Table of contents

No. 1.0 2.0 Title Introduction to Routing Types of Routing protocols

2.1 Static Routing. 2.2 Dynamic Routing.

Page Number 2

4 4 6

3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0

Routing Information Protocol Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing protocol Open Shortest Path first IS-IS Comparison of Protocols Configuration Reference

13 17 24 30 33 34 42

44 of 1

1.0

Introduction to Routing:

Nowadays computer networks have created a new measurement to our current century. In fact nowadays the computer-generated world is considered as much faster and wider than our real world. This technological revolution has all been possible to be seen due to one of the important factor in developing the technological revolution today, which is the computer network. Computer networks at current time have revolutionized communication, business, research, travel, defense, society and almost all human activities. The growth of computer networks has assisted the technological revolution in taking a big jump forward. Computer network's power is based on the ability to connect many devices and interconnected network to each other. To link a number of devices with each other such as computers, servers, scanners, printers and workstations; a network equipments is required to make the connection possible. One of this equipment used to connect different networks with different lower hierarchy structures is the router. A router is a networking devices used to interconnect devices or networks to route packets from source (device) to destination (another device) with the aim of selecting the appropriate path. This procedure is called as routing. A router is a tool to establish the appropriate path for the information package to pass from one network (source) to another network (destination). Routers interconnect networks cooperatively for example a LAN to a WAN, a LAN to LAN and so on, in order to access or browse the Internet. Routers make use of routing tables and headers to determine the best path for the package to follow. Routing protocols are utilized and used by routers to have a way of communication with each other and make the most proper path between any two devices or hosts on a network system. Routers interconnect networks that are not attached directly with one to another. Routers should not be involved with hubs that only rebroadcast packages. Some more, routers can exchange information with other routers by using the routing protocols.

44 of 2

In order to be able to route packets, a router must be able to at least identify: the destination address to deliver the packets, the neighbor routers from which it can learn about remote networks, possible routes to all remote networks, determine the best route to each remote network and lastly know how to maintain and verify routing information.

Figure (1): A simple routing example

The function of a router is to connect two different network ,for example if we have an office branch in Malaysia and we have another branch in USA and our IP Address is like 192.168.1.1 in Malaysia and our IP address is like 10.0.1.1 in USA, these are two different networks. If we want to communicate to our office in USA from our office in Malaysia, we can communicate through router. This means that we have to connect routers on both sides.

44 of 3

2.0

Types of routing:

2.1 Static Routing:

Static routing is a term used to refer to the process of manually configuring the routers through entering routers directly into the routing table. This can be done via the use of a configuration file which is loaded once the routing device starts up. The configuration is typically made by the network administrator who configures the routes. Unlike the dynamic route, there are no such routing protocols used for setting up a static route. In the static routing, the routes dont change after they are configured (unless the network administrator changes them) and that is why they called as static routing. A static route a static route sets the connection between a particular destination network or device and the nearby router that should be used to reach it. Static routing has the privilege of being expected and simple to be set up. Some more it is easy to be managed but only in small networks as it doesnt scale well. Also it can help in securing particular communication, by limiting them to particular routes within the network and it could be used when learning route is not possible or when it produces undesired side affects. In most cases, if a static route is configured for a particular network, the router or originating end station must use it. Static routing is the simplest structure of routing, but one of the drawbacks is that, it does not work well when the routing information needs to be changed from time to time or has to be configured on a huge number of routing devices (router). Another drawback is that it doesnt handle outages or down connection well, therefore if a network failure occurs between two nodes or routers that are configured statically, then the traffic will not be automatically routed as in case of dynamic routing, in this case it must be reconfigured manually again to fix any lost of connectivity.

44 of 4

Advantages of Static Routing:

One of the main advantages of using Static Routes is that they are An additional advantage of using static route is that there is no need for Static routing is mainly supported on all routing devices and all Static routes are easy to be predicted and understand in small networks.

really easy to be configured as compared to dynamic routes.

routing protocols which is required for dynamic routes.

routers.

Disadvantages of Static Routing:

Static routes require broad planning and have high management

overhead. Because the more number of routes we have in a network, the more routers will need to be configured. For example if we have 'M' number of routers, and of course a route between each router is needed, then to set up this network we must configure M x M, so for a network of 6 routers we will need 36 router (6 x 6).

Network using static routes has to suffer in recovering network's fault One of the most noticeable disadvantages of using Static Route is that

because static routing is not a fault tolerant.

it doesnt apply or used any routing protocol; therefore all configurations have to be done manually.

Another disadvantage of using static route is that there is no way of Static routing does not scale well in large networks.

routing around any network outages that may exist.

44 of 5

2.2Dynamic Routing: Dynamic routing performs the same function as static routing except it is more useful and efficient especially in large networks. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible routes change. Dynamic routing can be defined as the process in which routing protocols will select the most appropriate path in network and preserve that route. When a route fails, then the role of routing protocols will take a place by automatically finding an alternate route to the destination. Dynamic routing protocols are quiet easier to be used than static routes. On the other hand, routing protocols consume more CPU cycles and network bandwidth than a static route. Dynamic routing protocols are software applications that dynamically find out the network destinations and how to reach to them. The router learns the routes that are directly connected to all networks first. Then it learns about additional routes from other routers that run the same routing protocol. The router then sort its list of routers and choose one or more 'best' routers for each network destination it know or has learned. When a dynamic protocol sort its list of routers, it will then share out this 'best route' information to other routers running the same routing protocols, thus extending and sharing information about the existing networks and the way of how to reach them. This collaboration between the dynamic protocols enables them to adapt any logical network topology changes and fix any potential equipment failure or network outages. In dynamic routing there are several protocols used to support dynamic routing such as RIP and OPSF.

