UNIT V

NETWORKING

1.1 Inte rnet Security

Internet security refers to securing communication over the internet. It includes specific
security protocols such as:
● Internet Security Protocol (IPSec)
● Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
● Internet Security Protocol (IPSec)
It consists of a set of protocols designed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It
provides security at network level and helps to create authenticated and confidential packets for IP
layer.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
It is a security protocol developed by Netscape Communications Corporation. ). It provides
security at transport layer. It addresses the following security issues:
● Privacy
● Integrity
● Authentication
● Threats

Internet security threats impact the network, data security and other internet connected systems.
Cyber criminals have evolved several techniques to threat privacy and integrity of bank accounts,
businesses, and organizations.
Following are some of the internet security threats:
● Mobile worms
● Malware
● PC and Mobile ransomware
● Large scale attacks like Stuxnet that attempts to destroy infrastructure.
● Hacking as a Service
● Spam
● Phishing
Email Phishing
Email phishing is an activity of sending emails to a user claiming to be a legitimate enterprise.
Its main purpose is to steal sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card
details.
Such emails contains link to websites that are infected with malware and direct the user to enter
details at a fake website whose look and feels are same to legitimate one.

What a phishing email may contain?

Following are the symptoms of a phishing email:
Spelling and bad grammar
Most often such emails contain grammatically incorrect text. Ignore such emails, since it can be a
spam.
Beware of links in email
Don’t click on any links in suspicious emails.
Threats
Such emails contain threat like “your account will be closed if you didn’t respond to an email
message”.
Spoofing popular websites or companies
These emails contain graphics that appear to be connected to legitimate website but they actually
are connected to fake websites.

1.2. Mobile Technology-

Mobile technology is a type of technology in which a user utilizes a mobile phone to perform
communications-related tasks, such as communicating with friends, relatives, and others. It is used
to send data from one system to another. Portable two-way communications systems, computing
devices, and accompanying networking equipment make up mobile technology.
Mobile technology is largely employed in cellular communication systems and other related areas.
It employs a network architecture that allows multiple transmitters to deliver data on a single
channel at the same time. Because it reduces the potential of frequency interference from two or
more sources, this platform allows multiple users to use single frequencies. The channel has
evolved over time.
This is fast expanding; its applications are getting increasingly broad over time, and it is gradually
replacing other similar sources of communication on the market, such as post offices and landlines.
Mobile technology has progressed from a simple phone and texting device to a multi-tasking
system that can be used for GPS navigation, internet browsing, gaming, and instant messaging,
among other things. With the rise, experts claim that the future of computer technology is
dependent on wireless networking and mobile computing.
Through tablets and small PCs, mobile technology is becoming increasingly popular. This
Smartphone system has since been improved to a big multitasking computer that can be used for
GPS navigation, gaming, internet browsing, and instant messaging. Tablets and portable laptops
have increased the adoption of mobile technology. The mobile networks that connect these devices
are referred to as wireless systems. They allow speech, data, and (mobile) apps to be shared
between mobile devices.
Mobile technology is becoming increasingly prevalent. Smartphone users have surpassed 3 billion,
and the global mobile workforce is expected to reach 1.87 billion by 2022. Any gadget with internet
capabilities that can be accessed from anywhere is referred to as mobile technology. Smartphones,
tablets, some iPods, and laptops already fall within this category, but this list will undoubtedly grow
in the future years.

Types of Mobile Technologies

Followings are the few famous mobile technologies:

● SMS
● MMS
● 4G
● 3G
● GSM
● CDMA
● Wi-Fi
1.3 Architecture of GSM Cellular Mobile Phone System

GSM ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of GSM comes in hierarchy, consisting of many entities, interfaces and
subsystems.
The GSM system consist of three subsystems namely,
✔ The Radio Subsystems(RSS)
✔ Network and Switching Subsystems(NSS)
✔ Operation Subsystem(OSS)
The customer is able to notice few components of the network viz. Mobile Station and Antenna of
the Base Transceiver Station(BTS). Remaining entities are not visible.
1. RADIO SUBSYSTEM:

As the name implies, the radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities. i.e. the mobile
stations(MS) and the base station subsystem(BSS).

Fig 2.2 GSM Architecture

The components of RSS are

✔ Mobile station
✔ Base Transceiver Station
✔ Base Station Subsystem
✔ Base Station Controller

MOBILE STATION: (MS)

MS has all user equipment and software needed for mobile communications. It has user
independent hardware and software. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) stores all user specific data.
Mobile Station can be identified as International Mobile equipment identity (IMEI). The sim card
constitutes of Personal Identity number(PIN), PIN unlocking key(PUK), Authentication key k,
International Mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). It also has Identifiers and tables. The current
location of MS is found using Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI). With TMSI and
Location Area Identification (LAI) the current location can be identified.

BASE TRNSCEIVER STATION: (BTS)

BTS contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving of radio signals, antennas and
equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications with the Base station controller (BSC). A
BTS is controlled by ap parent BSC via the base station control function (BSCF). The BCF is
implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF
provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the Network Manage ment System
(NMS) and manage operational state of each TRX as well as soft handling and alarm collection.

The function of BTS varies depending on the cellular technology used and cellula telephone
provider. There are vendors in which the BTS is a plain transceiver which receives information
from MS through Um (Air Interface) and then it converts into TDM based interface, the Abis and it
sends it towards the BSC. A GSM cell can measure between some 100m and 35km depending on
the environment.

BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM: (BSS)

The base station subsystem is the section of traditional cellular telephone network which is
responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network switching
subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding o f speech channels, allocation of radio channels to
mobile phones, paging, quality management of transmission and reception over the Air interface
and many other tasks related to the radio network.

BASE STATION CONTROLLER: (BSC)

The BSC basically manages the BTSs. It reverses radio frequencies and handles the handover
from one BTS to another within BSS, and performs paging of the MS. The BSC also multiplexes
the radio channels onto the fixed network connections at A interface.
 b) NETWORK AND SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM:
This network and switching subsystem is the heart of GSM. Their function are to connect
wireless network with standard public network, performs handover between different BSS,
localization (to locate the mobile station),Charging, Accounting and roaming of users. The NSS
contains the following switches and databases.

MOBILE SERVIES SWITCHING CENTER (MSC):

MSC are digital ISDN switches. It establishes connection qith other MSC and BSC via A
interface Gateway MSC connects to fixed networks (eg.) PSTN, ISDN. With the help of Internet
Working Functions, MSC can connect to public data Network PDN. It handles all signaling needed
for connection setup, connection release and handover.

HOME LOCATION REGISTER: (HLR)

It is an important database. It stores user relevant information and also has static information
and dynamic information.
Static Information:

Mobile subscriber ISDN number is available. It has subscribed services for a particular number.
It is also an international mobile subscriber identity.
Dynamic Information:

It is a current location area (LA) of MS. It consist of Mobile subscriber roaming number
(MSRN), VLR and MSC in it. When MS leaves the current LA, then the information is updated in
HLR. The Usage of the information is to locate the user.

VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER: (VLR)

The VLR is associated to each MSC. It is a dynamic database. It stores all the information needed
for the MS currently in LA. If new MS comes to LA then the VLR is responsible for copying the
information needed from HLR.

(c) OPERATION SUB SYSTEM :

The third part of a GSM system is operation subsystem (OSS) which contains the necessary
functions for network operation and maintenance. The OSS possesses network entities of its own
and accesses other entities via SS7 signaling. The following entities have been defined:

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CENTER (OMC):

The OMC monitors and controls all other network entities via the O interface (SS7 with X.25).
Typical OMC management functions are traffic monitoring, status reports of network entities,
subscriber and security management, or accounting and billing. OMCs use the concept of
telecommunication management network (TMN) as standardized by the ITU-T. Authentication
centre (AuC): As the radio interface and mobile stations are particularly vulnerable, a separate AuC
has been defined to protect user identity and data transmission. The AuC contains the algorithms
for authentication as well as the keys for encryption and generates the values needed for user
authentication in the HLR.

EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR):

The EIR is a database for all IMEIs, i.e., it stores all device identifications registered for this
network. As MSs are mobile, they can be easily stolen. With a valid SIM, anyone could use the
stolen MS. The EIR has a blacklist of stolen (or locked) devices. In theory an MS is useless as soon
as the owner has reported a theft. Unfortunately, the blacklists of different providers are not usually
synchronized and the illegal use of a device in another operator’s network is possible (the reader
may speculate as to why this is the case). The EIR also contains a list of valid IMEIs (white list),
and a list of malfunctioning devices (gray list).

1.4 Wireless LAN

Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks that use high- frequency radio waves
instead of cables for connecting the devices within a limited area forming LAN (Local Area
Network). Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within this limit ed area such as
home, school, campus, office building, railway platform, etc.
Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 standard or WiFi.
Components of WLANs

The components of WLAN architecture as laid down in IEEE 802.11 are −

● Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. Each station has a wireless network interface controller. A station can be of two
types −
o Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP)
o Client
● Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories −
o Infrastructure BSS
o Independent BSS
● Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
● Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
Types of WLANS

WLANs, as standardized by IEEE 802.11, operates in two basic modes, infrastructure, and ad hoc
mode.
● Infrastructure Mode − Mobile devices or clients connect to an access point (AP) that in
turn connects via a bridge to the LAN or Internet. The client transmits frames to other clients via
the AP.
● Ad Hoc Mode − Clients transmit frames directly to each other in a peer-to-peer fashion.

Advantages of WLANs

● They provide clutter-free homes, offices and other networked places.

● The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the network at
greater ease than wired LANs.
● The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is not bounded
by the length of the cables.
● Installation and setup are much easier than wired counterparts.
● The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
Disadvantages of WLANs
● Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
● Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors. So,
they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
● WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

1.5 Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network that connects computers/devices within the
range of an individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a person’s range typically
within a range of 10 meters (33 feet) it is called as Personal Area Network. A Personal Area
Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and
other and other entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles etc.

Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) :

Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN, and
Wired PAN.
These are explained as following below.
1. Wireless PAN –
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as
infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and ultrawideband etc.
2. Wire d PAN –
Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firwire or USB (Universal Serial Bus).

Examples of PAN :

● Body Area Network –

It is a mobile network that moves with a persona range for example when person connects his smart
phone to the Bluetooth headphone and moves in the market that refers to a body area network.
● Offline Network –
In this multiple devices are connected through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. The devices attached to your
computer including printers, mouse, speakers, and other appliances are integrated using a Personal
Area Network (PAN) and do not use internet. So a communication network is formed between the
devices used in a small single space for example home.
● Home Office –
In Home Office setup a separate smaller network is setup for work purpose which is separate from
the network used by other home appliances. This network works as a separate body with multiple
other devices connected for office work purpose.
Advantages and disadvantages of PAN –
These are some of the Advantages of PAN :

● PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network range.
● It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
● It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
● It is easy portable.
● Needs less technical skill to use.
These are some of the disadvantages of PAN :

● Low network coverage area/range.

