UNIT-II AC CIRCUITS:

TOPICS COVERED:

1. Representation of sinusoidal waveforms,

2. Peak and rms values,

3. Phasor representation,

4. Real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor.

5. Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C,

and Series RL, RC, RLC combinations (series only).

6. Three phase balanced circuits, voltage and current

relations in star and delta connections.

Course Co-ordinator
Dr Mohammed Sajid
Assoc.Prof, EED,
MJCET
 AC Fundamentals and AC Machines 3.1

ac circuits
2
2.0 INTRODUCTION

In previous chapters, we have discussed about dc supply

and dc circuits. But 90% of electrical energy used nowadays is ac
in nature. The dc supply has constant magnitude with respect to
time. Fig. 2.1 (a) & (b) shows the graphs of dc voltage and dc
current with respect to time.

Voltage Current

t t

(a) DC voltage (b) Direct current

Fig. 2.1

An alternating current (ac) is the current which changes

periodically both in magnitude and direction. Such change in
magnitude and direction is measured in terms of cycles. Each cycle
of ac consists of two half cycles namely positive and negative cycle.
Current increases in magnitude in one particular direction reaches
maximum and starts decreasing, passing through zero then it
increases in opposite direction and behaves similarly. The Fig. 2.2
shows the variation of alternating current with time.
2.2 Basic Electrical Engineering

Magnitude and direction

Current
changes with time

+ +
0 Time
–

Fig. 2.2 Alternating current

Other than dc and ac, in practice some waveforms are
available in which magnitude changes but its direction remains
i.e., positive or negative. Such waveform is called pulsating dc
which is shown in the Fig. 2.3. The output of full wave rectifier is
an example for pulsating dc.

Magnitude changing
Current
but direction same

+ + +
0 Time

Fig.2.3 Pulsating D.C.

2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS

It is necessary to be familiar with various terms related to

the alternating quantities.
1. Instantaneous value : The value of an alternating quantity
at a particular instant is called its instantaneous value. Ex: e1 and
e2 are the instantaneous values of an alternating emf at the instants
t1 and t2 respectively as shown in the Fig. 2.4.
 AC circuits 2.3

Generated
emf emax Amplitude

EM
π 2π
0 t1 t2 Time

Time period one cycle (T seconds)

Fig. 2.4 Waveform of an alternating emf

2. Cycle : Each repetition of a set of positive and negative

instantaneous values of the alternating quantity is called a cycle.
This repetition occurs at regular interval of time. Such a waveform
which exhibits variations that occur repeatedly after a regular time
interval is called periodic waveform.
A cycle is also defined as the time interval during which a
complete set of waveform variations occur (i.e., positive and
negative loops). One cycle corresponds to 360° electrical or 2π
radian as shown in the Fig. 2.4. The waveform from 0 to π radians
is called positive half cycle and the waveform from π to 2π radians
is called negative half cycle. Each half cycle has a span of 180°
electrical or π radians.
3. Time period (T) : The time taken by an alternating quantity
to complete one cycle is called time period represented by T
seconds. It is shown in the Fig. 2.4.
4. Frequency (f) : The number of cycles completed by an
alternating quantity per second is called frequency. It is denoted
by ‘f’ and measured in cycles/second or Hertz (Hz). As time period
is time in seconds for one cycle i.e., seconds/cycle and frequency
is cycles/seconds, frequency is reciprocal of the time period.
2.4 Basic Electrical Engineering

1
∴f= Hz
T
The standard frequency of alternating voltage & currents in
India is 50 Hz.
5. Amplitude (or) Peak value : The maximum value of an
alternating quantity during positive or negative half cycle is called
its amplitude. It is denoted by Em or Im where Em is called peak
value of the voltage and Im is called peak value of the current.
6. Peak to peak value : The maximum variation between
maximum positive instantaneous value and the maximum negative
instantaneous value is called peak to peak value. It is denoted by
Ep-p or Ip-p.
7. Angular frequency (ω ω) : It is the frequency expressed in
electrical radians per second. As one cycle corresponds to 2π
radians, angular frequency is given by (2π × cycles/second). It is
denoted by ‘ω’. It is measured in radians/second. The relation
2π
between ‘f’ and ‘ω’ is ω = 2πf radians/sec. or ω = radians/sec.
T
8. Equation of an alternating quantity : An alternating
quantity is sinusoidal in nature and its equation is expressed using
sin θ where θ is in radians. Hence an alternating voltage is expressed
as
e = Em sin θ
Similarly an alternating current is expressed as
i = Im sin θ
This equation gives the instantaneous value at any time
θ = ωt radians
The different forms of equation of an alternating quantity are
 AC Circuits 2.5

⎛ 2π ⎞
e = Em sin ωt = Em sin (2πft) = Em sin ⎜ t⎟
⎝ T ⎠

⎛ 2π ⎞
i = Im sin ωt = Im sin (2πft) = Im sin ⎜ t⎟
⎝ T ⎠
9. Average value : It is the average of all the instantaneous
values over a period of half cycle.
For a symmetrical ac waveform, the average value over a
complete cycle is zero as both positive and negative half cycles
are exactly identical. Hence, average value is defined for half cycle
only.
Average value is also defined as the steady current which
transfers across the circuit the same amount of charge as transferred
by that alternating current during the same time. The average value
of sinusoidally varying quantities is obtained by two methods. They
are 1) Graphical method and 2) Analytical method.
i. Graphical method : Consider only positive half cycle of
sinusoidally varying current, which is divided into ‘n’
intervals as shown in the Fig. 2.5. The width of each interval
is t/n seconds and average height of each interval is assumed
to be the average instantaneous values of current i.e., i1, i2,
............... in.
Current
i3
i2
in
i1
π 2π
0 1 2 3 n Time

Fig. 2.5 Finding average value

2.6 Basic Electrical Engineering

Average value of current over half cycle

i1 + i 2 + ............ + i n
=
n
i + i + ............ + i n v + v 2 + ............ + v n
I avg = 1 2 ; Vavg = 1
n n
ii. Analytical method : For an unsymmetrical ac waveform,
the average value is calculated for one complete cycle but
for symmetrical waveforms like sinusoidal, it is obtained
for half cycle.
Let the sinusoidally varying current be I = Im sin θ.
Current

π 2π
θ
0
θ

dθ

Fig. 2.6 Average value

Consider elementary interval of instant ‘dθ’ as shown in the
Fig. 2.6. The average value is calculated by taking the ratio of area
under curve over half cycle to base length of half cycle.
Area of half cycle
I avg =
Base length of half cycle
π

∫ i dθ
= 0
π
π π
1 I
= ∫ I m sin θ dθ = m ∫ sin θ dθ
π0 π 0

Im 2I
( − cos θ )0 = m
π
=
π π
 AC Circuits 2.7

Iavg = 0.637 Im
Similarly, Vavg = 0.637 Vm.
10. Root Mean Square (R.M.S) value or effective value : “The
RMS value of an alternating current is given by that steady (dc)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given
time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the
same time”.
RMS value can be determined by two methods :
i. Graphical method : This is used for ac waveforms like
sinusoidal, triangular, square etc.
ii. Analytical method : This is used for purely sinusoidally
varying ac waveforms.
i. Graphical method : Consider sinusoidally varying current.
The RMS value is obtained by comparing heat produced
which is proportional to square of current i.e., I2R. Heat
produced in both positive and negative half cycles is same.
Consider only positive half cycle which is divided into ‘n’
equal intervals as shown in the Fig. 2.7. The width of each
interval is ‘t/n’ seconds and average height of each interval
is assumed to be the average instantaneous values of current
i.e., i1, i2, ............. in.
Current
i3
i2
i1 in
π 2π
0 1 2 3 n Time

Fig.2.7 RMS value

2.8 Basic Electrical Engineering

Let this current is passing through a resistance of ‘R’ ohms.

