moles of Na2CO3 are there in
10.0 L of 2.0 M solution?
M = mol (solute)
L (solution)
M x L (solution) = mol (solute)
 Molarity
Example 3:
How many grams of KNO3 are needed to
make 450. mL of 1.5 molar solution?

M x L(solution) = mol(solute)
 Molarity
Example 4:
How many grams of NaCl are needed to
make 3.0 L of 1.5 M solution?
mass= M x L x molar mass
 Molarity
• Example 5:
• How many L of 4.0 M solution can be made
with 132g of NaCl ?
L (solution) = M x mol (solute)
 Normality(N)
• Normality is mainly used as a measure of reactive
species in a solution and during titration reactions or
particularly in situations involving acid-base
chemistry.
• The normality of a solution gives the number of gram
equivalents of the solute present in one litre of the
solution.

• The unit of normality is, g-eq/L or normal.

• The gram equivalent weight has to be determined by
the amount of an ion that which reacts.
 Normality(N)
Example 1.
Calculate the normality of NaOH solution formed by
dissolving 0.2 gm NaOH to make 250 ml solution.

!"#$%& '( )&*# +,-.*/%!0 1'/"0%

Normality (N) =
.'/"#% '( 1'/"0-'! -! /-0%&

#*11 1'/"0%
Number of Gram Eq. =
%,"-.*/%!0 2%-340

#'/*& #*11 1'/"0%

Eq. weight =
# &%6/*7%*$/% 89'& :8;
 Normality(N)
Example 1.
Calculate the normality of NaOH solution formed by
dissolving 0.2 gm NaOH to make 250 ml solution.

!"## #$%&'(
N= !"#$% !$&& &"#'()
%)'(* #$%&')$+ ,# %)+#$,)$-#) ./"% 0.1
 Normality(N)
Example 2.
Calculate the normality of the solution obtained by
dissolving 0.321 g of the salt sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) in 250 mL water.
Differences Between Normality and Molarity

Here are some key differences between N and M

Normality
Also known as equivalent
concentration.
It is defined as the number of gram
equivalent per litre of solution.
It is used in measuring the gram
equivalent in relation to the total
volume of the solution.
-1
The units of normality are N or eq L
Molarity
Known as molar concentration.
It is defined as the number of moles
per litre of solution.
It is used in measuring the ratio
between the number of moles in the
total volume of the solution.
-1
The unit of molarity is M or Moles L
 Dilutions

Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
 Diluting Solutions
• Often once you have made a stock solution,
you need to dilute it to a working
concentration.
• To determine how to dilute the stock solution,
use the formula:
C1 – concentration of stock
C1 V 1 = C 2 V 2 C2 - concentration of diluted solution
V1 – volume needed of stock
V2 – final volume of dilution
Dilutions and Molarity

• Use this formula to make a more dilute

solution from a concentrated solution

Molarity1 x Volume1 = Molarity2 x Volume2

(Concentrated) (Dilute)
(before) = (after)

M1V1 = M2V2
 Example 1

How many liters of 2.5 M HCl are

required to make 1.5 L of 1.0 M HCl?
M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = 2.5 M
V1 = ?
M2 = 1.0 M
V2 = 1.5 L
(2.5M) V1 = (1.0M) (1.5 L)
= 0.60L
2.5M 2.5M
 Example 1
M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the volume of

2.5M HCl you calculated above to make the
solution?

1st add .60L of HCl to

measuring device.
 Example 1
M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the volume of

2.5M HCl you calculated above to make the
solution?

Then add enough water to

get to 1.5L of solution

Amount of water = V2 –V1

1.5L – 0.60L = 0.90L water

 Example 1
M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the volume of 2.5M

HCl you calculated above to make the solution?

Final solution is 1.5L

of 1.0M HCl
 Example 2
• 250.0 mL of a 0.500 M HCl solution needs to be
made from concentrated HCl. What volume of
the concentrated solution is needed if its
molarity is 12.0 M?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 =
V1 =
M2 =
V2 =
 Example 2
• 250.0 mL of a 0.500 M HCl solution needs to be made
from concentrated HCl. What volume of the
concentrated solution is needed if its molarity is
12.0 M?
M1V1 = M2V2

How much water would you

M1 = 12.0M add to make the final
V1 = 10.4mL solution?
M2 = 0.500M
V2 = 250.0mL
250.0mL - 10.4mL = 239.6mL
Properties of Solutions
Colligative Properties of Solutions
• Colligative properties are properties that
depend only on the number of solute particles
present, not on the identity of the solute
particles.
• Among colligative properties are
1. Lowering of Vapor Pressure
2. Elevation of Boiling Point
3. Depression of Freezing Point
4. Osmotic Pressure
 Vapor Pressure Lowering
• As solute molecules are added to a solution,
the solvent become less volatile which results
to decreased vapor pressure.
• Solute-solvent interactions contribute to this
effect
• Therefore, the vapor pressure of a solution
is lower than that of the pure solvent.
Vapor Pressure
 !"#$%&'( )"*
• The amount of the vapor pressure lowering is
proportional to the amount of solute and not its
identity.
• In Ideal Solutions:
P1 = X1 P10 P = P10 - P1