44 of 6

Advantages of Dynamic Routing:

1- The main advantages of dynamic routing over static routing are adaptability and scalability. A Dynamically routed network is able to adapt to changes in the network as it can grow more quickly and larger. 2- In a dynamic router protocol, when routers are communicating with each other, they learn about the network topology. Each router informs the routers on the network by the available routes it has to announce its presence. So whenever you add a new router, or add an extra segment to an existing router, the other routers will gear about the addition and adapt their routing tables consequently. In dynamic routing there is no need to reconfigure the routers to acknowledge them that this network has been changed. Likely if we move a network segment, the other routers will know about the change has been made. In dynamic routing we only need to make changes on the configuration of the routers that connect the segment we have moved. By doing this, chances of errors to occur will be reduced. 3- Being able to learn about changes about the network's configuration has more advantages than adding new segment or moving old ones. As one of the advantages of the dynamic routing is that the network can be adjusted to failures. If there are redundant paths in the network, then a part of the network failure appears to the routers as if there are some segments got moved (can be reachable via alternate paths), and some segments have been removed from the network (currently unreachable). Basically there appears to be no real difference between a configuration change and a network failure. Dynamic routing has the advantages of allowing the network to keep on functioning, perhaps in a corrupted way, if a partial failure occurs.

44 of 7

Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing: One important disadvantages of dynamic routing is the high complexity. Each router involving in the dynamic routing protocol should be certainly sure of what information to send to the other routers; furthermore it must try to choose the best route to reach other destinations from the candidates it learns about from other router. Additionally, a router must be ready to remove old or unusable information from its routing table. Determining what is old or unusable adds more to the complexity of the routing protocol. Autonomous System (AS): An autonomous system is a term defines a single network or sets of network under administrative control. The autonomous system might be a set of computer networks owned by a company or college or other private sections. Organization and companies might own one or more autonomous system. Each autonomous system is independently managed considering the BGP. It is often referred to as ' AS'.

Figure(2) http://vnanock.files.wordpress.com/2007/05/egp-igp.jpg

44 of 8

2.2.1 Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP): IGP is a protocol to exchange routing information between getaways within an autonomous system network. It handles routing process within an autonomous system, meaning that it finds out how to travel from a place to place between the routes we own. It keeps track of information about how to travel between the routes from a source to destination inside a network or set of networks which we administrate. We get all the networks communicating with each other via IGP. IGP is classified into these categories: 1. 2. 3. Distance Vector Protocols. Link State Protocols. Hybrid Routing Protocols.

Figure (3): http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/internet/ip/routing/dv_vs_ls.shtml 2.2.1.1 Distance Vector Protocols: Distance Vector is a term refers to the announcement of routes as vectors of distance and direction. Distance can be defined in term of a metric such as hop count, and path is simply the next hop router or exit interface. A bellman-Ford algorithm is used by distance vector to determine the best path route.

44 of 9

Complete routing tables are so often sent to all connected neighbors via some distance vector protocols. These routing update may become huge, causing considerable traffic on the links; when the network capacity is large.

These are certain situations whereby the distance vector protocols can work best: 1. 2. 3. 4. When the network is simple and there is no need for a special When the administrators lacks of enough knowledge to do the Implementing some certain types of network, such as hub and spoke In a network worst-case convergence times are not a real concern. hierarchical design. configuration and troubleshooting of link state protocols. networks.

Common Distance Vector protocols are as follows: 1. 2. RIP. IGRP.

2.2.1.2 Link State Protocols: The function of the link state protocols is to keep on tracking the connection type and the status of each link and then generate a calculated metric based on these and other factors, also including some which have been set by the administrator of the network. The most important aspect about the Link state protocols is that they are able to figure out whether this link is up or down and how fast is it, in order to calculate the cost to reach there. Link state protocols will select a path that has more hops, but that uses a faster medium over a path using a slower medium with fewer hops. One of the disadvantages of the link state protocols is that they require more processing power and memory comparing to Distance Vector protocols. This is because they are aware of media type and other factors. Common Link State protocols are as follows: 1. OPSF. 44 of 10

2.

IS-IS.

2.2.1.3 Hybrid Routing Protocol: Hybrid Routing is a mixture of link-state protocol which works based on having all routers on the network telling other routers about its nearest neighbors and distancevector routing which works based on sharing its information of the entire network with its neighbors. It is generally referred to as Balanced-Hybrid routing. Hybrid Routing is a third categorization of routing algorithm. Hybrid routing protocols use distance-vectors for more accurate metrics to establish the best paths to destination networks, and report routing information only when there is a change has been made in the topology of the network. Hybrid routing allows rapid convergence but requires less processing power and memory as compared to link-state routing Example of Hybrid routing protocol: 1. 2.2.1 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP):

The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is an external routing protocol used to exchange routing information with gateways in other autonomous systems. EGP broadcast only information of how to reach neighboring routers, not true metrics. The updating of EGP contains also metrics, called distances which range from 0 to 255. EGP is concerned with how neighboring routers can communicate with each other and how the information reach neighboring router. Neighboring routers might or might not be in different autonomous system. The operation of EGP is that each EGP router preserves a database of information about the reachable networks and how to

44 of 11

reach them. It sends this information out seamlessly to all routers directly connected to it. Then connected routers receive this massage and update their routing tables, likely used this information to update other routers. Information about how to reach a certain network is propagated across the entire internetwork.

