Tut Organic Chemistry

1 Examinations Revision 2017 PHYSICAL SCIENCES/P2
10. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – FINAL EXAMS REVISION

Organic Chemistry Intro
Organic Chemistry is a study of the magic of CARBON ATOMS!
It is the chemistry of carbon compounds in living and non-living systems.
Organic molecules: molecules containing carbon atoms ( with the exertion of Carbon dioxide
(CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonates (CO32–) and cyanides (CN–)
Uniqueness of carbon atom.
• Carbon is surrounded by four covalent bonds

• Carbon can form long chains
• Carbon can form multiple bonds (Single, Double and triple)
• Carbon can form cyclic rings and benzene rings
Chemical bonding
The organic compounds that we study consist of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen atoms and the
Halogens ( -Br, -Cl, -I ), which are often represented collectively as –X).
Carbon is always surrounded by EXACTLY four bonds
Oxygen is always surrounded by EXACTLY two bonds
Hydrogen is always attached to EXACTLY one bond
Halogen is always attached to EXACTLY one bond
Due to the complexity of carbon compounds possible, a system has been developed that helps to
organise and name the compounds.
The system used is called IUPAC which stands for the: International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry
NGWENYA PT 1
FAMILIES (Homologous series)

A homologous series is a series of compounds (molecules) that has the same general formula
and the same functional group.
Each member of a homologous series differs from the previous member by a – CH2 group.
Carbon compounds are divided into various CLASSES (or FAMILIES).
Each FAMILY has unique properties.
The FAMILIES you need to study include:

• Alkanes
• Alkenes
• Alkynes
• Alcohols
• Carboxylic Acids
• Esters
• Aldehydes
• Ketones
All families have Carbon arranged in a CHAIN.

Each family has something else unique about it.
These unique features are called FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.
A functional group is a bond, an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and
chemical properties of a group of organic compounds.
The first three groups are called hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons are those compounds that consists of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Alkanes are saturated

Compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon
chains
There are only single bonds between carbon atoms.
Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated.

Compounds with one or more multiple bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
To test for saturation, use bromine water (brown). (Addition reaction in which an alkene/alkyne
reacts with bromine to form a saturated halo-alkane)
Unsaturated compounds will decolourise bromine very fast (Addition reaction) while saturated
compounds will decolourise bromine water slowly (Substitution reaction)
NGWENYA PT 2
COUNTING CARBONS
Obviously, the easist way to tell how long a CARBON CHAIN is, is to count the number of
CARBON ATOMS present in the chain.
So the IUPAC SYSTEM invented a new set of words that sound so confusing at first, but it really is
just ordinary counting!
They don't say ONE! They say METH!

They don't say TWO! They say ETH!
Here is a list of how to count to 10 in the ORGANIC WAY!
• one = meth • six = hex

• two = eth • seven = hept
• three = prop • eight = oct
• four = but • nine = non
• five = pent • ten = dec
Organic molecules have other atoms present.

Except for hydrogen, these atoms have their own organic names:
• Cl = chloro
• Br = bromo
• F = fluoro
• I = iodo
• CH3 = methyl
• OH = hydroxyl
Terminology
Homologous Series
A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general formula OR in which
one member differs from the next with a CH2 group. Also called family, or class.
Examples
1. alkanes 6. carboxylic acids
2. alkenes 7. esters
3. alkynes 8. aldehydes
4. halo-alkanes 9. ketones
5. alcohols
NGWENYA PT 3
General Formulae
A homologous series is a class that can be represented by a general formula.
Below are a few general formulae. They are all assumed to have one functional group.
The restrictions on n are necessary since the smallest allowable value for n would represent
the smallest compound in that series.
As an example, the smallest ester would need TWO carbons, hence n would start at 2, but the
smallest acid can have 1 carbon, and n would start at 1. etc.
Alkane:
CnH2n+2 (n=1,2,3..)
Alkene:
CnH2n (n=2,3,4...)
Alkyne:
CnH2n-2 (n=2,,3,4...)
Alcohol:
CnH2n+2O or CnH2n+1OH (n=1,2,3...)
Acid:
CnH2nO2 (n=1,2,3...)
Ester:
CnH2nO2 (n=2,3,4...)
Aldehyde:
CnH2nO (n=1,2,3...)
Ketone:
CnH2nO (n=3,4,5...)
Functional Group
A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a
group of organic compounds.
Examples
1. single bonds
2. double bonds
3. triple bonds
4. haloalkane
5. hydroxyl group
6. carboxylic group
7. ester group
8. aldehyde group
9. ketone group
NGWENYA PT 4
Hydrocarbon
organic compound consisting only of hydrogen and carbon atoms
Saturated
Compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
i.e. there are only single bonds between the carbon atoms
Unsaturated
Compounds with one or more multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
i.e. organics compound consisting of double or triple bonds between the carbon atoms.
General Formula
the general ratio of elements in a compound.
example: CnH2n+2
Click to find out more.
Molecular Formula
A chemical formula that indicates the type of atoms and the correct number of each atom in a
molecule.
of elements in a compound
example: C2H6
Empirical Formula
this is the simplest ratio of elements in a compound
molecular C2H6
empirical CH3.
The numbers were brought to the the smallest form by dividing by 2
Structural Formula
A structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to which within the molecule.
Atoms are represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds
that hold the atoms together.
Condesed Formula
This notation shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in the molecule, but DOES NOT
SHOW ALL bond lines.
NGWENYA PT 5
IUPAC SYSTEM
Prefix: Parent/Root: Suffix:

Position and names of Number of C-atoms in the main Determined by the homologous
substituents and side chains, (Longest) C-chain. series.
listed alphabetically.
• Determine the position of the • Determine the longest chain. • Determine the functional group
substituents or side o For Hydrocarbons use: meth*, and its position in the main
branches. eth, pent, but, hex, Hept, Oct chain.
o Position: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, o For Haloalkanes, Alcohols, o Functional group:
5-, 6-, 7-, 8-) Ketones and Aldehydes use: -ane, -ene, -yne, -ol, -al,
o Substituents: bromo-, methan-*, ethan-*, pentan-, -one, -oic acid, -oate
chloro-, Fluoro- butan-, hexan-, Heptan-, o Position: -1-, -2-, -3-, -4-,
o Branches: methyl- and Octan- -5-, -6-, -7-, -8-
ethyl-) • The longest chain must contain the • Determine how many functional
• Determine how many functional group. groups are there.
substituents or side chains • The longest chain must be o -di-, -tri-, -tetra-
are there. numbered from the end that is • Start with the Suffix, followed by
o -di, -tri, -tetra closer to the functional group. the Parent and lastly the Prefix.
Alkanes
The ALKANES family contains SINGLE BONDS only.
Here is an example of an alkane.
Notice the carbon chain in RED, and that all the carbons have single bonds between them.
A chlorine atom is added in as well.
How do you name ALKANE compounds?
Step 1
Imagine that all the carbons form a road.
Then the road is 5 carbons long.
Now 5 carbons = PENT
NGWENYA PT 6
Step 2
There are only SINGLE BONDS between the carbons.
Hence the family is ALKANE.
We combine PENT and ANE.