Heat produced = i2Rt joules
2 t
Heat produced due to 1st interval = i1 R J
n
2 t
Heat produced due to 2nd interval = i 2 R J
n
2 t
Heat produced due to nth interval = inR J
n
Total heat produced in ‘t’ seconds
⎛ i12 + i22 + ........ + i2n ⎞
=Rt⎜ ⎟J
⎝ n ⎠
Heat produced by dc current of ‘I’ A passing through the
same resistance of ‘R’ ohms for the same time ‘t’ is I2Rt J.
The two heats must be equal for ‘I’ to be the RMS value of
an alternating current
⎛ i12 + i 22 + ......... + i 2n ⎞
I Rt = Rt ⎜
2
⎟
⎝ n ⎠

i12 + i 22 + ......... + i 2n
I2 =
n

i12 + i 22 + ......... + i 2n
I= = i rms
n
This is called effective value of an alternating current.
Similarly, RMS value of sinusoidally varying alternating
voltage is

v12 + v 22 + .......... + v 2n
Vrms =
n
 AC Circuits 2.9

ii. Analytical method : Consider sinusoidally varying

alternating current given by the expression i = Im sin θ
The square of this current is i2 = Im2 sin2 θ
The waveforms of i and i2 are as shown in the Fig. 2.8.
2 2 2
i, i2 i = IM sin θ

i = IM sinθ

0 π 2π
Time
dθ

Fig. 2.8 Current and square of current

π
Area of ‘i2’ curve over half cycle = ∫ i2dθ
0

Average value of square of the current over half cycle is

π
Area of curve over half cycle
=
∫
0
i 2 dθ
Length of base over half cycle π
π
1 π 1 π I 2 ⎛ 1 − cos 2θ ⎞
= ∫ i 2dθ = ∫ I sin θ dθ = m ⎜
2
m
2
⎟ dθ
π 0 π o π ⎝ 2 ⎠0
π
I 2m
⎛ sin 2θ ⎞ I 2m I 2m
=
π⎜ θ − 2 ⎟ = 2π ( π ) = 2
⎝ ⎠0
Root mean square value is
I 2m I
I rms = = m
2 2
Irms = 0.707 Im.
The rms value of the sinusoidal alternating current is 0.707
times the peak value of that current.
2.10 Basic Electrical Engineering

Similarly, the rms value of sinusoidal alternating voltage is

Vrms = 0.707 Vm.
11. Form factor (kf) : The form factor of an alternating quantity
is defined as the ratio of rms value to the average value.
rms value
Form factor kf =
average value
For sinusoidal alternating currents or voltages, form factor is
0.707 I m 0.707 Vm
kf = or = 1.11.
0.637 I m 0.637 Vm
12. Peak factor (kp) : The peak factor of an alternating quantity
is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the rms value.
maximum value
Peak factor kp =
rms value
For sinusoidal currents or voltages, peak factor is
Im Vm
kp = or = 1.414.
0.707 I m 0.707 Vm

2.2 CONCEPT OF PHASE OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY

In the analysis of a.c circuits, it is difficult to perform

addition, subtraction etc. on alternating waveforms. Phasor
representation of an alternating quantity makes it easier to represent
and analyse the waveforms.
The sinusoidally varying alternating quantity can be
represented graphically by a straight line with an arrow in which
the length of the line represents the magnitude of the quantity and
arrow indicates its direction.
One complete cycle of a sine wave is represented by one
complete rotation of a phasor in anticlockwise direction. Consider
a phasor with uniform angular velocity ‘ω’ starting at ‘a’ as shown
 AC Circuits 2.11

in the Fig. 2.9. If the projections of the phasor on y-axis are plotted
against the angle ‘θ’ a sine wave is obtained.
Current
c
d b
Anti
e θ a clockwise f g h a
a b c d e θ = ωt

f h
g

Fig. 2.9 Phasor representation of an alternating quantity

At point ‘a’ the instantaneous value of current is zero.
At point ‘c’, the length of the phasor is equal to the maximum
value of current. The instantaneous value is i = Im sin θ. It is similar
for the other instants. The angular velocity ‘ω’ should be such that
it completes one revolution in the same time as taken by the
alternating quantity to complete one cycle.
θ = ωt
Where, ω = 2πf rad/sec.

2.3 PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

Phase : The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant

is the angle ‘φ’ travelled by the phasor upto the instant of
consideration measured from the reference.
Current

B B

φ π 2π
A π/2 θ = ωt
φ

Fig. 2.10 Concept of phase

2.12 Basic Electrical Engineering

From the Fig. 2.10, phase of the alternating current at the

instant A is φ = 0 while the phase of the current at the instant B is
the angle φ through which phasor has travelled measured from the
reference.
Phase is represented in terms of angle φ or θ in radians or
degrees.
The equation of an alternating quantity in terms of phase
can be expressed as
e = Em sin (ωt ± φ)
Where φ is phase of the alternating quantity.
Consider the following cases :
Case (i) : φ = 0
If the phase of an alternating quantity is zero, it is pure
sinusoidal quantity having instantaneous value zero at t = 0 as
shown in the Fig. 2.11(a).
Case (ii) : φ is positive
If the phase of an alternating quantity is positive it means
that quantity has some positive instantaneous value at t = 0 as shown
in the Fig. 2.11(b).
Case (iii) : φ is negative
If the phase of an alternating quantity is negative it means
that quantity hase some negative instantaneous value at t = 0. This
is shown in the Fig. 2.11(c).
V or I V or I
+ve

t=0 t=0

e = EM sin ωt e = EM sin (ωt + φ)

(a) (b)
 AC Circuits 2.13

V or I

t=0

– ve
e = EM sin (ωt – φ)

(c)

Fig. 2.11 Phase

2.3.1 Phase difference

Case (i) : Consider two alternating quantities of same frequency

‘f’ but different maximum values
e = Em sin (ωt)
i = Im sin (ωt)
Where, Em > Im
The phasor representation and waveforms of e & i are as
shown in the Fig. 2.12.
Al EM

Bl IM
W
90° 2π
B A π
O EM π/2 θ = ωt

Fig. 2.12 Zero phase difference

π
After φ = radians, the OA phasor reaches its maximum
2
value Em and OB phasor reaches its maximum Im. At any instant,
2.14 Basic Electrical Engineering

the phase of voltage e is same as that of current ‘i’. So the difference

between the phases of the two quantities is zero at any instant. The
difference between the phases of the two alternating quantities is
called the phase difference i.e., angle difference between the two
phasors representing the two alternating quantities.
When the phase difference between the two alternating
quantities is zero, the two quantities are said to be in phase.
Case (ii) : Consider an emf having maximum value Em and current
having maximum value Im. When emf ‘e’ is at its zero value, the
current ‘i’ has some negative value as shown in the Fig. 2.13.
e, i
EM e.m.f e

IM
W Current
φ
EM
O A 0 π/2 π 2π θ = ωt
φ
B
IM φ
− IM

− EM

Fig. 2.13 Phase difference (lag)

From the Fig. 2.13, it is observed that the two phasors are
rotating in anticlockwise direction and current is falling back with
respect to voltage at all the times by angle φ. This is called lagging
phase difference. The current ‘i’ is said to lag the voltage ‘e’ by
angle ‘φ’. The equations of the two quantities are given by
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt – φ)
Case (iii) : In practice, it may also be possible that the current ‘i’
may have some positive value when voltage ‘e’ is zero. This is
shown in the Fig. 2.14.
 AC Circuits 2.15

e, i
EM e.m.f e

IM IM i Current
W
B
φ EM φ
O A 0 π/2 π 2π θ = ωt
φ

− IM

−E
M

Fig. 2.14 Phase difference (lead)

From the Fig. 2.14, the two phasors are rotating in
anticlockwise direction with same speed. Here the current ‘i’ is
ahead of voltage ‘e’. Thus current is said to be leading with respect
to voltage and the phase difference or angle difference between
the phasors is called leading phase difference.
In this case, the current i reaches maximum, zero values φ
angle before than the corresponding maximum, zero values of the
voltage. The current ‘i’ is ahead of voltage ‘e’ by angle ‘φ’ at all
the instants. The equations of the two quantities are given by
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
‘i’ is said to be leading ‘e’ by angle ‘φ’.
It can be observed from the above two cases that a plus (+)
sign of angle indicates lead whereas a minus (–) sign indicates lag
with respect to the reference.
2.3.2 Phasor diagram

The diagram in which different alternating quantities of the

same frequency are represented by individual phasors indicating
phase relations between them is called phasor diagram.
2.16 Basic Electrical Engineering