Examples of an EGP:

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is a protocol used for exchanging routing information between gateway hosts in a network of autonomous system. BGP is mainly used on the internet between gateway hosts. A list of well known routers is contained within the routing table, as well as the reachable addresses and the path to each outer containing the cost of metric associated along with it to find out the best available route. Administrative distance: Administrative distance is a measure used by Cisco routers to choose the best path when the same destination can be reached through two different routes from two different routing protocols. Administrative distance indicates how reliable a particular routing protocol is. Each routing protocol has a unique administrative distance and prioritized in order of most to least reliable (believable). A lower numerical value is preferred, for example an IGRP route with an administrative distance of 100 will be chosen over an OPSF route with an administrative distance of 110. If the administrative distance has the value of 255, the router won't believe the source of that route and won't install the route in the routing table. Classful vs. Classless: Classful: 1. 2. 3. Pass only the network address without the subnet mask, for example Can cause loss of accuracy and result in a black hole. e.g.: RIP. (1.1.0.0).

44 of 12

Classless: 1. 2. 3. Pass the network address as well as the subnet mask, for example: Can summarize at random boundary. e.g.: OPSF. 2.2.1.1.1 Routing Information Protocol (RIP): (1.3.0.0, 255.255.0.0).

RIP is a dynamic, distance vector protocol that is most commonly used for the purpose of distributing router information in an Autonomous system (AS). . RIP is classified as one of the interior Gateway protocols. RIP is a simple vector routing protocol with several existing execution in the field. In a vector routing protocol, the routers exchange information with their nearest neighbors about how to reach each other through the network. The routers exchange with each other the list of destination addresses they can reach, and the next hop address to which data should be send in order to reach those destinations.

How does RIP work?

Figure (4): http://networking.ringofsaturn.com/Certifications/BSCN.php

44 of 13

By using RIP, a router sends an entire table of list (which shows the other routers this router knows about) to the nearest neighbor every 30 seconds. In turn, the neighbor router passes the information it has received to the next neighbors and so on till all routers within a single network gained the same knowledge of routing paths, this procedure is known as Network Convergence. By using the hop count, RIP determines network distance. To determine the next router to route a packet to a specified destination, each router in the network use the routing table information. RIP is an efficient and an effective solution for small uniform networks. But for larger networks, or more complicated ones, RIP's transmission of the entire routing table every 30 seconds may cause a heavy amount of extra traffic in the network.

RIP routing Metric:

RIP Use a single routing metric (hop count) to calculate the best route to a specific destination based only on counting how many hops is on the way to the destination network. RIP then select the shortest hop count to determine the destination. But since the path with the shortest hop count may be over the slowest link in the network, RIP tends to be inefficient in network using more than one LAN protocol, such as Fast Ethernet and serial or Token Ring. RIP implements a maximum value on the number of hops accepted in a path from the source to a destination to prevent routing loops from ongoing for ever. RIP can handle in maximum a number of 15 hops. If a router receives more than 15 hops, then the network is considered unreachable by RIP. The disadvantage of this stability feature is that, it only accepts less than 16 hops as the maximum diameter. RIP has many stability features that are familiar to other routing protocols. For example, RIP implements the split horizon and hold-down mechanism to prevent routing loops from occurring.

RIP Timers:

1. routing-update timer: It controls the time of routing updates. 30 seconds is usually the default, plus a small accidental delay to prevent all RIP routers from sending updates at the same time.

44 of 14

2. route-timeout timer: It takes control when a route is no longer available. 180 seconds is usually the default. If a route in an update has not been seen by the router during this specified interval, then it will be dropped from the router's announcements. The route is maintained long enough for the router to advertise the route as down (hop count of 16). 3. route-flush timer: It controls how long before a route is completely flushed from the routing table. The default setting is usually 120 seconds.

Convergence Speed:

The Convergence of RIP is slow. Since its a distance vector protocol, it means that each router adversities only the path its self is using to reach a particular network, when there is a change in the network topology, each router recalculates its routing table before announcing the change to its neighbors. If a network has gone down, the router must query its neighbors for an alternate path to the network, and wait for them to respond. Additionally, RIP employs timers such as the hold-down timer to lessen the chance of a routing loop. These timers, how ever, also lengthen the amount of time that incorrect information might be propagated through the network.

RIPv1 VS RIPv2:

RIP is known as a classful routing which is unable of handling classless routing. In RIP v1 all known networks are advertised as classful networks, therefore there's no possibility of sub netting a network properly via VLSM for RIP v1. Auto summary command is used in RIPv1 to set sub-netting to default (which 24 in class C), meaning that if the subnet is given with a value other than default, then the value won't be accepted and the auto summary will set it back to default (24). RIPv2 is known as a classless routing, meaning that it doesn't care what class this IP address is, which can in turn support sub-netting. It supports VLSM by sending their subnet along with the network address during router updates. Since RIPv2 supports VLSM, no auto summary command must be used. No auto summary command allows sub-netting so RIPv2 can advertise a small amount of simple information about each subnet to their neighbors. In turn their neighbors advertise this information to their neighbors' routers and so on until all routers have gained this information.

44 of 15

For example, this ip192.168.10.0/24 which is in class C, the default mask would be / 24 prefix (255.255.255.0). In this case classful routing protocol would accept this value. In other words, if the IP of class C tend to be such 192.168.10.0/16, we can notice the value of the subnet mask would be the default of class B address not C. that means, classful routing protocols will automatically change the value /16 prefix to 24/ prefix which is the default of class C. to solve this problem, we use classless routing protocol which support VLSM (sub netting) regardless of the address classes type.

Advantages:

1. RIP has the advantage of being broadly implemented and supported. Previously, RIP has been the most popular routing protocol for use in TCP/IP internetworks, largely due to its integration in Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) 4.2 UNIX. Few (if any) router manufacturers have failed to implement RIP in their products. 2. Router discovery. Many end user devices listen to RIP traffic to discover the local router interface(s). 3. Simplicity and Ease of use: RIP is simple and easy protocol to implement and set up. Simplicity usually means low-cost to develop and low in computational overhead. RIP would be good enough choice when a router has no complex choices to make on alternate paths.