Hence the road name is PENTANE.
Step 3
Now imagine that the chlorine is someone’s house and you must give it an address.
Note that the chlorine is at carbon number 2.

We call it 2-chloro
We combine all the words into one big word!
Hence the name is: 2-chloropentane
• pent to say 5 carbons

• ane to say single bonds
• 2-chloro to say where the chlorine is located
Examples
Name the following. Answers at bottom.
1.
2.
Answers:
1. 2-bromo-1,2-dichlorobutane
NGWENYA PT 7
2. 2,3-dibromo-3-methylpentane
Alkenes
The ALKENES family contains DOUBLE BONDS between the carbons.

All their names end in ene, which means DOUBLE BOND. The other atoms present may be
Hydrogen, Chlorine, Bromine, Fluorine, Iodine. Except for hydrogen, these atoms have their own
organic names:
Here is an example of an alkene.

Notice the carbon chain in RED, and that there is a DOUBLE BOND between two of the carbons.
We say that the DOUBLE BOND is at carbon 2. TWO chlorine atoms are added in as well.
5,5-dichloro-pent-2-ene
How do you name ALKENE compounds?

The method is similar as in naming alkanes, but you must indicate the POSITION of the DOUBLE
BOND.
Step 1
Then the road is 5 carbons long.
Now 5 carbons = pent
Notice that the numbering starts closer to where the double is, and not from where the chlorine is
located.
Step 2
The DOUBLE BOND is at carbon number 2.
Hence we say 2-ene.
We combine pent and 2-ene.
Hence the road name is pent-2-ene.
NGWENYA PT 8
Step 3
Now the chlorine atoms are found at carbon 5 and 5
We call it 5,5-dichloro
(di means 2 atoms)

Hence the name is: 5,5-dichloro-pent-2-ene
Another example
4-bromo-1-choro-but-1-ene
"Main road" is but-1-ene

Notice that the numbering starts from the side closer to the double bond.
There is a 4-bromo and a 1-chloro.

These are written in alphabetical order.
Hence the name is: 4-bromo-1-choro-but-1-ene
Dienes
conjugated dienes: two double bonds separated by a single bond
isolated diens: one or more saturated carbons atoms between two double bonds
cumulated dienes: two double bonds formed to one carbon atom
NGWENYA PT 9
Alkynes
The ALKYNES family contains TRIPLE BONDS between the carbons.

All their names end in yne, which means TRIPLE BOND.
Here is an example of an alkyne.

Notice the carbon chain in RED, and that there is a TRIPLE BOND between two of the carbons.
We say that the TRIPLE BOND is at carbon 1. TWO bromine atoms are added in as well.
3,4-dibromo-but-1-yne
Step 1
The road is 4 carbons long.
Now 4 carbons = but
Notice that the numbering starts closer to where the triple bond is, and not from where the bromine
is located.
Step 2
The TRIPLE BOND is at carbon number 1.
Hence we say 1-yne.
We combine but and 1-yne.

Hence the road name is but-1-yne.
Step 3
Now the bromine atoms are found at carbon 3 and 4
NGWENYA PT 10
We call it 3,4-dibromo
(di means 2 atoms)
Hence the name is:

3,4-dibromo-but-1-yne
Alcohols
The ALCOHOLS family contains a HYDROXYL GROUP which is found attached to a carbon.
A HYDROXYL GROUP is -OH.

All their names end in ol, which means ALCOHOL.
Here is an example of an alcohol.

Notice the carbon chain in RED, and that there is a HYDROXYL at carbon number 2.
TWO chlorine atoms are added in as well.
1,1-dichloro-butan-2-ol
Step 1
Now 4 carbons = butan
Notice that the numbering starts closer to where the -OH is, and not from where the chlorines are
located.
Step 2
The -OH is at carbon number 2.
Hence we say 2-ol. Remember that -OH is written in the name as ol. (not as oh)
We combine butan and 2-ol.

Hence the road name is butan-2-ol.
Notice it is "butan" and not "but".
NGWENYA PT 11
Step 3
Now the chlorine atoms are found at carbon 1 and 1
We call it 1,1-dichloro
(di means 2 atoms)
Hence the name is: 1,1-dichloro-butan-2-ol
Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Haloalkanes

A haloalkane is classified as primary, secondary or tertiary NOT because of where the
halogen is attached. It is all about the Carbon on which the halogen is attached.
We will call the carbon on which the halogen is attached, the key carbon, and in these examples,
it is in red.
Primary Haloalkanes
Notice the red key carbon, where the Cl is attached.
1-chlorobutane
Only one other carbon, the green carbon, is attached to the key carbon.
Hence this is a primary haloalkane.
N.B.: In this example, even though the red key carbon is not attached to another carbon, this is
still called a primary haloalkane.
Chloromethane
Secondary Haloalkanes
2-chlorobutane
There are two other carbons, the green carbons, attached to the key carbon.
Hence this is a secondary haloalkane.
Tertiary Haloalkanes
NGWENYA PT 12

2-chloro-2-methyl-butane
There are three other carbons, the green carbons, attached to the key carbon.
Hence this is a tertiary haloalkane.
It does not matter how complicated the molecule may appear. Just identify the key carbon, and
then count how many other carbons are attached to it.
Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols
An alcohol is classified as primary, secondary or tertiary NOT because of where the OH is
attached. It is all about the Carbon on which the OH is attached.
We will call the carbon on which the -OH is attached, the key carbon, and in these examples, it is
in red.
Primary Alcohols
Notice the red key carbon, where the -OH is attached.
butan-1-ol
Only one other carbon, the green carbon, is attached to the key carbon.
Hence this is a primary alcohol.
N.B.: In this example, even though the red key carbon is not attached to another carbon, this is
still called a primary alcohol.
Secondary Alcohols
butan-2-ol
There are two other carbons, the green carbons, attached to the key carbon.
Hence this is a secondary alcohol.
NGWENYA PT 13
Tertiary Alcohols
2-methylbutan-2-ol
There are three other carbons, the green carbons, attached to the key carbon.
Hence this is a tertiary alcohol.
Carboxylic Acids
The CARBOXYLIC ACID family contains a CARBOXYLIC GROUP which is found attached to
an end carbon.
The CARBOXYLIC GROUP contains an O and an -OH on the same end carbon.
All their names end in ...oic acid.
Names would look like ethanoic acid.
No numbering is required for the =O and -OH groups since they are always at the first carbon.
Here is an example of a carboxylic acid.