Case (i) : Consider two alternating quantities in phase with each

other.
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin ωt
At any instant, the phase difference between the two phasorsis
zero. The phasor diagram at different instants are shown in the
Fig. 2.15.
Em

Em
O Im Em
Im
Im

O O
Fig. 2.15 Same phasor diagram at various instants
Case (ii) : Consider another case where ‘i’ is lagging voltage ‘e’
by angle φ. The voltage and current equations are
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt – φ)
Then the phasor diagram at various instants is the same and
is shown in the Fig. 2.16.
Em

Lagging
Im
O φ Em Lagging
Lagging φ Im φ
Im O
Em
O
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.16 Phasor diagram showing lag phase difference
In this case the current lags behind the voltage by angle ‘φ’.
If current is taken as reference phasor then phase relation can be
stated as the voltage leads current by angle φ.
 AC Circuits 2.17

Important points about phasor diagram :

1. The reference phasor is shown along the positive x-axis
direction. The individual phase of an alternating quantity is
always referred with respect to positive x-axis direction.
2. The quantities represented in phasor diagram must be of the
same frequency and may be more than two in number.
3. The length of phasor is drawn equal to rms value of an
alternating quantity rather than maximum value.
4. The phasors which are ahead in anticlockwise direction with
respect to reference are said to be leading with respect to
reference and phasors behind are said to be lagging.
5. More than two alternating quantities can be represented in
phasor diagram like current, voltage, flux etc.

2.4 SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS

Simple ac circuits may be classified according to basic circuit

elements R, L and C as given below :
1. AC circuit containing pure resistance only
2. AC circuit containing pure inductance only
3. AC circuit containing pure capacitance only

2.4.1 AC circuit containing pure resistance

R
Consider a simple ac circuit consisting
of a pure resistance ‘R’ connected across a i i
voltage v = Vm sinωt as shown in the
Fig. 2.17. By Ohm’s law, the current through v = Vm sin ωt

the resistance R is given by Fig. 2.17

v
i= (Instantaneous values are indicated by small letters)
R
2.18 Basic Electrical Engineering

Vm sin ωt ⎛ Vm ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟ sin ωt
R ⎝ R ⎠
The above equation gives the instantaneous value of current.
Comparing this current with standard equation i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
Vm
Im = and φ = 0
R
Vm
So the maximum value of alternating current ‘i’ is Im =
R
and φ = 0 indicates that the current is in phase with the voltage
applied. That means the current is reaching its maximum (positive
and negative) and zero values at the same instant when voltage
reaches its maximum (positive and negative) and zero values.
In purely resistive circuit, the current and the voltage applied
are in phase with each other.
The voltage and current waveforms and the phasor diagram
are shown in the Fig. 2.18 (a) and (b).
v, i v = Vm sin ωt

i = Im sin ωt

π 2π
0 Time O I V
Both in phase

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.18 AC through pure resistor

In the phasor diagram, the two phasors voltage and current
are in phase with each other. Phasors represent the rms values of
alternating quantities.
 AC Circuits 2.19

Power (P) :
The instantaneous power in ac circuits is the product of the
instantaneous values of current and voltage.
P = Vi
= Vm sin ωt Im sin ωt
= Vm Im sin2 ωt

Vm I m
= (1 – cos 2ωt)
2

Vm I m Vm I m
= − cos 2ωt
2 2
So the instantaneous power equation consists of two terms
or two components.
Vm I m
i) Constant power component i.e.,
2
Vm I m
ii) Fluctuating component cos 2ωt which has twice the
2
frequency of the applied voltage.
The average value of the fluctuating cosine component of
double frequency over one complete cycle is zero. So the average
power consumption over one cycle is equal to the constant power
Vm I m
component i.e.,
2
Vm I m Vm I m
Pavg = = .
2 2 2
Pavg = Vrms . Irms watts
= VI watts (RMS values are indicated by capital letters)
2.20 Basic Electrical Engineering

The waveforms of voltage, current and power are shown in

the Fig. 2.19.

ωtt
P = Vm Im sin2 ω
V, I, P

Vm I m
Pav =
2

0 Time (t)
ωtt
i = Im sin ω

ωtt
v = Vm sin ω

Fig. 2.19 V, I & P for pure resistive circuit

2.4.2 AC circuit containing pure inductance

Coil
Consider a simple circuit
consisting of a pure inductance of ‘L’ H L
i e i
connected across a voltage v = Vm sin
ωt as shown in the Fig. 2.20.
Pure inductance has zero ohmic v = Vm sin ωt

resistance. Its internal resistance is zero. Fig. 2.20

When alternating current ‘i’ flows through inductance ‘L’,

it sets up an alternating magnetic field around the coil of inductance
‘L’. This changing flux links with the coil and an emf gets inducted
in the coil called self induced emf. By Lenz’s law, this emf opposes
the applied voltage.
The self induced emf in the coil is given by
di
e = −L
dt
At all the instants, applied voltage V is equal and opposite
to the self induced emf ‘e’.
 AC Circuits 2.21

⎛ di ⎞
∴ V = −e = − ⎜ − L ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠

di
V=L
dt
di
Vm sin ωt = L
dt
Vm
di = sin ωt dt
L

Vm V ⎛ − cos ωt ⎞
∴ i = ∫ di = ∫ sin ωt dt = m ⎜ ⎟
L L ⎝ ω ⎠

−Vm ⎛π ⎞ ⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
=
ωL
sin ⎜ − ωt ⎟ ⎢∵ cos ωt = sin ⎜ 2 − ωt ⎟ ⎥
⎝2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

Vm ⎛ π⎞ ⎡ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
i= sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ ⎢∵ sin ⎜ − ωt ⎟ = − sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ ⎥
ωL ⎝ 2⎠ ⎣ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦

⎛ π⎞ V
i = I m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ where I m = m
⎝ 2⎠ ωL
From this equation, current lags the applied voltage by 90°.
Vm Vm
Im = =
ωL X L
Where, XL = 2πfL Ω.
The current equation shows that it is purely sinusoidal and
lags (–90°) the voltage applied by 90°. The negative sign indicates
lagging nature of the current. If current is assumed as a reference,
voltage across inductance leads the current passing through the
inductance by 90°.
2.22 Basic Electrical Engineering

The Fig. 2.21 shows the voltage and current waveforms and
the corresponding phasor diagram.

V, i ωtt
v = Vm sin ω

⎛ π⎞
i = I m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

π π
22π O
0 T V
π
= 90°
2
π I
= 90°
2 I lags V by 90°

(a) Waveforms (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 2.21 AC through purely inductive circuit
Inductive reactance :
In purely inductive circuit
Vm
Im =
XL
Where, XL = ωL = 2πfL Ω.
The term XL is called inductive reactance and is measured
in ohms. It is defined as the opposition offered by the inductance
of a coil or circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.
It depends on the frequency of the applied voltage.
If L is constant then XL ∝ f.
Power :
The instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous
values of voltage and current.
P = Vi
⎛ π⎞
= Vm sin ωt Im sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
 AC Circuits 2.23

= –Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt

Vm I m
P= − sin 2ωt
2
The frequency of power waveform is double to that of
applied voltage. The average value of sine waveform over a
complete cycle is always zero.
2π
Vm I m
Pavg = ∫− sin 2ωt d ( ωt ) = 0
0
2

The Fig. 2.22 shows the voltage, current and power

waveforms.