Disadvantages:

1. Trust: The RIP protocol does not have the ability of checking for common faults and errors. All routes sent by a router to others are assumed correct, even if no traffic can flow on the return path. 2. Slow convergence: when known routes fail, RIP takes much time to find new routes, in other words RIP does not find new routes that quickly. Additionally, more complex topologies with flexible routers can cause count to infinity problems, where a spurious route is being used and not discovered for several minutes.

44 of 16

3. Poor metrics: RIP supports only a hop count metric, with a greatest value of 15 hops. It is not practical to cost different speed links to bias traffic towards better routes unless the network is simple and small.

2.2.1.3.1 (EIGRP):

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

EIGRP stands for Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol developed by Cisco .EIGRP is called a hybrid routing protocol because it features some of the characteristics of both Distance vector protocol and link state protocol. It is also called "advanced distance vector" because it has more features from distance-vector protocols but with some enhancements it became "advanced distance vector". It uses the same sophisticated metrics as IGRP and uses the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL). EIGRP is categorized as balanced hybrid protocol. As IGRP which can only understands main network number, EIGRP has been enhanced and configured to use subnet masks and super-net masks. EIGRP can reallocate its routes (and metrics) into other routing protocols and accepts redistribution from other routing protocols as well. Furthermore the format of EIGRP routing table is different from IGRP routing table. Main capabilities that differentiate Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) from other routing protocols could be point out regarding fast convergence, support for variable-length subnet mask, support for partial updates, and support for multiple network layer protocols. Using EIGRP, all neighbors' routing tables of a router are stored in that router, As a result it would be easy to quickly adapt to alternate routes. In case if there is not

44 of 17

appropriate route exists, EIGRP would quire its neighbors to find out an alternate route. EIGRP would keep on asking its neighbors until an alternate route is found. Using EIGRP, routes are automatically summarized on a network number boundary; this feature is mainly permitted regarding the support of EIGRP for variable-length subnet masks. Furthermore EIGRP can be summarizing on any bit boundary at any interface. Instead of making periodic updates, EIGRP sends partial updates when there is only a change of a route's metric. Broadcasting of partial updates is automatically restricted, thus only those routers that need the information are updated. Accordingly EIGRP consumes significantly less bandwidth than IGRP due to these two capabilities.

EIGRP Metric:

EIGRP protocol is similar to IGRP only in the sense that it uses the same metrics:

Delay. Bandwidth Reliability Load.

Figure (5): http://networking.ringofsaturn.com/Certifications/BSCN.php Here the MTU is not used in the calculation of the metric; some how it is tracked through the path to find the smallest MTU.

44 of 18

Usually, EIGRP only uses Delay and Bandwidth with Bandwidth taking precedence. The metric for EIGRP is calculated by multiplying the IGRP metric by 256.

How does EIGRP work?

To provide greater routing performance, EIGRP employs four key technologies that merge together to distinguish it from other routing technologies; and here are they:

Neighbor Discovery/Recovery:

This refers to the procedure when routers learn of other routers that connected within the same network. Routers also should be able to know the status of their neighbors, knowing whether they are still reachable and functioning or already became unreachable and idle. By sending hello packets occasionally routers are able to recognize the status of their neighbor's routers. The achievement of this process is critically done with low overhead. Only if hello are still received, routers can determine that their neighbor's routers are still alive (functioning). Determining the status of the neighbors' routers as alive allows the routing information to be exchanged.

Reliable Transport Protocol:

This refers to the responsibility of delivering guaranteed and ordered packets of EIGRP to all neighbors. Since EIGRP is a TCP based, so it has the ability of using TCP based communication to guarantee that a neighbor has received a communication when it is necessary; because not all the packets need to be transmitted reliably. To increase efficiency, reliability is provided only when it is necessary. For example in a multi-access network with multicast capabilities, such as Ethernet, we do not need to send hello packets reliably to all neighbors independently; therefore EIGRP works on sending a single multicast hello with an indication in the packet informing the receivers that this packet doesn't need to be acknowledged. On the other hand, there are other types of packet such as update; this packet requires acknowledged and this is indicated along with the packet. The reliable transport applies condition for sending multicast packets quickly when there are unacknowledged packets pending. This helps assure that convergence time remains low in the presence of unreliable speed links.

44 of 19

DUAL Finite State Machine:

It contains the process of decision for the computation of all routes. It is able to track only the routes that have been advertised by neighboring routers. DUAL is responsible of selecting an efficient loop free path by using the distance information (metric). It uses feasible successors to determine the routes that need to be inserted into a routing table. A Successor simply refers to the neighboring router that has the less cost path to destination and it is not a part of the routing loop. If there is no feasible successor and there are only some neighbors advertising the destination, in this case a re-computation must occur. Re- computation means determining a new successor. But the problem in this case is that it takes too much of time to re-compute the route, which in turn affects the convergence time. Avoiding the re-computation when not necessary is really useful. DUAL will test for feasible successor when there is a topology change has been implemented, if there are already feasible successors DUAL will use any of them to avoid the process of unnecessary re-computation.

Protocol Dependent Modules:

This is mainly responsible for handling protocol specific requirement and network layer, such as IP or IPX. For each layer 3 protocol used in the network, EIGRP maintains separate tables simply as most routing protocols do.