● Limited to relatively low data rates.
● Devices are not compatible with each other.
● Inbuilt WPAN devices are little bit costly.
Applications of PAN –

● Home and Offices

● Organizations and Business sector
● Medical and Hospital
● School and College Education
● Military and Defense

1.6 BLUETOOTH
INTRODUCTION

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-
wavelength radio transmissions in the ISM band from 2400–2480 MHz) from fixed and mobile
devices, creating personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. Different type of
network is needed to connect different small devices in close proximity (about 10 m) without
expensive wiring or the need for a wireless infrastructure .Bluetooth is a new standard suggested by
a group of electronics manufacturers that will allow any sort of electronic tools from computers and
cell phones to keyboards and headphones to make its own connections, without wires, cables or any
direct action from a user. A key distinction with other offered wireless technologies is that
bluetooth enables combined usability models based on functions provided by different devices.
Bluetooth was invented in1994 by L.M.Ericson of Sweden. The name is attributed to Harald
Bluetooth was king of Denmark around the turn of the last millennium. Choosing this name for the
standard indicates how important companies from the Baltic region (nations including Denmark,
Sweden, Norway and Finland) are to the communications industry.

A BLUETOOTH NETWORK SYMBOL OF BLUETOOH

As famous as the name is the bluetooth symbol. Bluetooth icon can be recognized by all. The main
strength of bluetooth is its ability to simultaneously handle both data and voice transmissions. It is
capable of supporting one asynchronous data channel and up to three synchronous voice channels,
or one channel sup-porting both voice and data. This ability combined with ad hoc device
connection and automatic service discovery make it a superior solution for mobile devices and
Internet applications. This grouping allows such novel solutio ns as a mobile hands- free headset for
voice calls, print to fax capability, and automatically synchronizing PDA, laptop, and cell phone
address book applications.
BLUETOOTH FEATURE:

• It is Wireless and automatic

• Bluetooth is inexpensive (< $5 per unit)
• It Handles both data and voice
• Signals are omni-directional and can pass through walls and briefcases
• Bluetooth uses frequency hopping at rate of 1600 Lops/sec
• It operates on 79 channels in 2.4GHZ band with 1MHZ carrier spacing
• Pi-conet is the important terminology

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Piconet:
A set of bluetooth devices sharing a common channel is called piconet. A piconet is a collection of
devices connected via Bluetooth technology in an ad hoc fashion. A piconet starts with two
connected devices, and may grow to eight connected devices. All Bluetooth devices are peer units
and have identical implementations. However, when establishing a piconet, one unit will act as a
Master and the other(s) as slave(s) for the duration of the piconet connection. Master is a Bluetooth
device that sets the frequency hopping sequence. The Slave synchronizes to the Masters in time and
frequency by following the Master’s frequency hoping sequence. Every Bluetooth device has a
unique

Bluetooth device address and a 28-bit Bluetooth clock. The baseband part of the Bluetooth System
uses a special algorithm, which calculates the frequency hop sequence from the masters clock and
device address. In addition to controlling the frequency hop sequence, the Master controls when
Slaves are to transmit using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
When there is just one Master and one Slave the system is called a Point to Point connection.
When many Slaves are connected to one Master, the system is called a Point to Multipoint. Both
these types are referred to as a Piconet and all follow the frequency hopping sequence of the
Master. The Slaves in the Piconet only have links to the Master and no direct links between Slaves.

Fig 2.9 Piconet

Formation of piconet:

Two parameters are needed for the formation of piconet

a) Hopping pattern of the radio it wishes to connect.
b) Phase within the pattern i.e. the clock offset of the hops.
The global ID defines the hopping pattern. The master shares its global ID and its clock offset with
the other radios which become slaves. The global ID and the clock parameters are
exchanged using a FHS (Frequency Hoping Synchronization) packet.

Fig 2.10 Simple Bluetooth piconet

There is no difference between terminals and base stations, two or more devices can form a piconet.
The unit establishing the piconet repeatedly becomes the master, all other devices will be slaves.
The hopping pattern is determined by the device ID, a 48-bit worldwide unique identifier. The
phase in the hopping pattern is determined by the master’s clock. After altering the interior clock
according to the master a device may take part in the piconet. All active devices are assigned a 3-bit
active me mber address (AMA). All parked devices use an 8- bit parked me mber address
(PMA). Devices in stand-by do not need any address. All users within one piconet have the same
hopping sequence and share the same 1 MHz channel. As more users join the piconet, the
throughput per user drops quickly.

Scatternet :

Bluetooth defines a structure called scatternet to facilitate inter piconet communication. A

scatternet is formed by interconnecting multiple piconet. A group of piconet is called scatternet.
If a device wants to take part in more than one piconet, it has to coordinate to the hopping sequence
of the piconet it wants to take part in. If a device acts as slave in one piconet, it just starts to
synchronize with the hopping sequence of the piconet it wants to join. After synchronization, it acts
as a slave in this piconet and no longer participates in its former piconet. To permit
synchronization, a slave has to know the uniqueness of the master that determines the hopping
sequence of a piconet. Before leaving one piconet, a slave informs the current master that it will be
unavailable for a certain amount of time.

The left over devices in the piconet continue to communicate normal.