V, I, P
P +Ve P +Ve P P +Ve

π 2π 3π
0 T

P – Ve P – Ve P – Ve
One cycle Pav = 0

Fig. 2.22 Waveforms of voltage, current and power

From the Fig. 2.22, when power waveform is positive,

energy gets stored in the magnetic field established due to the
increasing current while during negative power waveform, this
power is returned back to the supply.
2.24 Basic Electrical Engineering

The areas of positive loop and negative loop are exactly

same and hence average power consumption is zero. Therefore
pure inductance never consumes power.
2.4.3 AC circuit containing pure capacitance

Consider a simple circuit consisting C

of a pure capacitor of ‘C’ farad connected
across a voltage v = Vm sin ωt as shown in I I
the Fig. 2.23. Due to the applied voltage V,
the current ‘i’ flows through the circuit and
charges the capacitor. The instantaneous V = Vm sin ωt
charge ‘q’ on the plates of the capacitor is Fig. 2.23
given by
q = CV
= C Vm sin ωt
Current is the rate of flow of charge
dq d
i= = ( C Vm sin ωt )
dt dt
d
= C Vm ( sin ωt ) = C Vm ω cos ωt
dt
Vm ⎛ π⎞
i= sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎝ 2⎠
⎜ ωC ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ π⎞
= I m sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Vm
Where, I m =
XC
1 1
Where, X C = = Ω.
ωC 2 πfC
 AC Circuits 2.25

The above equation shows that the current is purely

π
sinusoidal and having phase angle of + radians i.e., +90°. This
2
means current leads voltage applied by 90°. The positive sign
indicates the leading nature of the current. If current is assumed as
reference, then the voltage across capacitor lags the current passing
through the capacitor by 90°.
The Fig. 2.24 shows the waveforms of voltage and current
and the corresponding phasor diagram. The current waveform starts
earlier by 90° in comparison with voltage waveform. When voltage
is zero, the current has positive maximum value.
ωtt
v = Vm sin ω
V, i
⎛ π⎞
i = I m sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ I

90°
0 π π
22π t O V
I leads V by 90°

π/2 π/2

(a) Waveforms (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 2.24 AC through purely capacitive circuit
Capacitive reactance :
From the current equation of pure capacitive circuit
Vm
Im =
XC

1 1
and X C = = Ω
ωC 2 πfC
The term XC is called capacitive reactance and is measured
in ohms. It is defined as the opposition offered by the capacitance
of the circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.
2.26 Basic Electrical Engineering

XC depends on the frequency of the applied voltage.

For constant C, XC is inversely proportional to the frequency.
1
XC ∝
f
Power :
The instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous
values of voltage and current.
P = vi

⎛ π⎞
= Vm sin ωt Im sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
= VmIm sin ωt cos ωt
Vm I m
P= sin 2ωt
2
Thus power is a sine wave of frequency double that of
applied voltage. The average value of a sine wave over a complete
cycle is always zero.
2π
Vm I m
Pavg = ∫ sin ∝ ωt d ( ωt ) = 0
0 2
The Fig. 2.25 shows the waveforms of voltage, current and
power.
From the Fig.2.25, when power curve is positive an
electrostatic energy gets stored in the capacitor during its charging
while the negative power represents that the energy stored is
returned back to the supply during its discharging. The areas of
positive and negative loops are exactly same and hence average
power consumption over one complete cycle is zero. So pure
capacitance never consumes power.
 AC Circuits 2.27

v, i, p
P +Ve P +Ve
P
V
i

0 π 2π 3π T

P – Ve P – Ve
One complete cycle
Pav = 0

Fig. 2.25 Waveforms of voltage, current and power

2.5 SERIES AC CIRCUITS

We have dealt so far simple ac circuits containing pure

elements like resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C).
However in practical circuits the above elements are connected in
combination. A series circuit is a circuit in which the same
alternating current flows through all the circuit elements i.e., R, L,
C etc. The combination of series ac circuits may be
1. R-L series circuit
2. R-C series circuit
3. R-L-C series circuit
2.28 Basic Electrical Engineering

2.5.1 Series R-L circuits

Consider a circuit consisting of pure resistance R ohms

connected in series with a pure inductance of ‘L’ H as shown in
the Fig. 2.26. The series combination of R and L is connected
across ac.
R L

VR VL
I I

v = Vm sin ωt
Fig. 2.26 Series R-L cicuit
Supply voltage v = Vm sin ωt
Due to the supply voltage, the current ‘I’ flows through the
circuit causing two voltage drops.
a) Drop across pure resistance VR = IR
b) Drop across pure inductance VL = I XL where XL = 2πfL Ω
I is the rms value of current
VR, VL are the rms values of voltage drops
Applying KVL to the circuit
The voltages addition here is a phasor addition and not the
algebraic one
∴ V = VR + VL (Phasor addition)
= IR + IXL
Phasor diagram :
The phasor diagram can be drawn by following the steps
given below :
1. Take current as reference phasor.
2. For resistance, voltage and current are in phase with each
other. So draw VR along the current phasor.
 AC Circuits 2.29

3. In case of inductance, current lags voltage by 90°. Since

current is reference, VL should be shown leading with respect
to current by 90°.
4. The supply voltage is the vector sum of VR and VL which
can be drawn using parallelogram law of vectors.
From the voltage equation, V = VR + VL

( IR ) + ( IX L )
2 2
V = V = VR2 + VL2 =

= I R 2 + X 2L
= IZ

where, Z = R 2 + X 2L
Z is called impedance of the circuit and it is measured in
ohms. The phasor diagram of the circuit and the voltage triangle
are shown in the Fig. 2.27 (a) and (b).
B
V
VL
r.m.s value V
of supply VL = IXL

φ 90°
φ 90°
O O A
VR I
VR = IR

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle

Fig. 2.27
Impedance :
It is defined as the opposition of circuit to the flow of
alternating current. It is denoted by Z and measured in ohms. From
the phasor diagram, the current I lags behind the applied voltage V
by an angle φ. From the voltage triangle
2.30 Basic Electrical Engineering

VL IX L X L
tan φ = = =
VR IR R

VR IR R
cos φ = = =
V IZ Z
VL IX L X L
sin φ = = =
V IZ Z
If all the sides of the voltage triangle are divided by current,
impedance triangle can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 2.28.
The sides of the impedance triangle are resistance R,
inductive reactance XL and impedance Z.
From this impedance B
triangle the X component of V
impedance is R i.e., R = Z cos φ Z= VL
I XL =
and Y component of impedance is I
φ 90°
XL i.e., XL = Z sin φ
O
The impedance in rectangu- R=
VR
I
lar form is
Fig. 2.28 Impedance triangle
Z = R + jXL Ω
The impedance in polar form is given by
Z= Z φ Ω

⎛X ⎞
Where, Z = R 2 + X 2L , φ = Tan −1 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
Power and power triangle :
In the series R-L circuit, the current lags behind the voltage
by an angle φ. So the expression for the current can be written as
i = Im sin (ωt – φ)
 AC Circuits 2.31

The instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous

values of voltage and current
P = vi = Vm sin ωt . Im sin (ωt – φ)

= VmIm ⎡⎣ sin ωt ⋅ sin ( ωt − φ ) ⎤⎦

⎡ cos φ − cos ( 2ωt − φ ) ⎤

= VmIm ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

Vm I m V I
= cos φ − m m cos ( 2ωt − φ )
2 2
The second term of power is cosine curve whose average
value over a cycle is zero. Hence average power consumed is

Vm I m V I
Pavg = cos φ = m ⋅ m cos φ
2 2 2
P = VI cos φ watts (V & I are rms values)
The power equation is obtained by multiplying voltage
equation with current I.

VI = VR I + VL I

VI = V cos φ I + V sin φ I

= VI cos φ + VI sin φ
From this equation power VI
VL I = VI sinφ
triangle can be obtained as shown in
the Fig. 2.29. φ
O
The three sides of this triangle VR I = V cos φI

are VI, VI cos φ and VI sin φ. Fig. 2.29 Power triangle

2.32 Basic Electrical Engineering

Apparent power : It is defined as the product of rms values of

voltage (V) and current (I). It is denoted by S.
S = VI VA
It is measured in volt-amp (VA) or kilo volt-amp (kVA).
Real or true power : It is defined as the product of the applied
voltage and the active component of the current. It is real component
of the apparent power. It is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts
(kW). It is denoted by P.
P = VI cos φ watts
Reactive power : It is defined as the product of the applied voltage
and reactive component of the current. It is also the imaginary
component of the apparent power. It is denoted by Q and measured
in volt-amp reactive (VAR) or kilo volt-amp reactive (kVAR).
Q = VI sin φ VAR
So S = VI VA is apparent power
True or average power, P = VI cos φ W
Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ VAR
Power factor (cos φ) : It is defined as factor by which the apparent
power must be multiplied in order to obtain true power. It can be
defined in many ways. It is the ratio of true power to apparent
power.
True power VI cos φ
Power factor = = = cos φ
Apparent power VI
It is also defined as the cosine of the phase angle between
the applied voltage and the current drawn from the supply voltage.
It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance.
R
cos φ =
Z
 AC Circuits 2.33

The nature of power factor is always determined by position

of current with respect to the voltage. It cannot be greater than 1.
If current lags voltage then power factor is said to be lagging.
If current leads voltage then power factor is said to be leading.
For pure inductance, power factor is cos φ = cos 90° = 0
i.e., zero lagging.
For pure capacitance, power factor is cos φ = cos 90° = 0
i.e., zero leading.
For pure resistor, power factor is cos φ = cos 0 = 1
i.e., unity and voltage and current are in phase with each other.
For R-L series circuit, the power factor is cos φ where φ lies
in between 0° and 90°. Hence cos φ lies in between 0 and 1. The
nature of power factor is lagging.