Routing Concepts:

EIGRP depends on four basic concepts: neighbor tables, topology tables, feasible successor, and route states. Each of these is summarized in the following: 1. Neighbor Tables: Neighbor table refers to the process when a router learn about a new neighbors, it insert the address and the interface of this newly neighbor in the neighbor table. For each protocol dependent module there is one neighbor table. To determine whether the neighbor router is reachable and operational or not, a hello packet is sent to the neighbor router. Time between sending the hello packet and receiving it again is called a hold time, during this time the router keeps treating the neighbor router as reachable and operational. If no hello packet is received during this hold time, the hold time then expires and informs the DUAL of the topology change. 44 of 20

To detect out of order packets, sequence numbers are applied with data packets to match the acknowledgments; so when the last sequence number is received it doesnt accept anymore incoming packets and consider them as out of order packets. 2. Topology tables: When a neighboring router advertises a destination, then this destination is inserted into the topology table. This topology table is populated by the protocol dependent modules and acted upon by the DUAL finite-state machine. The topology table must contain the destination and the neighbors who have advertised this destination for each neighbor. The advertised metric (which the neighbor stores in its own routing table) will be recorded within the entry for each neighbor. The metric which the router includes in its own routing table and advertises to other routers is the sum of the bestadvertised metric from all neighbors and the link cost to the best neighbor. 3. Feasible successor: It refers to all minimum cost paths to the destination from a set. Any route to a destination whose metrics is less than the current entry or all entries in the routing table is considered as a feasible successor. The feasible successor is inserted into the routing table, when the current route enters the active state. When a neighbor changes the metric it has been advertising or a topology change occurs in the network, the set of feasible successors may have to be re-evaluated. If a neighbor who is the only feasible successor to a destination goes down, all of the neighbor's routes enter the active state and activate route recomputation

Route states:

There are two states a topology table can have:

Active: when there is a recomputation going on. A destination is in the Passive: when there is no recomputation going on. A destination is in

active state when the router is performing a recomputation

the passive state when the router is not performing a recomputation

44 of 21

A destination can never be in the active state, if there are always feasible successors available, which means never have to do recomputation. A recomputation occurs only when there is no feasible successor route exists. If a neighbor (who is the only feasible successor to a destination) goes down, all of the neighbor's routes enter the active state and activate route recomputation. The recomputation process is initiated by a router via sending a query packet to all neighboring routers, then once the neighboring table received the packet; it will either sends a reply that it has a feasible successor or just sends a replay telling that it is currently involving in the recomputation process. When routers are in active state, their routing table information can not be changed. The topology table entry for the destination returns to the passive state once all neighbors have replied, and the router may then select a feasible successor.

Convergence Speed:

In an appropriately designed network, EIGRP can converge very quickly. For every destination network, it will attempt to discover a backup route. Then if the primary route goes down, the router immediately inserts the backup route into the table. No recalculation or querying of neighbors is necessary. The catch to this is that an alternative path to each network must exist. In addition, EIGRP must be able to insure that the alternative path is loop-free. It does this by comparing the metric (or distance) advertised by each neighbor, for each network, to the metric of its best route to that network. Any neighbor with an advertised distance less than the best distance can be used as a backup next hop. If EIGRP does not have a backup route for a network, then in this case it will query its neighbor for an alternate path, if they do not have the route, then they query their neighbors and so on. This procedure takes time, and slows convergence. - Advantages:

Unlike IGRP, which is a classful routing protocol, EIGRP is classless

and support VLSM.

44 of 22

EIGRP provides faster convergence times, improved scalability, and EIGRP can replace Novell RIP and AppleTalk Routing Table

superior handling of routing loops.

Maintenance Protocol (RTMP), serving both IPX and AppleTalk networks with powerful efficiency.

Do not waste resources when it is unnecessary, low usage of network when a change occurs, only routing table changes are propagated, not

resources during normal operation.

the entire routing table, this reduces the load the routing protocol itself places on the network

Support for route summarization along arbitrary boundaries Sophisticated metric, including support for unequal cost load-

balancing.

- Disadvantages:

Proprietary to CISCO. Routers from other vendors cannot use or understand EIGRP. Only doesn't scale as well as OSPF and ISIS

CISCO routers can understand EIGRP

2.2.1.2.1

Open Shortest Path first (OSPF):

OSPF is an interior routing protocol that is used within larger autonomous system network regarding the RIP protocol. Similarly with RIP, OSPF is selected by the Internet Task Force (IETF) as one of the Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs). Using OSPF, routers can dynamically discover routes from other routers and advertise them to other routers. The process of advertising routes is referred to as Link State Advertisement in OSPF. As a link state routing protocol OSPF router follows the state of all the various network connections (links) between itself and the network it is targeting to send the data to. OSPF is very efficient because it supports classless IP address ranges. To organize the network into hierarchal structure, OSPF make use of 44 of 23

areas. It summarizes route information to reduce the number of advertised routes and thus reduce network load and uses a chosen router (elected via a process that is part of OSPF) to reduce the quantity and frequency of Link State Advertisements. OSPF requires the router to have more powerful processor and more memory than other routing protocols. Through finding the lowest cost path to destination, OSPF is able to choose the best routes. The cost of a route is the same with the sum of all the costs configured on all the outbound links between the router and the destination network, plus the cost configured on the interface that OSPF received the Link State Advertisement on. Somehow all routers interface are given a cost.

4.

OSPF Router Type:

OSPF routers emphasis on the location of the routers and the areas they are participated in order to serve in various roles.

Internal routers:

It only connects to one OSPF area and its entire interface connects to the same area also. It is not connecting to any other areas. If a router connects to more than one network, it will be classified as one of the following:

Backbone Routers:

It is the routers which have one or more interface in Area0 (the backbone area).

Area Border Routers (ABR):

It refers to the router that connects more than one area to the backbone. Usually called as Border router or ABR, and it is mainly used to connect non-backbone areas to the backbone areas. ABR will be used to connect the area using the virtual link to another non-backbone area when OSPF virtual links are used. 44 of 24

Autonomous system Boundary Router (ASBR):

A router is called an Autonomous system Boundary Router (ASBR), if it connects OSPF autonomous system to another system. OSPF select two or more routers to manage the link state advertisement, every OSPF area will have a designated Router and Backup Designated Routers: Designated Router (DR):

Designated router is the router that acts as controlling router in which all other routers in the same area send their link state advertisement. It keeps on tracking all link state updates and insures that the LSAs are busy with rest of the network using Reliable Multicast transport.