Fig 2.12 Bluetooth scatternet

A master can also go away from its piconet and act as a slave in another piconet. It is obviously not
possible for a master of one piconet to act as the master of another piconet as this would direct to
identical behavior. As soon as a master leaves a piconet, all traffic within this piconet is ba lanced
until the master returns. Communication between different piconets takes place by devices jumping
back and forth between these nets. If this is done occasionally, for instance, isochronous data
streams can be forwarded from one piconet to another. On the other hand, scatternets are not yet
supported by all piconet.
BLUETOOTH PROTOCOL STACK

Fig 2.13 Bluetooth protocol stack

The Bluetooth protocol stack can be divided into:
a) Core Specification -Deals with the lower layers of the architecture and describes
how the technology works. It describe the protocol from physical to data link layer along with
management functions.
b) Profile Specification -Focuses on how to build interoperating devices using the
core technology.
c) Bluetooth Radio : specifics details of the air interface, including frequency,
frequency hopping, modulation scheme, and transmission power.
d) Baseband: concerned with connection establishment within a piconet, addressing,
packet format, timing and power control.
e) Link manager protocol (LMP): establishes the link setup between Bluetooth
devices and manages ongoing links, including security aspects (e.g. authentication and encryption),
and control and negotiation of baseband packet size
f) Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP): adapts upper layer
protocols to the baseband layer. Provides both connectionless and connection-oriented services.
g) Service discovery protocol (SDP): handles device information, services, and
queries for service characteristics between two or more Bluetooth devices.
h) Host Controller Interface (HCI): provides an interface method for accessing the
Bluetooth hardware capabilities. It contains a command interface, which acts between the Baseband
controller and link manager
i) TCS BIN (Telephony Control Service): bit-oriented protocol that defines the
call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices.
j) OBEX(OBject EXchange) : Session- layer protocol for the exchange of objects,
providing a model for object and operation representation
k) RFCOMM: a reliable transport protocol, which provides emulation of RS232
serial ports over the L2CAP protocol
l) WAE/WAP: Bluetooth incorporates the wireless application environment and the
wireless application protocol into its architecture.
Physical links

Different types of links can be established between master and slave. Two link types have been
defined they are:
1. Synchronous Connection-Oriented (SCO) link.
2. Asynchronous Connection-Less (ACL) link.
1. Synchronous Connection Oriented (SCO): It Support symmetrical, circuit- switched, point-
to-point connections . It is typically used for voice traffic. The Data rate is 64 kbit/s.
2. Asynchronous Connection-Less (ACL): It Support symmetrical and asymmetrical, packet-
switched, point-to-multipoint connections. It is typically used for data transmission .Up to 433.9
kbit/s are used in symmetric or 723.2/57.6 kbit/s are used in asymmetric. The master uses polling.
A slave may answer if it has used the preceeding slot.

Connection establishment states:

Standby : The State in which Bluetooth device is inactive, radio not switched on, enable low power
operation.
Page : The Master enters page state and starts transmitting paging messages to Slave using earlier
gained access code and timing information.
Page Scan : The Device periodically enters page state to allow paging devices to establish
connections.
Inquiry: The State in which device tries to discover all Bluetooth enabled devices in the close
vicinity.
Inquiry scan : Most devices periodically enter the inquiry scan state to make themselves available
to inquiring devices.

Fig 2.14 Inquiry and page Slave connection state modes:

Active –It participates in piconet It Listens, transmits and receives frames
Sniff – It only listens on specified slots

Hold –It does not support ACL frames. It has reduced power status. It May still participate in SCO
exchanges
Park – It does not participate on piconet and it Still retained as part of piconet
Bluetooth security:

There are three modes of security for Bluetooth access between two devices.
● Non-secure
● Service level enforced security
● Link level enforced security
The following are the three basic security services specified in the Bluetooth standard:
Authentication : It verify the identity of communicating devices. User
authentication is not provided natively by Bluetooth.
Confidentiality : It prevent information compromise caused by eavesdropping by ensuring that
only authorized devices can access and view data.
Authorization :It allow the control of resources by ensuring that a device is authorized to use a
service before permitting it to do so.

1.7 WI-MAX

Wi-MAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) unites the technologies of

wireless and broadband to provide high-speed internet access across long distances. The name was
christened by WiMAX Forum that promotes interoperability and conformity of the standard. The
forum defines the technology as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile
wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL". With the
guarantee of WiMAX Forum the vendors are authorized to sell their WiMAX certified products so
they can enjoy operability with other products of same type. It is a telecommunication protocol
capable of providing internet access to fixed and mobile users. For an outstanding performance like
Wi-Fi networks along with QOS (Quality of Service) and coverage this Wireless Broadband Access
(BAS) technology is assembled around IP (internet protocol). Currently it offers 40 Mbit/s but
expected to offer 1 Gbit/s speed for fixed users.

WI-MAX ARCHITECTURE

There are three main components of WiMax network architecture.

1. The first component is the mobile stations which are used as a source of network
connection for end user.
2. The second network is an access service network which is formed of more than two
or three base stations. It also contains ASN gateways which build the radio access at the end.
3. The third component is connectivity service network which is responsible for
providing IP functions. The base station provides the air interface for the mobile stations. The base
stations also provide mobile management functions, triggering and tunnel establishment, radio
resource management, dynamic host control protocol proxy, quality of service enforcement and
multicast group management. ASN is responsible for radio resource management, encryption keys,
routing to the selected network and client functionality. Connectivity service network is responsible
for internet connections, corporate and public networks and many other user services.
 Fig 2.16 IP base WI-MAX architecture
Standard WiMax Architecture

The WiMax network is based on three four basic components they are:
● AS gateway,
● CSN and
● MS.