2.5.2 Series R-C circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of R C

pure resistance R ohm and pure capacitor
VR VC
C farads connected in series with each I I

other as shown in the Fig. 2.30.

The series combination is connec- v = Vm sin ωt
ted across ac supply voltage Fig. 2.30 Series R-C circuit
v = Vm sin ωt
Due to supply voltage, current I flows through the circuit
which results in two voltage drops.
a) Drop across resistance VR = IR
b) Drop across capacitance VC = IXC
1
Where, X C =
2 πfc
2.34 Basic Electrical Engineering

Here I, VR and VC are the rms values

Apply KVL to the circuit
V = VR + VC

V = IR + IX C
Phasor diagram :
The phasor diagram can be drawn by following the below
steps :
1. Take current as reference phasor.
2. For resistance, voltage and current are in phase. So VR will
be along current phasor.
3. For capacitance, current leads voltage by 90°. So VC must
be drawn lagging behind the current by 90°.
4. The supply voltage V is obtained by adding the two vectors
VR and VC using parallelogram law of vectors.
The phasor diagram and voltage triangle are shown in the
Fig. 2.31 (a) and (b).
VR = IR
VR I A
O A O
φ
90°

V VC = IXC

VC B
V B
(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle
Fig.2.31
From the voltage triangle

( IR ) + ( IX C )
2 2
V = VR2 + VC2 =

= I R 2 + X 2C
V = IZ
 AC Circuits 2.35

where, Z = R 2 + X C2
Impedance :
It is defined as the opposition of the circuit to the flow of
alternating current. It is denoted by Z and measured in ohms.
For series R-C circuit it is given by

Z = R 2 + X 2C

1
Where, X C = Ω which is called capacitive reactance
2 πfc
From the phasor diagram, current leads voltage by angle φ
or supply voltage lags current by angle φ.
VC IX C X C
From voltage triangle, tan φ = = =
VR IR R

VR IR R
cos φ = = =
V IZ Z
VC IX C X C
sin φ = = =
V IZ Z
If all the sides of voltage triangle R=
VR

are divided by the current, impedance O I A

φ
triangle can be obtained. The sides of the Vc
= XC
impedance triangle are R, XC and Z as V I
=Z
shown in the Fig. 2.32. I
B
The x component of impedance is
Fig. 2.32 Impedance
R i.e., R = Z cos φ
triangle
The y component of impedance is
XC i.e., XC = Z sin φ
The direction of XC in the impedance triangle is the negative
y direction so the rectangular form of impedance is Z = R – jXC Ω.
2.36 Basic Electrical Engineering

In polar form, Z = Z −φ Ω

Z = R − jX C = Z −φ Ω

⎛ X ⎞
Where, Z = R 2 + X C2 and φ = Tan −1 ⎜ − C ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
So the phase angle φ is negative for capacitive impedance.
Power and power triangle :
As the current leads voltage by an angle φ in R-C series
circuit, the expression for current is given by
i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
The power is the product of instantaneous values of voltage
and current.
P = vi = Vm sin ωt . Im sin (ωt + φ)
= VmIm sin ωt . sin (ωt + φ)

⎡ cos ( −φ ) − cos ( 2ωt + φ ) ⎤

= VmIm ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

Vm I m cos φ Vm I m
= − cos (2ωt + φ)
2 2
The second component of power is cosine term whose
average value over a cycle is zero. Hence average power consumed
by the circuit is
Vm I m V I
Pavg = cos φ = m ⋅ m cos φ
2 2 2
P = VI cos φ where, V and I are rms values.
If the voltage equation is multiplied with current I, power
equation can be obtained.
 AC Circuits 2.37

VI = VR I + VC I

VI = V cos φ I + V sin φ I

= VI cos φ + VI sin φ
The sides of the power triangle are P = VI cosφ
O A
VI, VI cos φ and VI sin φ as shown in φ
the Fig. 2.33.
S = VI Q = VI sinφ
The various powers are :
Apparent power S = VI VA
B
True or real or average power P Fig. 2.33 Power triangle
= VI cos φ W
Reactive power Q = VI sin φ VAR
So for any single phase ac circuit (R-L or R-C) the average
power is P = VI cos φ W where, V and I are rms values.
Z = R + jX L = Z φ for R-L circuit
φ is positive for inductive impedance
Z = R − jX C = Z −φ for R-C circuit
φ is negative for capacitive impedance
cos φ is the power factor of the circuit
cos φ is lagging for inductive (R-L) circuit and cos φ is
leading for capacitive (R-C) circuit.

2.5.3 Series R-L-C circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of resistance R ohms,

inductance L henries and capacitance C farads connected in series
with each other across ac supply v = Vm sin ωt as shown in the
Fig. 2.34.
2.38 Basic Electrical Engineering

R L C

VR VL VC
VL
I O I I
90° 90°
O I VR I
O VC

v = Vm sin ωt

Fig. 2.34 Series R-L-C circuit

The current I flows through the circuit due to which there
are different voltage drops across R, L and C given by
i) Drop across resistance R is VR = IR.
ii) Drop across inductance L is VL = IXL.
iii) Drop across capacitance C is VC = IXC.
Here I, VR, VL and VC are rms values.
The characteristics of three drops are
i) VR is in phase with current I
ii) VL leads current I by 90°
iii) VC lags current I by 90°
Apply KVL to the circuit
V = VR + VL + VC
Phasor diagram :
The phasor diagram can be drawn by following the below
steps
1. Take current as reference.
2. Draw VR in phase with current I.
3. VL is drawn leading the current I by 90°.
4. VC is drawn lagging behind the current I by 90°.
 AC Circuits 2.39

5. Obtain the resultant of VL and VC. Both VL and VC are in

phase opposition i.e., 180° out of phase.
6. Add the resultant to VR using parallelogram law to get the
supply voltage.
The phasor diagram depends on the magnitudes of VL and
VC which ultimately depends on the values of XL and XC. Consider
the following different cases.
i) XL > XC ii) XL < XC iii) XL = XC
i) XL > XC :
When XL > XC, VL = IXL will be greater than VC = IXC. So
the resultant of VL and VC (VL – VC) will be in the direction of VL.
Hence the resultant (VL – VC) leads the current I by 90°.
Since XL > XC, the circuit is said to be inductive in nature.
The phasor sum of VR and (VL – VC) gives the resultant supply
voltage as shown in the Fig. 2.35 (a). The voltage triangle is shown
in the Fig. 2.35 (b).

VL VL >VC

VB B
(VL – VC)
V
(VL – VC)
φ A φ
O O I
VR I VR A

I lags V by φ
VC

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle

Fig. 2.35

Current I lags the supply voltage V by an angle φ when XL > XC.

2.40 Basic Electrical Engineering

( VR ) + ( VL − VC )
2 2
From the voltage triangle, V =

( IR ) + ( IX L − IX C )
2 2
=

= I R2 + ( X L − XC )
2

V = IZ

where, Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )
2

So if v = Vm sin ωt then i = Im sin (ωt – φ) as current lags

voltage by angle φ.
ii) XL < XC :
When XL < XC, VL = IXL is less than VC = IXC. So the
resultant of VL and VC will be directed towards VC. Current I will
lead (VC – VL). As XL < XC, the circuit is said to be capacitive in
nature. The phasor sum of VR and (VC – VL) gives the resultant
supply voltage V as shown in the Fig. 2.36 (a). The voltage triangle
is shown in the Fig. 2.36 (b).