Backup Designated Router (BDR):

The same process of selecting a designated router goes here in selecting a backup designated router as it is elected during the same process. When the DR falls, the BDR will take over.

OPSF Areas:

Figure (6): http://cciepursuit.wordpress.com/2009/03/10/

44 of 25

OSPF areas are mainly used to guarantee and organize a hierarchical structure to the flow of data over a network. With a network applying OPSF protocol, there must be at least one area or if there is more than one area, one of these two areas must be the backbone area. The main purpose of using areas is to group routers into controllable groups in order to exchange routing information locally. On the other hand, areas are used to summarize routing information when advertising the routes externally. A standard OSPF network looks something like a centralized bubble (the backbone area) with a lot of smaller bubbles (sub areas) attached directly to it. AREA Birder Routers are used to connect the areas. Each area will select a designated router (DR) and a backup designated router (BDR) to help in flooding link state advertisement (LSAs) all the way through the area.

Backbone (Area 0):

When we think of building a network using OSPF, the first are we should always implement is the backbone area. The backbone area is always Area 0. All other areas are connected directly to the OSPF backbone area. We have to consider one important thing when we intend to design an OSPF backbone area that is we must insure that there is no possibility of the backbone area being split into two ore more parts caused by a route or link failure. Sizeable areas of the network will become unreachable if the OSPF backbone is split due to hardware failures or access lists. Totally Stub Area:

A totally stub area is a term refers to the area that is only connected to the backbone area. This totally stub areas do not advertise the routes it knows, neither sending any link state advertisement. The only thing it does is receiving the default route from an external area, which is the backbone area. This default route enables the totally stub area to communicate with the rest of the network. Stub Area:

44 of 26

Stub areas are areas that only connected to the backbone area. Stub areas do receive routes, but only within the same autonomous system therefore it can't receive any routes from outside the autonomous system. Not-So-Stubby (NSSA):

Commonly, it is sensible to use a separate network to connect the internal enterprise network to the internet. For placing an Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) within a non-backbone area, the stub area must learn routes from outside the OSPF Autonomous System. Therefore a new type of LSA was required which is the Type7 LSA. The Autonomous System Boundary Router creates the Type 7 LSA's and the stub area's border router (ABR) forwards it to the backbone area. This procedure enables other areas to discover router that area external to the OSPF routing domain.

Virtual Links:

When we have a network that must be connected to an existing OSPF System, we make use of virtual links. Since it is not possibly to be physically connected, we configure an OSPF virtual link to be fro the area to the backbone router via creating a virtual direct connection to the backbone area. Acting as a tunnel, the virtual link forwards LSAs to the backbone through a second midway area.

How does OSPF work?

OSPF uses the shortest path first (SPF) routing algorithms as the basis for its operation. In the situation whereby an SPF router is powered up, it initializes its routing protocol data structure and then seeks for the acknowledgement from lowerlayer protocols that its interface are functional. Once the router has been acknowledged that its interface is functioning, it sends hello OSPF packets to obtain neighbors. The router sends hello packet to its neighbors and

44 of 27

receives their hello packets. In some situation and to obtain more neighbors, hello packets acts as keep alive to inform the router that, other routers are still functioning. On networks support more than two routers (multi-access), the hello protocol chooses a designated router (DR) and a backup designated router (BDR). And it is known that the designated router is the responsible of generating LSAs for the complete multiaccess network. Using designated routers results in reducing network traffic and the topological database size. The routers are referred to as adjacent, when the link-state databases of two neighboring routers are synchronized. In a multi-access network, adjacent routers are determined by the designated router. Topological databases are synchronized between pairs of adjacent routers. Adjacencies control the distribution of routing-protocol packets, which are sent and received only on adjacencies. It is essential for each router to occasionally send an LSA either to provide information on a router's adjacencies or to inform other when a router's stat changed. Failed routers can be detected quickly by comparing established adjacencies to link state. This procedure can also alter the network's topology properly. From the topological database generated from LSAs, each router calculates a shortest-path tree, with itself as root. The shortest-path tree, in turn, yields a routing table.

Convergence Speed:

OSPF is considered as one of the speediest-converging protocols. When an OSPF router discovers a change in the network topology, it forwards the information to its neighbors before recalculating its routing information. This procedure speeds up the convergence of OSPF. Each router maintains a link-state database containing information about all networks in the OSPF routing domain. If a network goes down, there is no need for a router to query its neighbors; it already knows any alternate paths to that network. Once a router has updated its neighbors, it returns the SPF algorithms and submits the resulting routes to the routing tables. - Advantages:

44 of 28

Fast convergence. OSPF routers overflow updates to changes in the

network around the internet, which makes all routers quickly agree on the new topology after a failure.

Superior network metrics. This gives a network designer the freedom

to assign costs for each path around the network, and it gives very well control over routing paths.

Low traffic overhead. OSPF is inexpensive of network bandwidth on Area based topology. Large OSPF networks are grouped as a set of

links between routers.

areas linked by a backbone. Routing within each area is isolated from others to minimize cross area discovery traffic

Route summaries. OSPF can minimize the routes propagated across an

area boundary by breaking up several related Sub-net routes into one. This reduces the sizes of a routing table, and increases the practical size of a network.

Support complex address structures. OSPF allows different size sub-

netting within a network number, and sub-nets of a network number to be physically disconnected. This procedure reduces waste of address space, and makes changing a network incrementally much easier.