Notice the carbon chain in RED, and that there is a =O and -OH at the SAME end carbon.
propanoic cid
Step 1
Now 3 carbons = propan
Notice that the numbering starts where the O and OH is.
Step 2
Then we notice the O and OH and recognize that this is a carboxylic acid.
Hence the name must end in oic acid
NGWENYA PT 14
We combine propan and oic acid.
Step 3
Hence the name is propanoic acid
Esters
The ESTER family has an OXYGEN atom somewhere IN THE CARBON CHAIN!
And there is another O atom double bonded to carbon.
The oxygen in the chain divides the chain into two pieces, with each piece having its own name.
methyl ethanoate
The left hand side has only one carbon, so it is a meth.

A yl is added to meth.
This side is called methyl.
The right hand side has the other =O.

This side is called the ...oate side.
This is easy to remember... the side with the O is the Oate!
This side has two carbons, hence ethan.

The right hand side is ethanoate
Put the two pieces together, and the name is:

methyl ethanoate
NGWENYA PT 15
Aldehydes
The ALDEHYDE family has a =O at the BEGINNING of the carbon chain.
The names end in al.

The "al" is from the word "aldehyde".
There are four carbons, hence butan.

The =O is present at the beginning of the chain.
Therefore no number is required.
These compounds are called aldehydes and their names end in al.
Hence butanal
A chlorine is at carbon 2.
Hence the name is:

2-chlorobutanal
Ketones
The KETONE family has a =O at any IN-BETWEEN carbon in the chain.
The names end in one.

The "one" is from the word "ketone" and is pronounced as "own".
There are four carbons, hence butan.

The =O is present at the second carbon.
These compounds are called ketones and their names end in one.
NGWENYA PT 16
Hence 2-one
This group must only be at an in-between carbon to be a ketone.
Hence butan-2-one
A chlorine is at carbon 3.
Hence the name is:

3-chloro-butan-2-one
STRUCTURAL ISOMERS (3 types)

These are compounds that have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae.
If we say that TWO compounds are structural isomers, then they have exactly the same number
and type of individual atoms, but are arranged into different structures.
Obviously they would have different names.
1. Chain Isomers
Same molecular formula, but different types of chains, e.g. butane and 2-methylpropane.
butane 2-methylpropane
C4H10 C4H10
2. Positional Isomers
Same molecular formula, but different positions of the side chain, substituents or functional groups
on the parent chain. e.g. 1-chloropropane and 2-chloropropane or but-2-ene and but-1-ene
1-chloropropane 2-chloropropane
C3H7Cl C3H7Cl
NGWENYA PT 17
3. Functional Isomers
Same molecular formula, but different functional groups. e.g.methyl methanoate and ethanoic acid.
methyl methanoate ethanoic acid

C2H4O2 C2H4O2
Physical properties
Bonding Introduction
Organic compounds are actually molecules. And these molecules are just made up of atoms
that are stuck to each other by covalent bonds.
Just like atoms, these molecules can bond with each other, and the general name for bonding
between molecules is called intermolecular forces.
This basic diagram shows the location of covalent bonds and intermolecular forces.
(Notice that there are two types of intermolecular forces, but more about these a little later.)
When molecules are bonded to each other, they become liquids or solids.
If they are not bonded, then the molecules move away from each other and the substance
becomes a gas (Molecules are free to move).
Strength of the Intermolecular Forces (bonds)
Depending on the type of molecule you have, the bond strength between them can be very
different, ranging from weak bonds to very strong.
NGWENYA PT 18
There are basically four factors to consider when comparing intermolecular bond strength between
molecules.
1. molecular size
(weak van der Waals – London dispersion forces)
2. branching
(weak van der Waals – London dispersion forces)
3. presence of carbonyl =O
(weak van der Waals – Dipole-dipole forces)
4. presence of hydroxyl -OH
(strong hydrogen bonds)
1. Molecular Size
Larger molecules have stronger bonds (Intermolecular firces) between them.
Study this example.
Will you find stronger bonds between molecules of A or B?
Therefore there will be stronger bonds between molecules of B. Compound B is much

larger than compound A. Why?
These bonds are called London dispersion forces (van der Waals forces.)
The reason for this is that compound B, being larger, is able to form better dipoles than compound
A. Thus the attraction between molecules of B is greater.
2. Branching
The more branched a molecule is, the weaker are its intermolecular bonds.
Study Compound A and Compound B.
Both molecules are the same size.

Both have a molecular formulae of C5H12.
NGWENYA PT 19
Which compound would have weaker intermolecular force between its molecules?
B is more branched, B will have weaker intermolecular bonds. Why?
Explanations
Molecules of A, due to their shape, have a larger area for contact. Hence a stronger
bond results between them.
Molecules of B, due to their branching:
• become more spherical,

• hence decrease in contacting surface area,
• hence a weaker bond results between them.
These bonds are called London dispersion forces (van der Waals forces.)
3. Presence of carbonyl =O
The presence of the carbonyl increases bond strength.
NGWENYA PT 20
Study these two compounds. They are of similar size, and they are both unbranched.
Compound B has a carbonyl, the = O
Which compound would have stronger bonds?

Compound B would have stronger intermolecular forces than compound A. Why?
The carbonyl allows compound B to become a stronger dipole than compound A. This happens
because the oxygen atom has a high electronegativity, and thus creates a stronger dipole.
4. Presence of hydroxyl -OH
The -OH allows for hydrogen bonding, which is the strongest intermolecular force type.
Study compounds A and B.

They are of similar size, and unbranched and both have carbonyls.
But compound B has an -OH group.
Which compound would have stronger intermolecular forces?

Compound B would have stronger intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonds) than compound A.
The presence of the -OH allows compound B to have hydrogen bonds between these molecules.
These are much stronger bonds.
Bonding, Vapour Pressure and Boiling Point
NGWENYA PT 21
There is a relationship between:
• intermolecular bond strength

• vapour pressure, and
• boiling point
Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a substance is equals to atmospheric pressure.
Melting Point
The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium.
Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure is the amount of pressure that gaseous molecules exert onto the surface of the
liquid phase.
This is the pressure exerted by the gas molecules during boiling/ evaporation.
These diagrams summarises these concepts.
If a liquid has strong intermolecular forces holding its molecules together:
If the molecules of a liquid are strongly bonded to each other, irrespective of the reason,
• Then obviously this liquid will not easily evaporate.