VL

A VR A
O I O I
φ VR φ
(VC – VL)
V
(VC – VL) V
B B
VC > VL
I – leads V by angle φ
VC

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle

Fig. 2.36
 AC Circuits 2.41

From the voltage triangle, V = VR2 + ( VC − VL )

2

( IR ) + ( IX C − IX L )
2 2
=

= I R2 + ( XC − X L )
2

V = IZ

where, Z = R + ( X C − X L )
2 2

So if v = Vm sin ωt, then i = Im sin (ωt + φ) as current leads

voltage by angle φ.
iii) XL = XC :
VL VC = VL
When XL = XC, VL = VC. So VL
and VC will cancel each other and their
resultant is zero. In such case the O I
VR = V
resultant supply voltage is v = VR and
overall circuit is purely resistive in VC
nature. The phasor diagram is as shown Fig. 2.37 Phasor diagram
in the Fig. 2.37.
From the phasor diagram, VR = V
V = IR
= IZ
Where, Z = R.
Impedance :
In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by
Z = R + jX
Where, X = XL – XC = Total reactance of circuit
2.42 Basic Electrical Engineering

i) If XL > XC then X is positive and circuit is inductive

ii) If XL < XC then X is negative and circuit is capacitive
iii) If XL = XC then X is zero and circuit is purely resistive
The various relations between R, X, Z and φ are

⎛ X − XC ⎞ R
⎟ , cos φ = Z , Z = R + ( X L − X C )
2
tan φ = ⎜ L 2

⎝ R ⎠
Impedance triangle :
The impedance equation is given by
Z = R + jX where, X = XL – XC
For XL > XC, φ is positive and the impedance triangle is as
shown in the Fig. 2.38 (a). For XL < XC, φ is negative and the
impedance triangle is as shown in the Fig. 2.38 (b). The impedance
triangle is obtained by dividing the voltage triangle by current I.
O R
φ – Ve

Z XL – XC = X which is
(XL – XC) = X Z negative as XL < XC
+Ve
φ
O R

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.38 Impedance triangles
Power and power triangle :
The average power consumed by the R-L-C series circuit is
Pavg = Average power consumed by R + Average power
consumed by L + Average power consumed by C.
Pure L and pure C never consume any power
Pavg = Power consumed by R = I2R = I (IR) = IVR = IV cos φ
(VR = V cos φ)
P = VI cos φ W
 AC Circuits 2.43

Thus for any condition, XL > XC or XL < XC the power is

given by
P = Voltage × Current component in phase with voltage

2.5.4 Summary of R, L and C circuits

Table 2.1 Summary of R, L and C circuits

Impedance (Z) p.f

S.No. Circuit φ Remark
Polar Rectangular cos φ

1. Pure R R 0° Ω R+j0 Ω 0° 1 unity p.f

2. Pure L XL 90° Ω 0+jXL Ω 90° 0 zero lag

3. Pure C XC −90° Ω 0–jXC Ω –90° 0 zero lead

4. Series RL Z φ Ω R+jXL Ω 0<φ<90° cos φ lagging

5. Series RC Z −φ Ω R–jXC Ω –90°<φ<0° cos φ leading

6. Series RLC Z ±φ Ω R+j×Ω φ cos φ XL>XC lag

X=XL–XC XL<XC lead
XL=XC unity
 2.44 Basic Electrical Engineering

2.6 PROBLEMS ON SERIES CIRCUITS

Example 2.1 :
An inductive circuit has a resistance of 5 Ω in series with
an inductance of 0.03H. Calculate the current and power factor
when connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.

Solution :
5Ω 0.03 H
Given R = 5 Ω, L = 0.03 H,
V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
I = ? Pf = ?
Inductive reactance
230 V, 50 Hz
XL = 2πfL Fig. 2.39
= 2π (50) (0.03)
= 9.4247 Ω

Impedance Z = R 2 + X 2L = 52 + ( 9.4247 ) = 10.66 Ω

2

V 230
Current I = = = 21.566 A
Z 10.66
R 5
Power factor cos φ = = = 0.469 lag
Z 10.66
 AC Circuits 2.45

Example 2.2 :
An inductive coil having a resistance of 15 Ω takes a
current of 4 A when connected to a 100 V, 60 Hz supply. If the
coil is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz supply calculate
i) currentii) power iii) power factor.
Solution :
Given R = 15 Ω, I = 4 A, V = 100 V, f = 60 Hz

V 100
Z= = = 25 Ω
I 4

Z = R 2 + X 2L ⇒ X L = Z 2 − R 2 = 252 − 152 = 20 Ω

X L = 2πfL = 20

20 20
L= = = 0.053 H R = 15 Ω L = 0.053 H
2πf 2π ( 60 )

When the coil is connected to

a 100 V, 50 Hz supply
100 V, 50 Hz
XL = 2πfL = 2π (50) (0.053)
Fig. 2.40
= 16.66 Ω

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 152 + 16.662 = 22.41 Ω

V 100
i) Current, I = = = 4.46 A
Z 22.41
ii) Power, P = I2R = 4.462 × 15 = 298.47 W

R 15
iii) Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.669 lag
Z 22.41
2.46 Basic Electrical Engineering

Example 2.3 :
A coil of resistance 10 Ω is connected in series with a
coil of inductance 0.02 H and is connected to AC mains of 100
V, 50 Hz. Calculate current, power factor and voltage drop
across both resistance and inductance.
Solution :
10 Ω 0.02 H
Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.02 H,
V = 100 V, f = 50 Hz VR VL

Inductive reactance
XL = 2πfL
100 V, 50 Hz
= 2π (50) (0.02)
Fig. 2.41
= 6.283 Ω

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 10 2 + 6.2832 = 11.81 Ω

V 100
Current, I = = = 8.467 A
Z 11.81
R 10
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.846 lag
Z 11.81
Voltage across resistance, VR = IR = 8.467 × 10 = 84.67 V
Voltage across inductance, VL = IXL= 8.467× 6.283 = 53.198 V
Example 3.4 :
A circuit consists of 12 Ω resistance in series with a
capacitance of 100 μ μF. It is connected across a supply of 230 V,
50 Hz. Find a) Reactance b) Impedance c) Current
d) Powerfactor e) Power.
Solution :
Given R = 12 Ω, C = 100 μF, V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
 AC Circuits 2.47

1 1
a) Reactance, X C = =
(
2πfc 2π ( 50 ) 100 × 10 −6 )
R = 12 Ω C = 100 μF
= 31.83 Ω

b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2C

= 122 + 31.832 = 34 Ω 230 V, 50 Hz

Fig. 2.42
V 230
c) Current, I = = = 6.76 A
Z 34
R 12
d) Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.353 lead
Z 34
e) Power, P = VI cos φ = 230 × 6.76 × 0.353 = 548.84 W
Example 2.5 :
A resistance of 10 Ω , an inductance of 0.2 H and
capacitance of 100 μ
μF are connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate the current and power factor.

Solution :
Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.2 H, C = 100 μF
Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL
= 2π(50) (0.2) = 6.283 Ω
10 Ω 0.2 H 100 μF

230 V, 50 Hz

Fig. 2.43
2.48 Basic Electrical Engineering

1
Capacitive reactance, X C =
2 πfc
1
= = 31.83 Ω
(
2π ( 50 ) 100 × 10 −6 )
Impedance, Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )
2

= 10 2 + ( 62.83 − 31.83 ) = 32.57 Ω

2

V 230
Current, I = = = 7.061A
Z 32.57
R 10
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.307 lag
Z 32.57
Example 2.6 :
An inductive circuit has a resistance of 10 Ω in series
with an inductance of 0.03H. Calculate the current and power
factor when connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.