Support authentication process. OSPF supports the use of passwords

for dynamic discovery traffic, and checks that paths are operational in both directions. The main use for this is to prevent misconfigured routers from "poisoning" the routing tables throughout the internet. Actually this is not a serious problem, as almost all end user devices do not support OSPF - Disadvantages:

Processor overhead: During stable state operation the OSPF CPU

usage is low, mainly due to the traffic between routers. However, when a topology change is detected, there is a large amount of processing required to support flooding of changes, and recalculation of the routing table. 44 of 29

5.

Memory overwhelmed: OSPF uses a link state database to keep track

of all routers and networks within each attached area. With a complex topology, this database can be much larger than the corresponding routing pool, and may limit the maximum size of an area. 6. Difficult Configuration: OSPF is very complex to configure.

2.2.1.2.2

Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS):

IS-IS stands for Intermediate System to Intermediate System. It is an interior linkstate protocol designed to function within an autonomous system (AS). The matching OSI exterior routing protocol is IDRP (Interdomain Routing Protocol), which is basically designed to exchange routing information between autonomous systems. IS-IS routers overflow an internetwork with link-state information. When other routers receive this information, it builds a database that defines all the routers on the network. A routing table is then made from this information. IS-IS routing makes use of two-level hierarchical routing. Level 1, routers know the topology in their area, including all routers and hosts, but they do not know the identity of routers or destinations outside of their area. Level 1 routers forward all traffic for destinations outside of their area to a level 2 router within their area which

44 of 30

knows the level 2 topology. Level 2 routers do not need to know the topology within any level 1 area, except to the extent that a level 2 router may also be a level 1 router within a single area. Since IS-IS supports a two-level hierarchy, groups of routers can be delegated to an area (domain). Routing information is then included within the domain and summary information for those routes exchanged with other areas. - Types of IS-IS protocol data units (PDUs), and their use:

Hellos: Set up and maintain adjacencies. Hellos are exchanged every 10 seconds on a broadcast link by all routers except the DIS. The DIS sends a hello every 3.3 seconds

LSP (Link State PDU): Advertises link-state information CSNP (Complete Sequence Number PDU): An update containing the complete list of LSPs known to the router PSNP (Partial Sequence Number PDU): Used to acknowledge a routing update (LSP) on point-to-point links and to request missing information about a route after receiving a CSNP

- Two types of network topology are supported by IS-IS: 1. Broadcast: Broadcast topology typically describes a LAN, but it might also be used with an NBMA network such as Frame Relay 2. Point-to-point. - There are two types of IS-IS addresses: 1. Network Service Access Point (NSAP) NSAP addresses identify

network layer services, one for each service running. (NSAP's are broken down as follows) - Initial Domain Part (IDP): * Authority and Format Identifier (AFI) (1-byte) Provides information about the structure and content of the IDI and DSP fields. 44 of 31

- Initial Domain Identifier (IDI) (variable length): -Domain Specific Part (DSP): * High Order Domain Specific Part. *Area ID. *System ID. *N-selector: (1-byte value that serves a function similar to the port number in Internet Protocol). 2. Network Entity Title (NET) NET addresses identify network entities or

processes instead of services.

Convergence Speed:

It is a link state protocol; therefore it converges at quick speed. A number of factors make it more professional than OSPF. A change in the IP network topology does not necessary make router to have to re converge. The SPF algorithm is run on CLNS information. If an IP like goes up or down, that information is sent to other routers, but IS-IS needs to recalculate its SPF information only if the link change affects an adjacency.

44 of 32

Comparison between protocols:

44 of 33

RIP v1 Intirior/Extiror : Type: Default metric: Administrative distance: Hop count limit : Convergence: Update timers:
interior Distance vector Hop count 120 15 Slow 30 seconds

RIP v2
interior Distance vector Hop count 120 15 Slow 30 seconds

EIGRP
interior Distance vector Bandwidth/delay 90 (internal) 170 (external) 224 (100 default) Very fast Only when change occurs

OSPF
interior Link-state Cost 110 None Fast Only when changes occur; (LSA table is refreshed every 30 minutes, however) Only Changes Yes Yes Dijkstra 224.0.0.5 (All SPF Routers) 224.0.0.6 (DRs and BDRs)

IS-IS
interior Link-state Cost 115 None Fast Only when changes occur

Updates: Classless Support VLSM: Algorithms: Update address:

Full table No No BellmanFord Broadcast

Full table Yes Yes BellmanFord 224.0.0.9

Only Changes Yes Yes DUAL 224.0.0.10

Only Changes Yes Yes Dijkstra

Protocol and Port:

UDP port 520

IP Protocol 88

IP Protocol 89

44 of 34

Configuration:

R1#show running-config Building configuration... Current configuration : 798 bytes ! version 12.2 no service password-encryption ! hostname R1 ! ! ! ! ! ip ssh version 1 ! interface FastEthernet0/1 ip address 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0 duplex auto speed auto ! interface Serial0/0 44 of 35

ip address 192.168.6.1 255.255.255.0 clock rate 64000 ! interface Serial0/1 ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 ! router rip version 2 network 192.168.1.0 network 192.168.2.0 network 192.168.6.0 ! ip classless ! ! ! ! ! line con 0 line vty 0 4 login ! ! end

R1#show ip int bri Interface IP-Address FastEthernet0/0 FastEthernet0/1 Serial0/0 Serial0/1 unassigned

OK? Method Status

Protocol

YES manual administratively down down YES manual up YES manual up YES manual up up up up

192.168.2.1 192.168.6.1 192.168.1.1

R1#show ip route Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2 E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area * - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR P - periodic downloaded static route