The basic network has an inner IP core which is bounded by an ASN gateway, which is associated
with a service network or CSN. The main IP core is attach to the internet backbone for aid and
coverage. The WiMax network which is also part of the ISP network is recognized as an access
service gateway. This ASN handles the micro and macro base stations, which offer W iMax access
to end users. The connectivity examine network or CSN is an important part of WiMax architecture
which provides the verification to the user devices.
CSN is in charge for providing roaming among the network service providers. It is CSN which is
accountable for user security and quality for service for this reason it uses several protocols. The IP
address management is also handled by CSN. IP core is in the middle of CSN and ASN. CSN
provides internet and telecommunications connectivity. ASP communicates to the base stations and
the mobile stations. At the users end the WiMax architecture may additionally contain a firewall for
security. WiMax architecture provides discretion at the user end to make possible amendments.

Two Dimensions of WiMax Network

WiMax network is composed of two parts the

1. WiMax tower 2. WiMax receiver.
WiMax tower is associated straightly to the internet backbone using a wired connection such as
optical fiber. It can be linked to the WiMax tower using a line of sight link or a non line of sight
link. The line of site communiqué involves the use of fixed antenna or dish. This antenna is
unchanging or deployed on the roof top or the tower of the building. Line of sight connection is
measured as more strong and stable connection. Thus it sends lot of error free data over the
network. It uses a frequency range of 66Ghz. Higher frequency reduces the possibility of signal
flaw and interference and provides extra bandwidth. On the other hand the no n line of sight link
provides you connectivity with the fixing of small antenna in your PC. This mode provides lower
frequency range from 2 GHz to 11 GHz. The lower band signals are not prone to obstacles like
trees and walls. Hence the signal strength is more and the user receives the quality of service. For
every WiMax connectivity and architecture it is significant to connect to an internet backbone via
swift wired connection.
Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing refers a technology that allows transmissio n of data, voice and video via a
computer or any other wireless enabled device. It is free from having a connection with a fixed
physical link. It facilitates the users to move from one physical location to another during
communication.

1.8 Mobile Communication Among Portable Computers

Introduction of Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that provides an environment that enables users to transmit data
from one device to another device without the use of any physical link or cables.

In other words, you can say that mobile computing allows transmission of data, voice and video via
a computer or any other wireless-enabled device without being connected to a fixed physical link.
In this technology, data transmission is done wirelessly with the help of wireless devices such as
mobiles, laptops etc.

This is only because of Mobile Computing technology that you can access and transmit data from
any remote locations without being present there physically. Mobile computing technology
provides a vast coverage diameter for communication. It is one of the fastest and most reliable
sectors of the computing technology field.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

● Mobile Communication

● Mobile Hardware

● Mobile Software

Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of mobile
computing technology. In this case, mobile communication refers to an infrastructure that ensures
seamless and reliable communication among wireless devices. This framework ensures the
consistency and reliability of communication between wireless devices. The mobile communication
framework consists of communication devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals
necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. These devices are responsible for delivering a
smooth communication process.
Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired

2. Fixed and Wireless

3. Mobile and Wired

4. Mobile and Wireless

Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and they
are connected through a physical link to communicate with other devices.

For Example, Desktop Computer.

Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and
they are connected through a wireless link to make communication with other devices.

For Example, Communication Towers, WiFi router

Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are wired, and some are
mobile. They altogether make communication with other devices.

For Example, Laptops.

Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices can communicate with
each other irrespective of their position. They can also connect to any network without the use of
any wired device.

For Example, WiFi Dongle.

Mobile Hardware

Mobile hardware consists of mobile devices or device components that can be used to receive or
access the service of mobility. Examples of mobile hardware can be smartphones, laptops, portable
PCs, tablet PCs, Personal Digital Assistants, etc.

These devices are inbuilt with a receptor medium that can send and receive signals. These devices
are capable of operating in full-duplex. It means they can send and receive signals at the same time.
They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the other device to initiate
communications.

Mobile Software

Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware. This is designed to deal capably with
the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the operating system for the
appliance of mobile devices. In other words, you can say it the heart of the mobile systems. This is
an essential component that operates the mobile device.
This provides portability to mobile devices, which ensures wireless communication.

Applications of Mobile Computing

Following is a list of some significant fields in which mobile computing is generally applied:

● Web or Internet access.

● Global Position System (GPS).

● Emergency services.

● Entertainment services.

● Educational services.

1.10 Network computing

it is a generic term in computing which refers to computers or nodes working together over a
network.
The two basic models of computing are:
1- centralized computing:- where computing is done at a central location, using terminals that are
attached to a central computer.
2- decentralized computing:- where computing is done at various individual station or location and
each system have power to run independently.
It may also mean:
● Cloud computing, a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing
resources and data to devices on demand
● Distributed computing
● Virtual Network Computing

In network computing, computers often share broadband and other resources. Many lar ger business
networks also share hard drive space, where any networked computer has access to the same data
through a server or other hardware setup. Networking can be a more efficient way to deliver more
functionality to a large number of computers or devices. In some cases, for example, a network may
allow for lower software licensing fees than buying the software for a specific number of stand-
alone devices.

More recent developments have made network computing more sophisticated. One is the process of
network virtualization, where hardware networks may be logically partitioned. Another is cloud
computing, where the shared network resources can be located remotely for greater data security.