10 Ω 0.03 H
Solution :
Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.03 H,
V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
Inductive reactance
XL = 2πfL = 2π(50) (0.03) 230 V, 50 Hz

= 9.424 Ω Fig. 2.44

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 10 2 + 9.424 2 = 13.74 Ω

V 230
Current, I = = = 16.74 A
Z 13.74
R 10
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.728 lag
Z 13.74
 AC Circuits 2.49

Example 2.7 :
A circuit consists of 10 Ω resistance in series with an
inductance of 100 mH. It is connected across a supply of
1-phase, 230 V, 50 Hz. Find a) reactance,
b) impedance, c) current, d) power factor and e) power.
Solution : 10 Ω 100 mH

Given R = 10 Ω, L = 100 mH,

V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
a) Reactance, XL = 2πfL
230 V, 50 Hz
= 2π(50) (100 × 10–3)
Fig. 2.45
= 31.416 Ω

b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 10 2 + ( 31.416 ) = 32.97 Ω

2

V 230
c) Current, I = = = 6.976 A
Z 32.97

R 10
d) Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.303 lag
Z 32.97
e) Power, P = I2R = (6.976)210 = 486.6 W
Example 2.8 :
A 1-phase supply of 200 V, 50 Hz is connected across a
circuit consisting of 5 Ω resistance in series with 80 mH
inductance. Find a) reactance b) impedance c) current
d) voltage drop across resistance e) voltage drop across
inductance.
Solution :
Given V = 200 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 5 Ω, L = 80 mH
 2.50 Basic Electrical Engineering

a) Reactance, XL = 2πfL 5Ω 80 mH

= 2π(50) (80 × 10–3) VR VL

= 25.13 Ω

200 V, 50 Hz
b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L
Fig. 2.46

= 52 + ( 25.13 ) = 25.62 Ω
2

V 200
c) Current, I = = = 7.8 A
Z 25.62
d) Voltage drop across resistance, VR = IR = (7.8) (5) = 39 V
e) Voltage drop across inductance, VL = I XL = (7.8) (25.13)
= 196 V
Example 2.9 :

A 1-phase supply of 230 V, 50 Hz is connected across a

circuit consisting of 15 Ω resistance in series with 120 μF
capacitance. Find a) reactance b) impedance c) current
d) voltage drop across resistance e) voltage drop across
capacitance.

Solution :

Given V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 15 Ω , C = 120 μF

1 1
a) Reactance, X L = = = 26.52 Ω
(
2πfC 2π ( 50 ) 120 × 10 −6 )
 AC Circuits 2.51

15 Ω 120 μF
b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2C
VR VC

= 15 + ( 26.52 )
2 2

= 30.47 Ω
230 V, 50 Hz

V 230 Fig. 2.47

c) Current, I = = = 7.55A
Z 30.47
d) Voltage drop across resistance, VR = IR = (7.55) (15) = 113.25 V
e) Voltage drop across capacitance, VC = I XC = (7.55) (26.52)
= 200.22 V

2.7 POLYPHASE AND 3-PHASE SYSTEM

A single phase a.c. voltage can be generated by rotating a

conductor in a magnetic field. Such an a.c producing machine is
called single turn alternator. The voltage produced by a single
conductor is very less and hence number of turns are connected in
series to form a winding called armature winding in a practical
alternator. The sum of voltages induced in all the conductors is
available as a single phase a.c. voltage which is used to drive the
practical loads. But in practice there are certain loads which require
polyphase supply i.e., many phases. Such applications need a supply
having many a.c. voltages present in it simultaneously. This type
of system is called polyphase system.
A polyphase system is developed by dividing the armature
winding into number of phases required. In each section a separate
a.c. voltage gets induced. So there are many independent a.c
voltages present equal to number of phases of armature winding.
The various phases of armature winding are arranged in such a
manner that the magnitudes and frequencies of these voltages is
2.52 Basic Electrical Engineering

same but they have definite phase difference with respect to each
other. The phase difference depends on number of phases in which
armature is divided.
If armature is divided into three coils or phases then there
are three separate a.c. voltages with same magnitude and frequency
360°
but they will have a phase difference of = 120° with respect
3
to each other. All three voltages with a phase difference of 120°
are available to supply a three phase load. Such a supply system is
called three phase system.
Similarly by dividing the armature into various number of
phases an n-phase (2-phase or 6-phase) supply system can be

obtained. The phase difference between such voltages is 360° .

n
In practice a three phase system is found to be more
economical and it has certain advantages over polyphase system.
Three phase system is used everywhere in practice.
2.7.1 Advantages of three phase system

In the three phase system, the alternator armature has three

windings which produce three alternating voltages of same
magnitude and frequency having a phase difference of 120°
between each other. The following are the advantages of three phase
system over single phase system.
1. The output of three phase machine is always greater than
single phase machine of same size approximately 1.5 times.
2. Three phase systems give steady output.
3. For transmission and distribution, three phase system needs
less copper or less conducting material than single phase
system.
 AC Circuits 2.53

4. Rotating magnetic field is produced using three phase

system. Hence three phase motors are self starting.
5. Polyphase system is more capable and reliable than single
phase system.
6. Single phase supply can be obtained from three phase but
three phase cannot be obtained from single phase.
7. Power factor of single phase motors is poor than three phase
motors of same rating.
8. Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is simple
compared to that of single phase alternators.

2.8 PHASE DIFFERENCE IN 3 PHASE SYSTEM

If armature of an alternator is divided into three groups such

that they are displaced by the angle 120° from each other, three
separate alternating voltages get developed.
Consider armature of alternator divided into three groups
as shown in the Fig. 2.48. The armature coils are named as R1 –
R2, Y1 – Y2 and B1 – B2. The ends of each coil are brought out to
collect the induced emf.
Let eR, ey and eB be the three S
voltages induced in coils R1 – R2,
B2 Y1
Y1 – Y2 and B1 – B2 respectively. All
are alternating voltages having same R1 R2
magnitude and frequency displaced
Rotation
by 120°. Y2 B1

Let e R be assumed as the N

reference and is zero for the instant
shown in the Fig. 2.49. At the same Fig. 2.48
instant ey will be displaced by 120°
2.54 Basic Electrical Engineering

from eR and will follow eR. While eB is ahead of eR by angle 120°.

ey will attain its maximum and minimum position 120° later than
eR and eB will attain its maximum and minimum position 120°
later than ey i.e., 120° + 120° = 240° later with respect to eR. All
the voltages together represent three phase supply system. The
waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.49

Em eR eY eB

0 ωt

120° 120°
240

Fig. 2.49 Three phase voltages

The equations of the induced voltages are

eR = Em sin ωt
ey = Em sin (ωt – 120°)
eB
eB = Em sin (ωt – 240°)
eB lags eY by 120°

= Em sin (ωt + 120°)

120°
120°
eR
The phasor diagram of these
120°
voltages is shown in the Fig. 2.50. As
phasors rotate in anticlockwise eY
eY lags eR by 120°

direction, ey lags eR by 120° and eB lags

Fig. 2.50 Phase sequence
ey by 120°.
 AC Circuits 2.55

2.9 STAR - DELTA CONNECTION

In three phase system, three phases or windings are used

each of which has two terminals. If all the terminals are used
independently then a total of six wires will be required which is
costlier. To reduce the cost the three windings are interconnected
in a particular fashion. There are two types of connections.
1. Star or Wye (Y) connection
2. Delta or Mesh (Δ) connection

2.9.1 Star connection

The star connection is formed by connecting the similar ends

of all the three windings together. If R1 - R2, Y1 - Y2 and B1 - B2
are the terminals of the three windings then the ends R1 - Y1 - B1
are connected or R2 - Y2 - B2 are connected together. This common
point is called neutral point. The remaining three ends are brought
out for connection purpose. These ends are generally referred as
R - Y - B to which load is to be connected. The star connection is
as shown in the Fig. 2.51.
IR
R
R1

VRN
R2 R1
VRY R
N
VRB Y2 Y1
N Y To load
V
N Y B2 B1
B1 VB N Y1 B
IY
Y
IB VYB
B

Fig. 2.51 Star connection

 2.56 Basic Electrical Engineering

The potential difference between any two lines of supply is

called line voltage and current passing through any line is called
line current. Line voltages are denoted by VL. They are VRY, VYB
and VBR. Line currents are denoted by IL. These are IR, IY and IB.
The voltage across any branch or phase is called phase
voltage denoted by VPh. The current passing through any branch or
phase is called phase current denoted by IPh.
VRN, VYN and VBN are the phase voltages while IR, IY and IB
are the phase currents.
From the Fig. 2.51,
IPh = IR = IY = IB
The same currents are flowing through the three lines and
hence IL = IPh Line voltage is given by
VL = 3 VPh Thus line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage.