P= X2 P10

• Note: P1 0 = Vapor Pressure of Pure Solvent

X1 = Mole fraction of solvent
X2 = Mole fraction of solute
P1 = Vapor pressure of solution
P = Vapor pressure lowering
 !"#$%&'()*+",
! "#$%&'()*+,#-&(%.(%/%-+/&+0%&-123%(&#'&2#$%*1$%/&#'&)&
.)(+,*1$)(&*#2.#-%-+&,-&)&2,4+1(%&5,6,5%5&37&+0%&+#+)$&
-123%(&#'&2#$%/&,-&+0%&8,6%-&2,4+1(%9&
! :0%&2#$%&'()*+,#-&*)-&3%&(%.(%/%-+%5&37&;9&<'&+0%&
/#$1+,#-&*#-/,/+/&#'&*#2.#-%-+/&=&)-5&>?&+0%-&+0%&2#$%&
'()*+,#-&,/?
!$%( #$%&'(
2#$%&'()*+,#-&#'&/#$1+%&@!$%( #$%&'(-!$%( #$%.(+'
+2
!"#"+
2.+/
 Mole Fraction
• Determine the mole fraction of CH3OH and H2O in a
solution prepared by dissolving 5.5 g of alcohol in 40
g of H2O. M of H2O is 18 and M of CH3OH is 32.mol
/./ 1
mol CH3OH (nA) = 23 1/!$%
= 0.172 mol
56 1
mol H2O (nB) = 78 1/!$%
= 2.222 mol

6.793
mole fraction CH3OH = 6.793-3.33 =0.072

3.33
mole fraction H2O = 6.793-3.33 = 0.928
 Vapor Pressure Lowering
Example 1
Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution made by
dissolving 50.0 g glucose, C6H12O6 , in 500 g of water.
The vapor pressure of pure water is 47.1 torr at 37°C
 Vapor Pressure lowering
Example 2
Glycerin (C3H8O3) is a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte with
a density of 1.26 g/mL at 25 0C. Calculate the vapor
pressure at 25 0C of a solution made by adding 50.0
mLof glycerin to 500.0 mL of water. The vapor
pressure of pure water at 25 0C is 23.8 torr .
 Boiling Point Elevation
• Boiling point elevation is a colligative property related
to vapor pressure lowering.
• The boiling point is defined as the temperature at
which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure.
• Due to vapor pressure lowering, a solution will
require a higher temperature to reach its boiling point
than the pure solvent.
tb = i kb m

Tb = TbO + Δtb
-"+#+,.%/"+,*%0#$1(*+",
 Boiling Point Elevation
Example 1
What is the new boiling point of a solution prepared by
adding 96.0 g of sodium acetate to 383 mL of water?
The boiling point constant for water is 0.52 °C/m.
Δtb = i Kb m
Example 2
A solution of 10.0 g of a nonvolatile, nondissociating
compound dissolved in 0.200 kg of benzene boils at
81.2 °C. Calculate the molecular weight of the
compound. Boiling point of pure benzene: 80.1 °C
ebullioscopic constant (Kb)for benzene: 2.53 °C/m
 Boiling Point Elevation
Example 3
What is the boiling point elevation when 147 g of lactic
acid (C6H10O5) is dissolved in 647 g of cyclohexane
(C6H12)? The boiling point constant for cyclohexane is
2.79 °C/m.
 Freezing point Depression
• Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid
undergoes a phase change from liquid to solid.
• When solutes are added to a liquid, forming a solution,
the solute molecules disrupt the formation of crystals of
the solvent.
• That disruption in the freezing process results in a
depression of the freezing point for the solution relative
to the pure solvent.
Δtf = i Kf m

Tf = Tf O - Δtf
Freezing Point Diagram
 Freezing Point Depression
Example1
What is the freezing point depression when 62.2 g of
toluene (C7H8) is dissolved in 481 g of naphthalene? The
freezing point constant(cryosscopic constant, Kf) for
naphthalene is 7.00 °C/m.
 Freezing Point Depression
Example1
What is the freezing point depression when 62.2 g of
toluene (C7H8) is dissolved in 481 g of naphthalene? The
freezing point constant(cryosscopic constant, Kf) for
naphthalene is 7.00 °C/m.

Example 2
What is the freezing point of a solution prepared by
adding 140. g trichothecin (C19H24O5) to 0.746 kg of
benzene? The freezing point of pure benzene is 5.5 °C.
The freezing point constant for benzene is 5.12 °C/m.
 Freezing Point Depression
Example 3
A solution that contain 55.0 g of ascorbic acid
(vitamin C) in 250. g of water freezes at −2.34 °C.
Calculate the molar mass (in g/mol) of the solute.
Kf of water is 1.86 oC/m
 Osmotic Pressure
• When a solution is separated from a volume of pure
solvent by a semi-permeable membrane that allows
only the passage of solvent molecules, the height of
the solution begins to rise.
• The pressure needed to stop the osmotic flow is the
osmotic pressure of a solution.
• The amount of osmotic pressure is directly related to
the concentration of the solute.
P = MRT PV = nRT P = nRT
V
Where: R = is the gas constant (0.0821 L atm/mol K)
T = is the absolute temperature.
 Osmotic Pressure

(a) Two sugar-water solutions of different concentrations, separated by a

semipermeable membrane that passes water but not sugar. Osmosis will
be to the right, since water is less concentrated there.
(b) The fluid level rises until the back pressure ρgh equals the relative
osmotic pressure; then, the net transfer of water is zero.
 Osmotic Pressure
Example 1
Sea water contains dissolved salts at a total ionic
concentration of about 1.13 mol L–1. What pressure
must be applied to prevent osmotic flow of pure water
into sea water through a membrane permeable only to
water molecules?
P = MRT PV = nRT
 Osmotic Pressure
Example 1
Sea water contains dissolved salts at a total ionic
concentration of about 1.13 mol L–1. What pressure
must be applied to prevent osmotic flow of pure water
into sea water through a membrane permeable only to
water molecules?

Example 2
The osmotic pressure of a benzene solution containing
5.0 g of polystyrene per liter was found to be 7.6 torr at
25°C. Estimate the average molecular weight of the
polystyrene in this sample.