• There will be less vapour above the surface of the liquid, which means that there will be
a low vapour pressure (the pressure caused by this vapour).
• Also, since the bonds are strong, this liquid will be difficult to boil, and will thus have
a high boiling point.
You must ensure that you follow the relationships between the three concepts above.
If a liquid has weak intermolecular forces holding its molecules together:
NGWENYA PT 22
If the molecules of a liquid are weakly bonded to each other, irrespective of the reason,
• Then obviously this liquid will easily evaporate.

• There will be more vapour above the surface of the liquid, which means that there will be
a high vapour pressure (the pressure caused by this vapour).
• Also, since the bonds are weak, this liquid will be easy to boil, and will thus have a low
boiling point.
When answering questions to explain physical properties, you need to mention the
following:
1. Structure of compounds (Molecular size/ Length of carbon chain/ Surface area/ Type of
function groups)
• Chain length – the longer the carbon chain, the stronger the intermolecular forces
between the molecules become.
• Branched chains – the more spherical a molecule becomes, the weaker the
intermolecular forces will be between the molecules as the surface area is smaller.
• Type of functional group – carboxyl group has two hydrogen bonds between
its molecules while the hydroxyl group from the alcohol only has one. Thus,
carboxylic acids will have stronger intermolecular forces between its molecules
than the corresponding alcohol.
2. Intermolecular forces between the molecules (in the compounds)

• Hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces and London dispersion forces.
• Hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole forces and London dispersion
forces.
• Dipole-dipole forces are stronger than London dispersion forces.
• Hydrogen bonds are found between alcohol molecules and carboxylic acid
molecules.
• Dipole-dipole forces are found between aldehydes molecules, ketones molecules
and esters.
• London dispersion forces are found in compounds of ALL homologous series.
NGWENYA PT 23
3. Energy required to break the intermolecular forces.

• More energy is required to break stronger intermolecular forces.
• Less energy is required to break weaker intermolecular forces.
4. Physical property being compared.

• The higher the melting point or boiling point, the stronger the intermolecular forces
will be and thus more energy is required to break the stronger intermolecular forces.
• The lower the melting or boiling points are, the weaker the intermolecular forces are
and thus less energy is required to break these weaker bonds.
• The vapour pressure will decrease as the size of the molecule increases (chain
length). The higher the vapour pressure, the weaker the intermolecular forces will be
between the molecules present in the liquid phase.
Explaining the physical properties between two compounds.

Molecules are held together by intermolecular forces. In order to separate these molecules from
one another requires energy. The stronger the intermolecular forces are, more energy is required
to separate or break these bonds and to bring about a phase change etc. This will lead to a higher
melting point, boiling point and lower vapour pressure.
a) Same homologous series (The compounds will have the same functional group but
different molecular size/ Length of carbon chain/ Surface area and hence different
strengths of London dispersion forces)
I. Alkanes molecules (Which compound will have a higher Boiling Point? Explain)
A. CH3CH2CH3
B. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
II. Chain isomers of an Alkane (Which compound will have a higher Vapour Pressure?
Explain)
A. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
B. CH3C(CH3)2CH3
III. Alcohol molecules (Which compound will have a higher Boiling Point? Explain)
A. CH3CH2CH2OH
B. C4H9OH
b) Different homologous series (The compounds will have the same molecular size/
Length of carbon chain/ Surface area and hence the equal strengths of London
dispersion forces length of carbon chain but different functional groups)
I. Alkanes and Ketones (Which compound will have a higher Vapour Pressure?
Explain)
A. CH3CH2CH3
B. CH3COCH3
II. Aldehydes and Alcohol (Which compound will have a higher Boiling Point? Explain)
A. CH3CH2CH2CHO
NGWENYA PT 24
B. C4H9OH
III. Alcohol and Carboxylic acids (Which compound will have a higher Vapour
Pressure? Explain)
A. CH3CH2OH
B. CH3COOH
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES
Combustion (Oxidation)
Hydrocarbons can undergo combustion reactions.
They are highly flammable and can be used as fuels.
Alkane + Oxygen (g) → Carbon Dioxide (g) + Water (g) + Energy
e.g CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + Energy

2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
C3H8 + O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O + Energy
2C4H10 + 5O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O + Energy
Addition Reactions
In this type of reaction, atoms are ADDED to an UNSATURATED organic molecule (alkene or
alkyne). The total number of atoms in the original molecule will increase.
There are essentially 4 types of addition reactions:
• Hydrogenation (reacting with H2)

• Hydrohalogenation (reacting with, example HBr)
• Halogenation (reacting with halogens, example Br2)
• Hydration (reacting with water H2O)
Functional groups completely change.
HYDROGENATION
NGWENYA PT 25
Hydrogen H2 is added to an alkene.

Reaction condition: catalyst Pt / Ni / Pd
Diagram 1
• When the double breaks, to become single, each "half" hangs on to each adjacent carbon.
• So the 2 individual H atoms can join in.
• The alkene (ethene) becomes the alkane (ethane)
HALOGENATION
A halogen such as Br2 reacts with an alkene.

Reaction condition: Room temperature.
Diagram 4
• The 2 Br atoms just hooks on to each adjacent carbon.

• The alkene (ethene) changes to the haloalkane (1,2-dibromoethane)
HYDROHALOGENATION
A hydrohalogen (such as HCl) is added to an alkene.

Reaction condition: No water present.
Diagram 2
• The H and Cl simply "hooks" onto each adjacent carbon where the double bond was.
• The alkene (ethene) changes into the haloalkane (chloroethane).
Another example of HYDROHALOGENATION
This example shows what happens if the alkene is much longer.
NGWENYA PT 26
Diagram 3
• C1 has 2 H atoms.
• C2 has 1 only H atom.
• When this molecule reacts, C1 attracts the H from the HCl to itself.
• The chlorine atom Cl then has no option but to attach itself to C2.
• The alkene (but-1-ene) becomes the haloalkane (2-chlorobutane).
This is called Markovnikov's Rule.
When a compound HX reacts with a alkene, the hydrogen atom H from HX will attach itself to the C
that has the greater number of hydrogen atoms, and the X will attach itself to the carbon with the
fewer number of hydrogen atoms.
HYDRATION
This is a reaction with water and an alkene.
Reaction condition: reaction must take place in a dilute, strong acid which must act as a
catalyst. Example sulphuric acid H2SO4 or phosphoric acid H3PO4
Diagram 5
• The H-OH of the water (H2O) hooks to each adjacent carbon.