1.11 Peer to peer communication

The peer to peer computing architecture contains nodes that are equal participants in data sharing.
All the tasks are equally divided between all the nodes. The nodes interact with each other as
required as share resources.
Characteristics of Peer to Peer Computing
The different characteristics of peer to peer networks are as follows −
● Peer to peer networks are usually formed by groups of a dozen or less computers. These
computers all store their data using individual security but also share data with all the other
nodes.
● The nodes in peer to peer networks both use resources and provide resources. So, if the
nodes increase, then the resource sharing capacity of the peer to peer network increases.
This is different than client server networks where the server gets overwhelmed if the nodes
increase.
● Since nodes in peer to peer networks act as both clients and servers, it is difficult to provide
adequate security for the nodes. This can lead to denial of service attacks.
● Most modern operating systems such as Windows and Mac OS contain software to
implement peer to peer networks.
Advantages of Peer to Peer Computing

Some advantages of peer to peer computing are as follows −

● Each computer in the peer to peer network manages itself. So, the network is quite easy to
set up and maintain.
● In the client server network, the server handles all the requests of the clients. This provision
is not required in peer to peer computing and the cost of the server is saved.
● It is easy to scale the peer to peer network and add more nodes. This only increases the data
sharing capacity of the system.
● None of the nodes in the peer to peer network are dependent on the others for their
functioning.
Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Computing

Some disadvantages of peer to peer computing are as follows −

● It is difficult to backup the data as it is stored in different computer systems and there is no
central server.
● It is difficult to provide overall security in the peer to peer network as each system is
independent and contains its own data.

1.12 Grid Computing can be defined as a network of computers working together to perform a
task that would rather be difficult for a single machine. All machines on that network work under
the same protocol to act as a virtual supercomputer. The task that they work on may include
analyzing huge datasets or simulating situations that require high computing power. Computers on
the network contribute resources like processing power and storage capacity to the network. Grid
Computing is a subset of distributed computing, where a virtual supercomputer comprises machines
on a network connected by some bus, mostly Ethernet or sometimes the Internet. It can also be seen
as a form of Parallel Computing where instead of many CPU cores on a single machine, it contains
multiple cores spread across various locations. The concept of grid computing isn’t new, but it is
not yet perfected as there are no standard rules and protocols established and accep ted by people. A
Grid computing network mainly consists of these three types of machine
Control Node:
A computer, usually a server or a group of servers which administrates the whole network and
keeps the account of the resources in the network pool.
Provider:
The computer contributes its resources to the network resource pool.
User:
The computer that uses the resources on the network.When a computer makes a request for
resources to the control node, the control node gives the user access to the resources available on
the network. When it is not in use it should ideally contribute its resources to the network. Hence a
normal computer on the node can swing in between being a user or a provider based on its needs.
The nodes may consist of machines with similar platforms using the same OS called homogeneous
networks, else machines with different platforms running on various different OSs called
heterogeneous networks. This is the distinguishing part of grid computing from other distributed
computing architectures.
For controlling the network and its resources a software/networking protocol is used generally
known as Middleware. This is responsible for administering the network and the control nodes are
merely its executors. As a grid computing system should use only unused resources of a computer,
it is the job of the control node that any provider is not overloaded with tasks.
Another job of the middleware is to authorize any process that is being executed on the network. In
a grid computing system, a provider gives permission to the user to run anything on its computer,
hence it is a huge security threat for the network. Hence a middleware should ensure that there is no
unwanted task being executed on the network.
The meaning of the term Grid Computing has changed over the years, according to “The Grid:
Blueprint for a new computing infrastructure” by Ian Foster and Carl Kesselman published in 1999,
the idea was to consume computing power like electricity is consumed from a power grid. This idea
is similar to the current concept of cloud computing, whereas now grid computing is viewed as a
distributed collaborative network. Currently, grid computing is being used in various institutions to
solve a lot of mathematical, analytical, and physics problems.

Advantages of Grid Computing:

1. It is not centralized, as there are no servers required, except the control node which is
just used for controlling and not for processing.
2. Multiple heterogeneous machines i.e. machines with different Operating Systems can
use a single grid computing network.
3. Tasks can be performed parallelly across various physical locations and the users don’t
have to pay for them (with money).
Disadvantages of Grid Computing :
1. The software of the grid is still in the involution stage.
2. A super fast interconnect between computer resources is the need of hour.
3. Licensing across many servers may make it prohibitive for some applications.
4. Many groups are reluctant with sharing resources.
1.13 Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a general term for anything that involves delivering hosted services over the
internet. These services are divided into three main categories or types of cloud computing:
infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS) and software as a service (SaaS).
A cloud can be private or public. A public cloud sells services to anyone on the internet. A private
cloud is a proprietary network or a data center that supplies hosted services to a limited number of
people, with certain access and permissions settings. Private or public, the goal of cloud computing
is to provide easy, scalable access to computing resources and IT services.
Cloud infrastructure involves the hardware and software components required for proper
implementation of a cloud computing model. Cloud computing can also be thought of as utility
computing or on-demand computing.
The name cloud computing was inspired by the cloud symbol that's often used to represent the
internet in flowcharts and diagrams.
How does cloud computing work?
An internet network connection links the front end, which includes the accessing client device,
browser, network and cloud software applications, with the back end, which consists of databases,
servers and computers. The back end functions as a repository, storing data that is accessed by the
front end.
Communications between the front and back ends are managed by a central server. The central
server relies on protocols to facilitate the exchange of data. The central server uses both software
and middleware to manage connectivity between different client devices and cloud servers.
Typically, there is a dedicated server for each individual application or workload.
Cloud computing relies heavily on virtualization and automation technologies. Virtualization
enables the easy abstraction and provisioning of services and underlying cloud systems into logical
entities that users can request and utilize. Automation and accompanying orchestration capabilities
provide users with a high degree of self-service to provision resources, connect services and deploy
workloads without direct intervention from the cloud provider's IT staff.
Types of cloud computing services
Cloud computing can be separated into three general service delivery categories or forms of cloud
computing:
1. IaaS. IaaS providers, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), supply a virtual server
instance and storage, as well as application programming interfaces (APIs) that let users migrate
workloads to a virtual machine (VM). Users have an allocated storage capacity and can start, stop,
access and configure the VM and storage as desired. IaaS providers offer small, medium, large,
extra- large, and memory- or compute-optimized instances, in addition to enabling customization of
instances, for various workload needs. The IaaS cloud model is closest to a remote data center for
business users.
2. PaaS. In the PaaS model, cloud providers host development tools on their infrastructures.
Users access these tools over the internet using APIs, web portals or gateway software. PaaS is used
for general software development, and many PaaS providers host the software after it's developed.
Common PaaS products include Salesforce's Lightning Platform, AWS Elastic Beanstalk and
Google App Engine.
3. SaaS. SaaS is a distribution model that delivers software applications over the internet;
these applications are often called web services. Users can access SaaS applications and services
from any location using a computer or mobile device that has internet access. In the SaaS model,
users gain access to application software and databases. One common example of a SaaS
application is Microsoft 365 for productivity and email services.
4. Cloud computing deployment models
Private cloud services are delivered from a business's data center to inte rnal users. With a private
cloud, an organization builds and maintains its own underlying cloud infrastructure. This model
offers the versatility and convenience of the cloud, while preserving the management, control and
security common to local data centers. Internal users might or might not be billed for services
through IT chargeback. Common private cloud technologies and vendors include VMware and
OpenStack.
In the public cloud model, a third-party cloud service provider (CSP) delivers the cloud
service over the internet. Public cloud services are sold on demand, typically by the minute or hour,
though long-term commitments are available for many services. Customers only pay for the central
processing unit cycles, storage or bandwidth they consume. Leading public CSPs include AWS,
Microsoft Azure, IBM and Google Cloud Platform (GCP), as well as IBM, Oracle and Tencent.
A hybrid cloud is a combination of public cloud services and an on-premises private cloud,
with orchestration and automation between the two. Companies can run mission-critical workloads
or sensitive applications on the private cloud and use the public cloud to handle workload bursts or
spikes in demand. The goal of a hybrid cloud is to create a unified, automated, scalable
environment that takes advantage of all that a public cloud infrastructure can provide, while still
maintaining control over mission-critical data.
Characteristics and advantages of cloud computing
Cloud computing has been around for several decades now, and today's cloud computing
infrastructure demonstrates an array of characteristics that have brought meaningful benefits for
businesses of all sizes. Some of the main characteristics of cloud computing are the following:
● Self-service provisioning. End users can spin up compute resources for almost any type of
workload on demand. An end user can provision computing capabilities, such as server time and
network storage, eliminating the traditional need for IT administrators to provision and manage
compute resources.
● Elasticity. Companies can freely scale up as computing needs increase and scale down
again as demands decrease. This eliminates the need for massive investments in local infrastructure,
which might or might not remain active.
● Pay per use. Compute resources are measured at a granular level, enabling users to pay
only for the resources and workloads they use.
● Workload resilience. CSPs often implement redundant resources to ensure resilient storage
and to keep users' important workloads running -- often across multiple global regions.
● Migration flexibility. Organizations can move certain workloads to or from the cloud -- or
to different cloud platforms -- as desired or automatically for better cost savings or to use new
services as they emerge.
● Broad network access. A user can access cloud data or upload data to the cloud from
anywhere with an internet connection using any device.
● Multi-tenancy and resource pooling. Multi-tenancy lets numerous customers share the
same physical infrastructures or the same applications yet still retain privacy and security over their
own data. With resource pooling, cloud providers service numerous customers from the same
physical resources. The resource pools of the cloud providers should be large and flexible enough
so they can service the requirements of multiple customers.
An overview of cloud features and characteristics
These characteristics support a variety of important benefits for modern business, including the
following:
● Cost manage ment. Using cloud infrastructure can reduce capital costs, as organizations
don't have to spend massive amounts of money buying and maintaining equipment. This reduces