44 of 36

Gateway of last resort is not set C C R R R C R R 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/1 192.168.3.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.6.2, 00:00:21, Serial0/0 [120/1] via 192.168.1.2, 00:00:25, Serial0/1 192.168.4.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.6.2, 00:00:21, Serial0/0 192.168.5.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.6.2, 00:00:21, Serial0/0 192.168.6.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0 192.168.7.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.1.2, 00:00:25, Serial0/1 192.168.8.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.1.2, 00:00:25, Serial0/1

44 of 37

R2#show running-config Building configuration... Current configuration : 832 bytes ! version 12.2 no service password-encryption ! hostname R2 ! ! ! ! ! ip ssh version 1 ! ! interface FastEthernet0/0 ip address 192.168.4.1 255.255.255.0 duplex auto speed auto ! interface FastEthernet0/1 ip address 192.168.5.1 255.255.255.0 duplex auto speed auto ! interface Serial0/0 ip address 192.168.6.2 255.255.255.0 ! interface Serial0/1 ip address 192.168.3.2 255.255.255.0 clock rate 64000 ! router rip version 2 network 192.168.3.0 network 192.168.4.0 network 192.168.5.0 network 192.168.6.0 ! ip classless ! ! ! ! ! line con 0 line vty 0 4

44 of 38

login ! ! end

R2#show ip int bri Interface IP-Address FastEthernet0/0 FastEthernet0/1 Serial0/0 Serial0/1 Serial0/2 Serial0/3 FastEthernet1/0 FastEthernet1/1

OK? Method Status YES manual up YES manual up YES manual up YES manual up

Protocol up up up up

192.168.4.1 192.168.5.1 192.168.6.2 192.168.3.2 unassigned unassigned unassigned unassigned

YES manual administratively down down YES manual administratively down down YES manual administratively down down YES manual administratively down down

R2#show ip route Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2 E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area * - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR P - periodic downloaded static route Gateway of last resort is not set R R C C C C R R 192.168.1.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.3.1, 00:00:28, Serial0/1 [120/1] via 192.168.6.1, 00:00:01, Serial0/0 192.168.2.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.6.1, 00:00:01, Serial0/0 192.168.3.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1 192.168.4.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/0 192.168.5.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/1 192.168.6.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0 192.168.7.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.3.1, 00:00:28, Serial0/1 192.168.8.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.3.1, 00:00:28, Serial0/1

R3#show running-config Building configuration...

44 of 39

Current configuration : 832 bytes ! version 12.2 no service password-encryption ! hostname R3 ! ! ! ! ! ip ssh version 1 ! ! interface FastEthernet0/0 ip address 192.168.7.1 255.255.255.0 duplex auto speed auto ! interface FastEthernet0/1 ip address 192.168.8.1 255.255.255.0 duplex auto speed auto ! interface Serial0/0 ip address 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0 clock rate 64000 ! interface Serial0/1 ip address 192.168.3.1 255.255.255.0 ! interface Serial0/2 no ip address shutdown ! interface Serial0/3 no ip address shutdown ! interface FastEthernet1/0 no ip address duplex auto speed auto shutdown ! interface FastEthernet1/1 no ip address duplex auto speed auto

44 of 40

shutdown ! router rip version 2 network 192.168.1.0 network 192.168.3.0 network 192.168.7.0 network 192.168.8.0 ! ip classless ! ! ! ! ! line con 0 line vty 0 4 login ! ! end R3#show ip int bri Interface IP-Address FastEthernet0/0 FastEthernet0/1 Serial0/0 Serial0/1 Serial0/2 Serial0/3 FastEthernet1/0 FastEthernet1/1

OK? Method Status YES manual up YES manual up YES manual up YES manual up

Protocol up up up up

192.168.7.1 192.168.8.1 192.168.1.2 192.168.3.1 unassigned unassigned unassigned unassigned

YES manual administratively down down YES manual administratively down down YES manual administratively down down YES manual administratively down down

R3#show ip route Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2 E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area * - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR

44 of 41

P - periodic downloaded static route Gateway of last resort is not set C R C R R R C C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0 192.168.2.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.1.1, 00:00:27, Serial0/0 192.168.3.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1 192.168.4.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.3.2, 00:00:11, Serial0/1 192.168.5.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.3.2, 00:00:11, Serial0/1 192.168.6.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.3.2, 00:00:11, Serial0/1 [120/1] via 192.168.1.1, 00:00:27, Serial0/0 192.168.7.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/0 192.168.8.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/1

44 of 42

References:

http://www.dcs.napier.ac.uk/~bill/wwwsite/ch16.pdf http://homepages.uel.ac.uk/u0223755/Routing%20protocols.htm http://www.ehow.com/facts_5017125_types-routing-protocols.html http://hubpages.com/hub/What-you-mean-by-RIP-v1 http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Routing+protocols http://www.comptechdoc.org/independent/networking/guide/netdynamicroute.html http://www.protocolbase.net/protocols/protocol_EGP.php http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk365/technologies_tech_note09186a0080094195.s html http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/RIP.html http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/internet/ip/routing/rip/ http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/ps6632/products_ios_protocol_option_home.ht ml http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/internet/ip/routing/dv_vs_ls.shtml http://networking.ringofsaturn.com/Certifications/BSCN.php http://images.google.com/imgres? imgurl=http://cciepursuit.files.wordpress.com/2009/03/ospf_topology.png%3Fw %3D600%26h %3D400&imgrefurl=http://cciepursuit.wordpress.com/2009/03/10/&usg=__4VddtG1 1vV34OA_2gT_SvGLo9LI=&h=400&w=600&sz=164&hl=en&start=15&tbnid=ea4 TEK4k7UAo2M:&tbnh=90&tbnw=135&prev=/images%3Fq%3DOSPF%26gbv %3D2%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

44 of 43

Plagiarism detect:

44 of 44