• The alkene (ethene) is converted into the alcohol (ethanol).
Another example of HYDRATION
This example shows what happens if the alkene is much longer.
NGWENYA PT 27
Diagram 6
• Notice that the H from the water has moved to the first carbon, since this carbon originally
had more H atoms already.
• The OH thus had to attach itself to the second carbon.
• The ethene (but-1-ene) becomes the alcohol (butan-2-ol)
This is another example of Markovnikov's Rule.
Substitution Reactions
This is a type of reaction where an atom (such as Br) or a group of atoms (such as -OH) is
replaced (substituted) by another atom or by another group of atoms.
It is important to note that substitution reactions occur for saturated compounds
• Alkanes
• Haloalkanes
• Alcohols
ALKANES
Substitutions Reactions for Alkanes
Reaction condition: heat (Δ) or light (hf)

Notice that the H in the alkane is swopped with one Br from the Br2
Diagram 1
• Notice the use of heat Δ.

• The ALKANE (ethane) becomes the HALOALKANE (bromoethane).
NGWENYA PT 28
• The bromine Br2 changed into hydrogen bromide HBr.
HALOALKANES
Substitutions Reactions for Haloalkanes
Reaction condition for haloalkanes: NaOH (or (KOH) dissolved in ethanol and heat
Notice that the Br and the OH are swopped over.
Diagram 2
• KOH (or NaOH) is dissolved in ethanol, then added to haloalkane

• The entire mixture is warmed.
• The KOH becomes KBr.
• The haloalkane (bromoethane) becomes the alcohol (ethanol).
This is also possible
Diagram 3
ALCOHOLS
Substitutions Reactions for Primary and Secondary Alcohols
Reaction condition for primary and secondary alcohols: high temperature

Notice that the OH and the Br are swopped over.
Diagram 4
• High temperature Δ was used

• The HBr became water
• The alcohol (ethanol) changed into the haloalkane (bromoethane)
NGWENYA PT 29
Substitutions Reactions for Tertiary Alcohols
Reaction condition for tertiary alcohols: room temperature

Notice that the OH and the Br are swopped over.
Diagram 5
• Room temperature is used

• The HBr is changed into water.
• The tertiary alcohol (2-methylbutan-2-ol) is changed into the
haloalkane (2-bromo-2-methylbutane)
Elimination Reactions
In elimination reactions, single bond molecules (alkanes), becomes double bond

molecules (alkenes), giving off a smaller molecule.
So this the removal of a molecule from a larger one.
"alkane → alkene + something"
DEHYDROHALOGENATION
de-hydro-halogenation
Removal of a halogen and a hydrogen

HCl is removed from the organic molecule
Reaction Condition
• conc NaOH / KOH or
• NaOH / KOH dissolved in ethanol
Diagram 1
• Chloroethane is on the left, and becomes ethene.

• The H and Cl from separate carbons are removed.
NGWENYA PT 30
• These leftover bonds join up to become a double bond

• The H and Cl becomes HCl
• The organic molecule is that much smaller.
DEHYDRATION
de-hydration
Removal of water H2O from the alcohol organic compound
Reaction Condition
• H2SO4
• hot catalyst
Diagram 2
• The left is an alcohol, ethanol

• The H and OH are eliminated.
• The leftover bonds join to become a double bond molecule, ethene.
• Water H2O is eliminated from the ethanol and is produced.
CRACKING
Breaking large alkanes into smaller alkenes and alkanes.
Typically in the fuel industry
Reaction Condition
• Pt catalyst (platinum)
• 8000C
Diagram 3
• Left Hand Side:

Number of C = 7 and Number of H = 16
• Right Hand Side:

Number of C = 2 + 5 = 7 and Number of H = 4 + 12 = 16
• Notice that both sides have the same number of individual atoms
Esterification Reactions
As the name suggests, this is a type of reaction to make ESTERS.

You need an alcohol and a carboxylic acid to make an ester.
Esters are noted for their nice smells, as found in fruit, etc. So if you are making an ester in an
experiment, you will know you are successful when you get a nice (pleasant) smell!
NGWENYA PT 31
ESTERIFICATION
Water (H2O) is removed by the action of sulphuric acid as a catalyst.
Reaction Condition
• concentrated H2SO4
Diagram 1
• The alcohol ethanol is used, together with the carboxylic acid, propanoic acid
• Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as a catalyst
• The names of the reactants change:
ethanol = ethyl
propanoic acid = propanoate
• Hence the ester is ethyl propanoate
• Water is released as well
The above reaction in condensed structural formula:
The above reaction in molecular formula:
Notice the number of Carbon atoms and Hydrogen atoms on either side of the equation.
Reaction Summaries
What can you do with an alkane?
Combustion (Oxidation)
Substitution (Hydrogenation)
NGWENYA PT 32
Elimination (Cracking)
What can you do with a haloalkane?
NGWENYA PT 33
What can you do with an alcohol?
What can you do with an alkene?

These are all Addition Reactions.
NGWENYA PT 34
REACTIONS OF ALKANES
REACTIONS OF ALKENES
NGWENYA PT 35
REACTIONS OF HALOALKANES
REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS
NGWENYA PT 36
Test for unsaturated compounds – Addition of a halogen (halogenation)
To test for double bond (or triple bond) (unsaturated compounds), add a few drops of a bromine –
carbon tetrachloride solution (Bromine water). If the colour disappears Br2 (l) has been removed by
addition. This serves as a positive test for unsaturated compounds.
i.e. the bromine test is the standard laboratory test for unsaturation.
When bromine water is added to an alkane it undergoes a very slow substitution reaction and the
colour disappears over a period of time.
NGWENYA PT 37
Flow chart summary
NGWENYA PT 38
Polymers Definitions
Natural Polymers
• natural, very large molecules
• can be made up of thousands of atoms
• examples include natural rubber, wool, silk, etc.
Synthetic Polymers – Plastics

• synthetic (man-made) polymers are called plastics
• used to make typical plastic products such as rulers, packets, bottles, etc.
Macromolecule
A molecule that consists of a large number of atoms, around 20 000 atoms!
Polymer
A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to each other in a
repeating pattern
Monomer
Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern
Polymerisation
A chemical reaction in which monomer molecules join to form a polymer
Addition polymerisation
A reaction in which small molecules join to form very large molecules by adding on double bonds
Addition polymer
A polymer formed when monomers (usually containing a double bond) combine through an
addition reaction
Condensation polymerisation
A reaction - molecules of two monomers with different functional groups undergo condensation
reactions with the loss of small molecules, usually water.
Condensation polymer
A polymer formed by two monomers with different functional groups that are linked together in a
condensation reaction in which a small molecule, usually water, is lost.
NGWENYA PT 39
Addition Polymerisation
Thousands of unsaturated molecules (alkenes) are added together to form one large molecule
called a polymer. There are no by-products.
This addition polymerisation reaction will add many ethenes to make a polyethene.
Example used here:

• monomer is ethene:
• to make the polymer called polyethene
• by a polymerisation reaction
Polymerisation (reaction) of ethene (monomer) to produce polyethene (polymer)
Polythene is a substance that is:
• cheap
• used to make plastic bags, squeeze bottles, bullet proof vests such as from Kevlar, etc.
• made from ethene molecules (the monomer) undergoing addition reactions to make
polyethene (the polymer)
How is polyethene made?