The power consumed in each phase is single phase power

given by P1φ = VPh IPh cos φ

The total three phase power consumed is

P = 3 VL IL cos φ

The phasor diagram showing the line and phase voltages

and currents is shown in the Fig. 2.52.
 AC Circuits 2.57

VBR = VL VB = VPh –VY VRY = VL

IB = IPh

VL leads VPh by 30°

φ
VL = 3 VPh

VR = VPh
–VR φ
φ
IY –IPh IR = IPh

VY = VPh –VB

VRY = VR − VY
VYB = VY − VB
VBR = VB − VR VYB = VL

Fig. 2.52 Star and lagging p.f load

All line voltages are displaced by 120° from each other.
Every line voltage leads the respective phase voltage by 30°.

2.9.2 Delta Connection

The delta connection is formed by connecting dissimilar

ends of the three windings to form a closed loop. The supply
terminals are taken out from the three junction points. The delta
connection is shown in the Fig. 2.53.
IR
R
B2 R1
VRY
VBR
IBR IRY IY
Y
B1 R2
IYB
Y2 Y1
VYB

IB
B
Fig. 2.53 Delta connection
2.58 Basic Electrical Engineering
Line voltages VL are VRY, VYB and VBR. While line currents
IL are IR, IY and IB.
The currents flowing through the various branches are phase
currents. These are IRY, IYB and IBR. The voltages across the three
branches are VRY, VYB and VBR and all are phase voltages.
VPh = VRY = VYB = VBR
Thus in delta connection, line voltages are same as the phase
voltages.
But phase currents and line currents are different. Line
current is given by

IL = 3 IPh
Power consumed in each phase is single phase power given by
P1φ = VPh IPh cos φ
Total power consumed is
P= 3 VL IL cos φ
The phasor diagram for lagging power factor load is shown
in the Fig. 2.54.
VBR IB = IL

IBR

–IRY
φ –IYB

IY = IL
φ VRY = VPh = VL
φ
IRY = IPh
IYB

–IBR IPh lags VPh by φ

IL lags IPh by 30°
VVB IR = IL
Fig. 2.54 Delta and lagging p.f load
 AC Circuits 2.59

Each phase current lags respective phase voltage by angle φ.

Every line current lags the respective phase current by 30°.

2.10 PROBLEMS ON STAR & DELTA CONNECTION

Problem 2.10:
Three coils each having resistance of 10 Ω and the
inductance of 0.02 H are connected in star across 440 V, 50 Hz
three phase supply. Calculate i) Phase voltage, ii) Phase
current, iii) Line current and iv) Total power consumed.
Solution:
The given supply voltage is line voltage
VL = 440 V, f = 50 Hz, Rph = 10 Ω, Lph = 0.02 Ω
Zph = Rph + j XLph
XLph = 2πfLph = 2π × 50 × 0.02 = 6.28 Ω
Zph = Rph + j XLph = 10 + j 6.28 Ω = 11.81 ∠32.14° Ω

Z ph = 11.81 Ω and φ = 32.14° lagging

VL 440
i) Phase voltage, Vph = = = 254 V
3 3

Vph 254
ii) Phase current, I ph = = = 21.5 A
Z ph 11.81

iii) Line current, IL = Iph = 21.5 A

iv) Power consumed, P = 3VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 440 × 21.5 × cos ( 32.14 )

= 13880.68 W = 13.8 kW.
2.60 Basic Electrical Engineering

Problem 2.11:
Three inductive coils each having resistance of 16 Ω and
reactance of 12 Ω are connected in star across a 400 V, 50 Hz
three phase supply. Calculate
i) Line voltage, ii) Phase voltage, iii) Line current
iv) Phase current and v) Power absorbed.
Solution:
Given,
Rph = 16 Ω, Xph = 12 Ω
V = 400 V, f = 50 Hz
Zph = Rph + j XLph
= 16 + j 12 = 20 ∠36.86° Ω = Z ph ∠φ
i) Line voltage, VL = 400 V
VL 400
ii) Phase voltage, Vph = = = 231 V
3 3
Vph 231
iii) Phase current, I ph = = = 11.55 A
Z ph 20
For star connection, IL = Iph
Line current, IL = 11.55 A
iv) Phase current, Iph = 11.55 A
v) Power absorbed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 11.55 × cos ( 36.86° )

= 6400 W = 6.4 kW.
Problem 2.12:
Three identical coils, each having resistance of 15 Ω and
inductance of 0.03 H are connected in delta across a three phase,
400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate i) Phase current, ii) Line current,
iii) Total power consumed.
 AC Circuits 2.61

Solution:
Rph = 15 Ω, Lph = 0.03 H
XLph = 2πfLph = 2π × 50 × 0.03 = 9.425 Ω
Zph = Rph + j XLph

= 15 + j 9.425 = 17.72 32.14° = Z ph ∠φ°

For delta connection, Vph = VL and IL = 3 I ph .

Vph 400
i) Phase current, I ph = = = 22.58 A.
Z ph 17.72

ii) Line current, I L = 3 I ph = 3 × 22.58 = 39.11 A.

iii) Total power consumed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 39.11 × cos ( 32.14 )

= 22.94 kW.
Problem 2.13:
A three phase, 230 V supply is given to balanced load
which is delta connected. Impedance in each phase of the load
is 8 + j 6 Ω. Determine the phase current and the total power
consumed.
Solution:
Given,
VL = 230 V
Zph = 8 + j 6 Ω
= 10 ∠36.86°
For delta connection, VL = Vph
I L = 3 I ph
 2.62 Basic Electrical Engineering

Vph 230
I ph = = = 23 A
Z ph 10

I L = 3 I ph = 3 × 23 = 39.837 A

Power consumed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 230 × 39.837 × cos ( 36.86° )

= 12697.64 W = 12.69 kW.
Problem 2.14:
A symmetrical 3 phase, 400 V system supplies a balanced
load of 0.8 lagging power factor and connected in star. If the
line current is 34.64 A, find i) impedance, ii) resistance and
reactance per phase, iii) total power.
Solution:
Given,
cos φ = 0.8 lagging
VL = 400 V
VL 400
Vph = = = 230.94 V
3 3
IL = Iph = 34.64 A
Vph 230.94
Z ph = = = 6.667 Ω
I ph 34.64
φ = cos–1 (0.8) = 36.86
i) Z ph = Z ph ∠φ = 6.667∠36.86 Ω = 5.33 + j 4 Ω.
ii) Rph = 5.33 Ω and XLph = 4 Ω.
iii) Power consumed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 34.64 × 0.8 = 19.19 kW.

 AC Circuits 2.63

Problem 2.15:
Three IMPEDANCES each having a resistance of 20 0hm
and an inductive reactance of 15 ohm are connected in star
across a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate (i) the line current
and (ii) total power absorbed.
Solution:
Given
Rph = 20 Ω, Xph = 15 Ω
V = 400 V, f = 50 Hz
Zph = Rph + jXph = (20 + j 15)Ω = 25 36.86° Ω
Line Voltage, VL = 400 V

VL 400
Phase Voltage, Vph = = = 231 V.
3 3

Vph 231
Phase current, Iph = = = 9.24 A
Z ph 25

For star connection, IL = Iph

i) Line current IL = 9.24A

ii) Power absorbed, P = 3VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 9.24 × cos ( 36.86° )

= 5121.99 W.
= 5.122 kW.
2.64 Basic Electrical Engineering

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define
i) Amplitude ii) Cycle
iii) Time period iv) Frequency
v) Instantaneous value vi) Average value
vii) RMS value and
viii) Form factor of alternating quantity

2. Define the terms
a) Form factor b) Peak factor

3. Explain the term power factor and its significance.

4. Explain phase and phase difference.

5. Draw the phasor and vector diagrams of R, L, C, series

R-L, R-Cand R-L-C circuits.
6. Explain a) Average value, b) RMS value and c) form factor.
7. State the merits of polyphase system over single phase
system.

8. State the relation of line voltage, phase voltage, line current

and phase current in case of star and delta connections.

9. State the relation between phase values and line values of

voltage and current in case of i) star and ii) delta connections.