their capital expenditure costs -- as they don't have to invest in hardware, facilities, utilities or
building large data centers to accommodate their growing businesses. Additionally, companies
don't need large IT teams to handle cloud data center operations because they can rely on the
expertise of their cloud providers' teams. Cloud computing also cuts costs related to downtime.
Since downtime rarely happens in cloud computing, companies don't have to spend time and money
to fix any issues that might be related to downtime.
● Data and workload mobility. Storing information in the cloud means that users can access
it from anywhere with any device with just an internet connection. That means users don't have to
carry around USB drives, an external hard drive or multiple CDs to access their data. Users can
access corporate data via smartphones and other mobile devices, enabling remote employees to stay
up to date with co-workers and customers. End users can easily process, store, retrieve and recover
resources in the cloud. In addition, cloud vendors provide all the upgrades and updates
automatically, saving time and effort.
● Business continuity and disaster recovery (BCDR). All organizations worry about data
loss. Storing data in the cloud guarantees that users can always access their data even if their
devices, e.g., laptops or smartphones, are inoperable. With cloud-based services, organizations can
quickly recover their data in the event of emergencies, such as natural disasters or power outages.
This benefits BCDR and helps ensure that workloads and data are available even if the business
suffers damage or disruption.
Disadvantages of cloud computing
Despite the clear upsides to relying on cloud services, cloud computing carries its own challenges
for IT professionals:
● Cloud security. Security is often considered the greatest challenge facing cloud computing.
When relying on the cloud, organizations risk data breaches, hacking of APIs and interfaces,
compromised credentials and authentication issues. Furthermore, there is a lack of tra nsparency
regarding how and where sensitive information entrusted to the cloud provider is handled. Security
demands careful attention to cloud configurations and business policy and practice.
● Cost unpredictability. Pay-as-you- go subscription plans for cloud use, along with scaling
resources to accommodate fluctuating workload demands, can make it tough to define and predict
final costs. Cloud costs are also frequently interdependent, with one cloud service often utilizing
one or more other cloud services -- all of which appear in the recurring monthly bill. This can create
additional unplanned cloud costs.
● Lack of capability and expe rtise. With cloud-supporting technologies rapidly advancing,
organizations are struggling to keep up with the growing demand for tools and employees with the
proper skill sets and knowledge needed to architect, deploy, and manage workloads and data in a
cloud.
● IT governance. The emphasis on do-it-yourself capability in cloud computing can make IT
governance difficult, as there is no control over provisioning, deprovisioning and management of
infrastructure operations. This can make it challenging to properly manage risks and security, IT
compliance and data quality.
● Compliance with industry laws. When transferring data from on-premises local storage
into cloud storage, it can be difficult to manage compliance with industry regulations through a
third party. It's important to know where data and workloads are actually hosted in order to
maintain regulatory compliance and proper business governance.
● Management of multiple clouds. Eve ry cloud is different, so multi-cloud deployments
can disjoint efforts to address more general cloud computing challenges.
● Cloud performance. Performance -- such as latency -- is largely beyond the control of the
organization contracting cloud services with a provider. Network and provider outages can interfere
with productivity and disrupt business processes if organizations are not prepared with contingency
plans.
● Building a private cloud. Architecting, building and managing private clouds -- whether
for its own purpose or for a hybrid cloud goal -- can be a daunting task for IT departments and staff.
● Cloud migration. The process of moving applications and other data to a cloud
infrastructure often causes complications. Migration projects frequently take longer than anticipated
and go over budget. The issue of workload and data repatriation -- moving from the cloud back to a
local data center -- is often overlooked until unforeseen cost or performance problems arise.
● Vendor lock-in. Often, switching between cloud providers can cause significant issues.
This includes technical incompatibilities, legal and regulatory limitations and substantial costs
incurred from sizable data migrations.
Cloud computing examples and use cases
Cloud computing has evolved and diversified into a wide array of offerings and capabilities
designed to suit almost any conceivable business need. Examples of cloud computing capabilities
and diversity include the following:
● Google Docs, Microsoft 365. Users can access Google Docs and Microsoft 365 through the
internet. Users can be more productive because they can access work presentations and
spreadsheets stored in the cloud at anytime from anywhere on any device.
● Email, Calendar, Skype, WhatsApp. Emails, calendars, Skype and WhatsApp take
advantage of the cloud's ability to provide users with access to data remotely so they can access
their personal data on any device, whenever and wherever they want.
● Zoom. Zoom is a cloud-based software platform for video and audio conferencing that
records meetings and saves them to the cloud, enabling users to access them anywhere and at any
time. Another common communication and collaboration platform is Microsoft Teams.
● AWS Lambda. Lambda enables developers to run code for applications or back-end
services without having to provision or manage servers. The pay-as-you- go model constantly scales
with an organization to accommodate real- time changes in data usage and data storage. Other major
cloud providers also support serverless computing capabilities, such as Google Cloud Functions and
Azure Functions.
So, how is the cloud actually used? The myriad services and capabilities found in modern public
clouds have been applied across countless use cases, such as the following:
● Testing and development. Ready-made, tailored environments can expedite timelines and
milestones.
● Production workload hosting. Organizations are using the public cloud to host live
production workloads. This requires careful design and architecture of cloud resources and services
needed to create an adequate operational environment for the workload and its required level of
resilience.
● Big data analytics. Remote data centers through cloud storage are flexible and scalable and
can provide valuable data-driven insights. Major cloud providers offer services tailored to big data
projects, such as Amazon EMR and Google Cloud Dataproc.
● IaaS. IaaS enables companies to host IT infrastructures and access compute, storage and
network capabilities in a scalable manner. Pay-as-you- go subscription models can help companies
save on upfront IT costs.
● PaaS. PaaS can help companies develop, run and manage applications in an easier and more
flexible way, at a lower cost than maintaining a platform on premises. PaaS services can also
increase development speed for applications and enables higher-level programming.
● Hybrid cloud. Organizations have the option to use the appropriate cloud -- private or
public -- for different workloads and applications to optimize cost and efficiency according to the
circumstance.
● Multi-cloud. Using multiple different cloud services from separate cloud providers can help
subscribers find the best cloud service fit for diverse workloads with specific requirements.
● Storage. Large amounts of data can be stored remotely and accessed easily. Clients only
have to pay for storage that they actually use.
● DR. Cloud offers faster recovery than traditional on-premises DR. Furthermore, it is offered
at lower costs.
● Data backup. Cloud backup solutions are generally easier to use. Users do not have to
worry about availability and capacity, and the cloud provider manages data security.