It is made from ethene, an unsaturated molecule. We call the ethene a monomer, because many of
them are going to join to each other, to become the polymer called polyethene.
In addition polymerisation reactions, no by-products are formed.
Step 1
Three ethene monomers are shown, that will eventually combine to form the polymer.
Step 2
High temperatures and very high pressures are used.
The double bonds of ethene are broken, and free radicals are formed at each molecule, waiting to
connect to each other.
NGWENYA PT 40
These are not alkanes!
Step 3
The above are all joined to each other, and a very large molecule called polyethene is formed.
There are no by-products.

Of course, many thousands of such ethene molecules (the monomers) join together to form the
very large molecule called polyethene.
This is how polyethene is represented. The n indicates many such repeating molecules as in the
bracketts.
polyethene
Condensation Polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation occurs when two different molecules react, and a water molecule is
eliminated.
So water is a by-product.
Hence the term "condensation".
Since water has to be eliminated, the monomers themselves must have hydroxyl OH and
carboxylic groups .i.e. OH and COOH groups from which the H2O can be eliminated.
So alcohols (with 2 -OH groups) and carboxylic acids (with 2 -COOH groups))are used.
This condensation polymerisation reaction will use an alcohol and an acid, which will create
an ester.
Hence this polymer is called a polyester.
Example of alcohol used
a diol (alcohol with 2 OH groups)

Name: ethan-1,2-diol
NGWENYA PT 41
Example of acid used
A dicarboxylic acid (acid with two COOH groups)

Name: dipropanoic acid
Step 1
The H from the alcohol combines with the OH from the acid, and water is produced (eliminated
from the organic system of molecules)
Step 2
The alcohol and acid then join at that point.
Step 3
Notice that the alcohol and acid are repeating in the molecule.
Step 4
The polymer, which is a polyester.
NGWENYA PT 42
polyester
Water would be the by-product.
Polymers Flowchart
Study this flowchart.

The thicker red lines at the left and right, are short-cut connectors to the products. Use this in case
you find the actual drawings a little confusing.
NGWENYA PT 43
Recap - Polymers
1. What is a monomer?
1. A monomer is a small molecule that will covalently bond with itself over and over, making a very
large molecule.
2. What is a polymer?
2. A polymer is the name given to the large molecule that monomers make; composed of smaller
monomer units.
3. What is polymerisation?
3. This is the name for the actual chemical reaction that monomers undergo as they bond to make
polymers.
4. What is another name for a synthetic polymer?

4. plastic
5. What is addition polymerisation?

5. type of polymerisation where alkenes (such as ethene) is the monomer. Hence the term
addition.
6. What are the by-products in addition polymerisation?

6. there are no by-products
7. Ethene is a monomer in addition polymerisation. Draw a few separate ethene molecules.

7.
8. Polyethene is the actual polymer formed. Draw polyethene.

8.
Notice that although the name is polyethene, there are no double bonds in polyethene.
9. What is condensation polymerisation?
NGWENYA PT 44
9. This is a reaction of two different monomers (small molecules), with different functional groups,
and they undergo a condensation reaction, with the loss of small molecules, usually water.
10. What is a condensation polymer?

10. This is the actual polymer (very large molecule).
It is formed by two monomers with different functional groups, that are linked together in a
condensation reaction in which a small molecule, usually water, is lost.
11. A condensation polymerisation reaction would involve monomers that are a diol alcohol and a
dicarboxylic acid, such as :
• ethan-1,2-diol
• dipropanoic acid
Draw each of these molecules.

11.
ethan-1,2-diol
dipropanoic acid
12. What are the typical products formed when an alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid?
12. ester and water
13. What is the name of the polymer formed when ethan-1,2-diol (diol alcohol) reacts with
dipropanoic acid?
13. polyester
14. Draw the polyester molecule.

14.
15. Name the by-product in the formation of polyester.

15. water
NGWENYA PT 45
EXAM TUTORIAL 5
QUESTION 1
1.1 The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium is
known as the …
A boiling point.
B melting point.
C change in enthalpy.
D standard temperature. (2)
1.2 Which ONE of the following compounds represents the first member of the ketones?
A HCOH
B CH3OH
C H3COCH3
D H3CCOCH3 (2)
1.3 Which ONE of the following is a PRODUCT of the HYDROGENATION of ethene?
A. B.
C. D.
(2)
1.4 Which ONE of the following compounds has dipole-dipole forces between its molecules?
A Ethanal
B Ethane
C Ethene
D Ethyne (2)
NGWENYA PT 46
1.5 Which ONE of the following is a product formed during the hydrolysis of bromoethane?
A Water
B Ethene
C Ethanol
D Bromine (2)
[10]
QUESTION 2
The letters below A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.
A D
C C3H7Cℓ D Propanoic acid

E Polyethene F CnH2nO2
Use the information in the table to answer the questions that follow:
2.1 Write down the letter of the compound that …
2.1.1 has a carboxyl group. (1)
2.1.2 is used to make plastic. (1)
2.2 Write down the …
2.2.1 IUPAC name of compound B. (2)
2.2.2 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the monomer of compound E. (2)
2.3 Compound A is an alkane.
Write down the …
2.3.1 GENERAL FORMULA for alkanes. (1)
2.3.2 MOLECULAR FORMULAE of each of the two products obtained during the
complete combustion of compound A. (2)
2.4 Compound C is a primary haloalkane:
2.4.1 Write down the STRUCTURAL FORMULA and IUPAC name of a STRUCTURAL
ISOMER of compound C. (4)
2.4.2 Classify the isomer in QUESTION 2.4.1 as CHAIN, POSITIONAL or

FUNCTIONAL. (1)
NGWENYA PT 47
2.5 Chemical analysis of compound F shows that it has the following percentage composition:
x% carbon (C), y% hydrogen (H) and 12,5% oxygen (O).
Use a calculation to determine the value of x. (4)

[18]
QUESTION 3
Four compounds of comparable molecular mass are used to investigate the effect of functional
groups on vapour pressure. The results obtained are shown in the table below.
3.1 Define the term functional group of an organic compound. (2)
3.2 Which ONE of the compounds (A, B, C or D) in the table has the:
3.2.1 Highest boiling point

(Refer to the vapour pressures in the table to give a reason for the answer.) (2)
3.2.2 Weakest intermolecular forces (1)
3.3 Refer to the type of intermolecular forces to explain the difference between the vapour
pressure of compound A and compound B. (3)
3.4 The vapour pressures of compounds C and D are much lower than those of compounds A
and B. Name the type of intermolecular force in A and B that is responsible for this
difference. (1)
3.5 Briefly explain the difference in vapour pressure between compound C and compound D.(2)
3.6 During a combustion reaction in a closed container of adjustable volume, 8 cm3 of

compound A (butane) reacts in excess oxygen according to the following balanced
equation:
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
If the initial volume of the oxygen in the container was 60 cm3, calculate the TOTAL volume
of the gases that are present in the container at the end of the reaction. All the gases in the
container are at the same temperature and pressure. (5)
[16]
NGWENYA PT 48
QUESTION 4
In the flow diagram below, but-1-ene is used as starting material in the preparation of compound A.
4.1 Is but-1-ene a SATURATED or UNSATURATED compound?

Give a reason for the answer. (2)
4.2 Compound A is the major product formed in reaction 1.
Write down the:

4.2.1 Structural formula of compound A (2)
4.2.2 Type of reaction that takes place (1)
4.3 For compound B, write down the:

4.3.1 IUPAC name (2)
4.3.2 Structural formula of the positional isomer (2)
4.4 For reaction 3, write down:

4.4.1 TWO reaction conditions needed (2)
4.4.2 The type of reaction that occurs (1)
4.4.3 A balanced equation, using molecular formulae (3)
4.5 The condensed formula of a polymer is shown below.
Write down the:
4.5.1 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the monomer that is used to prepare the above
polymer (2)
NGWENYA PT 49
4.5.2 Type of polymerisation reaction (ADDITION or CONDENSATION) that is used to

prepare this polymer (1)
[18]
___________________________________60 marks___________________________________
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1 3.4 D has more sites for hydrogen bonding than C.

1.1 A D has stronger / more intermolecular forces
1.2 D D needs more energy to overcome/break the
1.3 C intermolecular forces.
1.4 A
1.5 C 3.5
QUESTION 2
2.1.1 D or F
2.1.2 E
2.2.1 2,4-dimethyl hex-1-ene
2.2.2
Total volume = 8 + 32 + 40 = 80 cm3
QUESTION 4
2.3.1 CnH2n+2 4.1 Unsaturated: Contains a double bonds between C
2.3.2 CO2 and H2O atoms
2.4.1 2-chloro propane
4.2.1
2.4.2 Positional 4.2.2 Addition/hydration

2.5 % O = 32 / M × 100 = 12,5
M = 256 g∙mol-1 4.3.1 2-chlorobutane
n(12) + 1(2n) + 32 = 256 4.3.2
n = 16
% C = 16(12)/256 × 100 = 75 %
X = 75 %
4.4.1 • H2O OR dilute NaOH/KOH
QUESTION 3 • Mild heat
3.1 A bond/an atom or a group of atoms that
determine(s) the (physical and chemical) 4.4.2 Substitution/hydrolysis
properties of a group of organic compounds.
4.4.3 C4H9Cℓ + NaOH → C4H10O + NaCℓ
3.2.1 D / ethanoic acid OR
Lowest vapour pressure. C4H9Cℓ + H2O → C4H10O + HCℓ
3.2.2 A / butane
4.5.1
NGWENYA PT 50
3.3 Between molecules of A (butane) are London

dispersion forces.
Between molecules of B (propan-2-one) are
dipole-dipole forces in addition to London
dispersion forces.
Intermolecular forces in A are weaker than
those in B. 4.5.2 Addition
Less energy is needed in A to break/
overcome intermolecular forces.
EXAM TUTORIAL 10
QUESTION 1
1.1 Which ONE of the following compounds is an aldehyde?

A Pentanal
B Pentan-2-ol
C Pentan-2-one
D Ethyl propanoate (2)
1.2 Consider the reaction represented by the equation below:
CH3CHCH2 + H2 → CH3CH2CH3
This reaction is an example of …

A hydration.
B dehydration.
C substitution.
D hydrogenation. (2)
1.3 What product will be formed when an alkene reacts with water vapour (H2O) in the
presence of an acid catalyst?
A Ester
B Alkane
C Alcohol
D Aldehyde (2)
1.4 Which ONE of the following represents a SUBSTITUTION REACTION?
A CH2 = CH2 + HBr → CH3CH2Br

B CH2 = CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
C CH3CH2OH → CH2 = CH2 + H2O
D CH3CH2OH + HBr → CH3CH2Br + H2O (2)
1.5 Which ONE of the following pairs of compounds are FUNCTIONAL isomers?
A Methanol and methanal
B Butane and 2-methylpropane
NGWENYA PT 51
C Propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol

D Propanoic acid and methyl ethanoate (2)
[10]
QUESTION 2
The letters A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.
2.1 Write down the:
2.1.1 NAME of the functional group of compound B (1)
2.1.2 Homologous series to which compound C belongs (1)
2.1.3 Type of polymerisation reaction that produces compound F (1)
2.2 Write down the IUPAC name of:
2.2.1 The monomer used to prepare compound F (1)
2.2.2 Compound C (2)
2.2.3 Compound D (2)
NGWENYA PT 52
2.3 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of each product formed during the complete
combustion of compound D. (2)
2.4 Write down the structural formula of:
2.4.1 Compound B (2)
2.4.2 A CHAIN ISOMER of compound A (2)
2.5 A laboratory assistant uses bromine water to distinguish between compounds D and E. She
adds bromine water to a sample of each in two different test tubes.
She observes that the one compound decolourises the bromine water immediately, whilst
the other one only reacts after placing the test tube in direct sunlight.
Write down the:
2.5.1 Letter (D or E) of the compound that will immediately decolourise the bromine
water (1)
2.5.2 Name of the type of reaction that takes place in the test tube containing compound
D (1)
2.5.3 Structural formula of the organic product formed in the test tube containing
compound E (2)
[18]
QUESTION 3
There are three chain isomers having the molecular formula, C5H12. In a practical investigation,
vapour pressure data for the three chain isomers A, B and C is collected and plotted on a graph as
shown below.
NGWENYA PT 53
3.1 Define the term chain isomer. (2)
3.2 Use the graph to estimate the vapour pressure of the straight chain isomer of C5H12 at 20
°C. (1)
3.3 Write down the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of compound C. (2)

3.4 Explain the difference in the vapour pressure of compound A and B. In your explanation
refer to the STRUCTURE of the molecules, the TYPE and STRENGTH of the
INTERMOLECULAR FORCE(S). (3)
3.5 The learners also collected boiling point data for compounds D, E and F as shown in the
table below.
3.5.1 Write down the NAME of the type of intermolecular force that is responsible for the
difference in the boiling points of compound D and E. (2)
3.5.2 Explain the difference in the boiling points of compounds D and F by referring to the
TYPE and STRENGTH of intermolecular forces. (3)
Compound F is prepared at standard conditions (STP) by the reaction between methane

and chlorine as shown by the equation: CH4(g) + Cℓ2(g) → CH2Cℓ2(g) + H2(g)
NGWENYA PT 54
3.5.3 Write down the NAME of the type of reaction that leads to the formation of
compound F. (1)
3.5.4 In the reaction 21,88 dm3 of CH4 produces 0,043 kg of CH2Cℓ2.
Calculate the percentage yield in this reaction. (5)
[19]
QUESTION 4
The flow diagram below shows how an alkene can be used to prepare other organic compounds.
The letters A to G represent different organic reactions.
4.1 Write down the type of reaction represented by:
4.1.1 A (1)
4.1.2 B (1)
4.1.3 E (1)
4.2 Write down the IUPAC name of compound X. (2)
4.3 For reaction D, write down:
4.3.1 The type of elimination reaction (1)
4.3.2 TWO reaction conditions (2)
4.4 Write down the:
4.4.1 FORMULA of an inorganic reactant needed for reaction F (1)
4.4.2 Balanced equation, using structural formulae, for reaction G (4)

[13]
NGWENYA PT 55
___________________________________60 marks___________________________________
SOLUTIONS TO EXAM TUTORIAL 10
QUESTION 1 3.4 Chain in A longer than that of in B/surface area of A

1.1 A larger than that of B/A is less spherical than B.
1.2 D Strength of London dispersion forces STRONGER in
1.3 C A than in B.
1.4 D
1.5 D 3.5.1 London dispersion forces
QUESTION 2 3.5.2 Between molecules of D there are hydrogen bonds in

2.1.1 Carboxyl group addition to dipole-dipole forces and London
2.1.2 Ketones dispersion forces.
2.1.3 Addition Between molecules of F there are dipole dipole
forces in addition to London forces/dispersion
2.2.2 Ethene forces/induced dipole forces.
2.2.3 4-methyl-hexan-3-one Hydrogen bonds in D are stronger than dipole-dipole
2.2.4 4-ethyl-2,2-dimethyl hexane forces in F.
2.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Water (H2O) 3.5.3 Substitution/Halogenation/Chlorination
2.4.1 3.5.4 n(CH4) =V/Vm = 26,88/22,4 = 1,2 mol

n(CH2Cℓ2) = 1,2 mol (Ratio)
n(CH2Cℓ2)actual = m/M = 0,043 × 103/85 = 0,506 mol
% Yield = Actual yield/Theoretical yield × 100
= 0,506/1,2 × 100
NGWENYA PT 56
= 42,16%
2.4.2 QUESTION 4
4.1.1 Addition/hydrogenation
4.1.2 Substitution/halogenation/chlorination
4.1.3 Elimination/dehydration
2.5.1 E
2.5.2 Substitution/halogenation/bromination 4.2 2-bromo propane
2.5.3
4.3.1 Dehydrohalogenation/Dehydrobromination
4.3.2 Strong base/ Concentrated base/ Strongly heated or

hot base/
4.4.1 H2O/NaOH/KOH
QUESTION 3
3.1 Compounds with the same molecular formula 4.4.2
but different length of (carbon) chains.
3.2 50 kPa
3.3
NGWENYA PT 57

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1 Examinations Revision 2017 PHYSICAL SCIENCES/P2

10. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – FINAL EXAMS REVISION

Uniqueness of carbon atom.

• Carbon is surrounded by four covalent bonds

Carbon is always surrounded by EXACTLY four bonds

Oxygen is always surrounded by EXACTLY two bonds

Hydrogen is always attached to EXACTLY one bond

Halogen is always attached to EXACTLY one bond

FAMILIES (Homologous series)

Carbon compounds are divided into various CLASSES (or FAMILIES).

Each FAMILY has unique properties.

The FAMILIES you need to study include:

All families have Carbon arranged in a CHAIN.

The first three groups are called hydrocarbons.

Alkanes are saturated

Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated.

They don't say ONE! They say METH!

Here is a list of how to count to 10 in the ORGANIC WAY!

• one = meth • six = hex

Organic molecules have other atoms present.

A homologous series is a class that can be represented by a general formula.

Prefix: Parent/Root: Suffix:

The ALKANES family contains SINGLE BONDS only.

Here is an example of an alkane.

How do you name ALKANE compounds?

We combine PENT and ANE.

Note that the chlorine is at carbon number 2.

We combine all the words into one big word!

Hence the name is: 2-chloropentane

• pent to say 5 carbons

The ALKENES family contains DOUBLE BONDS between the carbons.

Here is an example of an alkene.

How do you name ALKENE compounds?

We combine all the words into one big word!

"Main road" is but-1-ene

There is a 4-bromo and a 1-chloro.

Hence the name is: 4-bromo-1-choro-but-1-ene

The ALKYNES family contains TRIPLE BONDS between the carbons.

Here is an example of an alkyne.

We combine but and 1-yne.

We combine all the words into one big word!

Hence the name is:

A HYDROXYL GROUP is -OH.

Here is an example of an alcohol.

We combine butan and 2-ol.

We combine all the words into one big word!

Hence the name is: 1,1-dichloro-butan-2-ol

Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Haloalkanes

Notice the red key carbon, where the Cl is attached.

Here is an example of a carboxylic acid.

We combine propan and oic acid.

The left hand side has only one carbon, so it is a meth.

The right hand side has the other =O.

This side has two carbons, hence ethan.

Put the two pieces together, and the name is:

The ALDEHYDE family has a =O at the BEGINNING of the carbon chain.

The names end in al.

There are four carbons, hence butan.

Hence the name is:

The KETONE family has a =O at any IN-BETWEEN carbon in the chain.

The names end in one.

There are four carbons, hence butan.

Hence the name is: