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1.0 Principles Of Using Total Station

1.1 Basic principles Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
To obtain accuracy in surveying and speed up distance measurement, the electronic distance
measuring (EDM) method was introduced. Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method
of determining the length between two points using electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly
carried out with digital instruments called theodolites. The distance is measured with the help
of electro-magnetic waves such as micro wave, infrared wave and other similar waves. The
electronic distance measuring equipment and a reflector are necessary to measure the
distance. The wave emitted from the electronic distance measuring equipment reaches the
reflector and return back to the electronic distance measuring equipment.

Then the distance is measured with the help of time taken for the above process – time taken
by the wave for the emission and return. The wave is travelling along the x axis with a velocity
of 299,792.5 ± 0.4 km/s (in vacuum). The frequency of the wave is, the time taken for one
complete wavelength.

λ = c/f

λ = Wavelength in meters
c = velocity in km/sec.
f = frequency hertz (one cycle per
second)

Figure 1.0 : EDM Wave

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As per Figure 1.0 shows a modulated electromagnetic wave being emitted from
an EDM instrument and being reflected and being reflected back to the instrument

Two main types of EDM are in common use

• Electromagnetic (Microwave) EDMs using microwave part of the spectrum
• Electro-optical (Light Wave) EDMs using visible part of the spectrum

1.1.1 Electromagnetic Microwave Instruments

• Electromagnetic EDMs, first developed in the 1950s, use high frequency radio waves.
• The first generation of this equipment was very precise for measuring long distances;
however, it was too bulky and heavy for the practicing surveyor’s needs.
• Wave frequency used in these tools is usually 10Ghz
• Distance range >100km in clear weather.
• Requires 2 device and 2 operator
• Communication devices between the main tools and remote devices is all microwave
equipment
• Tellurometer, geodimeter, makometer & others

Figure 1.1 : Microwave EDM

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Microwave Distance Measurement as illustrated Figure 1.1, the sending (master) instrument
transmits a series of modulated radio waves to the receiving (remote) instrument. The remote
instrument interprets these signals and sends them back to the master unit that measures the
time required for radio waves to make the round trip. The distance is computed based on the
velocity of the radio waves. Because this velocity is affected by atmospheric conditions,
corrections for temperature and barometric pressure are applied according to the operating
instructions provided with the equipment.

Figure 1.2 : Optical EDM

1.1.2 Optical Light EDM

• Modern electro-optical EDMs are smaller, lighter, easier to use, and require less power.
• Modern short-range instruments have ranges from 0.5 km to 5 km.
• Long range instruments, using coherent laser light, have ranges from 10m to 15 km.
• In general: long range: 10 – 20 km, medium range: 3 – 10 km and short range: 0.5 – 3
km.
• To use an electro-optical EDM, you set up the instrument at one end of the line being
measured and a reflector at the other end of the line.
• Less susceptible to atmospheric conditions.
• Less expensive: only a single transmitter needed.
• Simpler instrument
• Uses a gallium arsenaid (GaAS) diode that emits emplitued-modulated infrared\
• High frequency of modulation is precisely controlled
• Distance range : >1km (single) and >3km(3/9 prism)
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• Accuracy = ± 10mm
• Limited line of sight, rain, fog, other airborne particles

1.2 Components of Total Station and its function

Figure 1.3 : Total Station

1.2.1 Introduction of Total Station
A total station is an optical surveying instrument that uses electronics to calculate angles and
distances. It combines the functions of a theodolite with that of a transit level and electronic
distance meter (EDM). It also has an integrated microprocessor, electronic data collector, and
storage system that allows measurements to be stored on the device (which can be uploaded
to a computer for further processing).

The important operations that can be performed using a total station can be listed as follows:
a. Measurement of Distance
An essential component of the total station is Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)
which is responsible for the distance measurement.

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b. The measuring range of the EDM can vary from 2.8km to 4.2km.
• A typical EDM is capable of measuring the distance with an accuracy ranging
between 5mm to 10mm per km of measurement.
• The EDM is equipped with an automatic target recognizer. The distance measured
by the total station is always the sloping distance from the instrument station to
the object.
c. Measurement of Angle
• Another important operation performed by the total station is the measurement
of angle.
• Usually, any suitable direction must be taken as the reference direction for the
measurement of the horizontal angles.
• While, in the case of the vertical angles, the vertically upward direction i.e. the
zenith is taken as the reference direction.
d. Processing of Data
• The processing of data in the total station is done utilizing the microprocessor that is
inbuilt into it.
• The inbuilt microprocessor is capable of averaging the multiple observations taken.
• The microprocessor can compute the horizontal distance as well as the location
coordinates (X, Y, Z).
• In the modern total station, the microprocessor can apply even the pressure
corrections and the temperature corrections when the temperature and the
pressure values are provided.
e. Display of Output
• The output or the computed results are displayed in the total station utilizing the
electronic display unit.
• The display unit can display the computed horizontal distance, vertical distance,
horizontal and vertical angles, elevation differences between points, and the
location coordinates of the required points.

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f. Electronic Record-Keeping (Electronic Book)

• The total station is capable of storing the data in an electronic book which is similar
to a compact disc of the computer.
• Such an electronic book can store data ranging from 2000 points to 4000 points.
• The data stored in the electronic book of the total station can be unloaded by the
surveyor to a computer.

1.2.2 Components of Total Station and its function

Figure 1.4 : Front view of Total Station (Nikon)

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Figure 1.5 : Back view of Total Station (Nikon)

Figure 1.6 : Front View of Total Station (Topcon)

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Figure 1.7 : Side View of Total Station (Topcon)

1.2.3 Function of Total Station

Carry Handle:
It is for easy and save movement of the instrument from one position to another.

Optical Sight/Alidade/Targeting Sight:

It is to roughly align the instrument towards the target.

Objective Lens:
It catches the object being sighted and magnifies the object.

Eyepiece:
It is located at the viewing end of the telescope, it can be turned to bring the crosshairs
into focus.

Focusing Knob:
It is to focus the target when seeing it from the eyepiece.
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Vertical angle adjustment buttons:

Vertical angle adjustment buttons are used to reset the vertical angle.

Vertical and Horizontal Clamps:

They are to lock the instrument towards a certain point. When engaged they restrict the
movement of Telescope on their respective axis.

Vertical and Horizontal Tangent Screws:

They are used to move the crosshairs on their respective axis when seen through they
eyepiece.

Sight adjusting screw

Sight adjusting screw is used to adjust the point of sight that shot right direction.

Leveling Screws:
It allows adjustments to be made to ensure the instrument is level.

Nivo tube
Nivo tube used to determine the erectness of tool.

Base Plate/tribrach:
It is the area to which the instrument level attaches on the tripod.

Tripod:
A tripod is a three-legged stand, important in providing the foundation for auto levels
and other leveling instruments. It is usually made up of Aluminum for the sake
lightness.

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Figure 1.8 : Tripod Stand

1.2.4 Advantage and Disadvantage of Total Station

Advantages of total station:
• This instrument can be quickly setup on a tripod using laser plate.
• They are programmed with the field computation onboard to calculate the area of a
field.
• It depicts a pictorial view of land and plots.
• This instrument has no error in recording and writing.
• It provides accurate measurement in addition to various traditional survey
instruments.
• Data can be saved and transferred to a PC.
• It has a built in database.

Disadvantages of total station:

• The instrument is more expensive than other traditional survey instruments.
• Examining and checking the work while surveying can be a problem for the surveyor.
• Total environment surveying requires additional environmentally friendly surveyors as it
is not easy to work with this instrument.
• To verify the survey work totally, it is essential to come back again to the workplace and
put together an image using the proper software program.

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1.3 Method of horizontal and vertical reading by using both circle

1.3.1 Horizontal Angle Measurement
1. The concept of measuring the horizontal and vertical circles is simple in either the
traditional theodolite or the modern electronic theodolite. The following procedures
should be used to measure the horizontal angles between three stations A, B and C
[Refer Figure 1.9].
2. Setup the theodolite and center the instrument on station B. The theodolite instrument
has two faces; “Face left” or “Face right”.
3. Starting from the face left, the telescope is pointed at station A. The horizontal reading
is then noted. E.g. 25° 30’ 00”.
4. The instrument is then turned in a clockwise direction to point at station C. Again the
horizontal reading is noted. E.g. 145° 50’ 00”.
5. The horizontal angle α can be calculated, by finding the difference between the two
horizontal readings,

i.e., C – A = 145°50’00’ – 25°30’00”

α = 120°20’00”
6. Change the face of the theodolite instrument. Whilst pointing at station C the horizontal
reading is again recorded. E.g. 325°50’00”.
7. Turn the instrument in a clockwise manner and point at station A. Record the horizontal
reading. E.g. 205°30’00”. This time the readings must be subtracted in the correct order,
i.e., C – A = 325°50’00” – 205° 30’00”
α = 120°20’00”

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Figure 1.9: Horizontal angle measurements

Vertical Angle Measurement

A vertical angle is the angle measured vertically from a horizontal plane of reference [Refer
Figure 1.10].
1. When the telescope is pointed in the horizontal plane (level), the reading of the vertical
angle is zero (0°).
2. When the telescope is pointed up [elevated], then the vertical angle increases from zero
and the reading is a positive (+ve) vertical angle [known as angle of elevation]. The
reading increase from 0° to +90° when the telescope is pointed straight up.
3. If the telescope is depressed [pointed down], then the angle reading will increase in
numerical value. The depressed telescope reading indicates that it is below the
horizontal plane and the reading is a negative (–ve) vertical angle or [known as angle of
depression]. These numerical values increase from 0° to –90° when the telescope is
pointed straight down.

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+ Vertical Angle

Horizontal

+ Horizontal Angle

Figure 1.10: Vertical angle reading

1.4 Temporary and Permanent Adjustment

Adjustment of a total station means the operation of tightening or loosening of moveable parts
to prepare the instrument for accurate measurement. It also includes other operations meant
for this purpose. There are two types of adjustments for a total station :
a. Temporary Adjustment
b. Permanent Adjustment.

1.4.1 Temporary adjustment

These are required for each setting up of the instrument and includes following,
a) Setting up
b) Levelling
c) Elimination of Parallax

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a. Setting up
It includes fixing the instrument and approximate levelling by leg adjustment
i. Fixing the instrument over tripod
• The clamp screw of the instrument is released.
• The total station is held in the right hand. It is fixed on the tripod by turning round
the lower part with the left hand and it is firmly screwed over the tripod.

Centering Screw

Figure 1.11: Centering screw

ii. Leg adjustment

• The instrument is placed at a convenient height with the tripod legs spread well
apart and so adjusted that the tripod head is as nearly horizontal as can be
judged by the eye.

Focussing on the
survey point

Focussing on the
reticle

Figure 1.12: Focusing on the survey point

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Figure 1.13 Bubble adjustment procedure

• Fix any two legs of the tripod firmly into the ground and move the third leg until
the main bubble is approximately in the centre.
• The third leg is than pushed into the ground.

Equal spacing
Firmly fixed

Figure 1.14 Fixed tripod leg into the ground

b. Levelling

 The clamp is loosened and the upper plate is turned until the longitudinal axis of the
plate level is parallel to a line joining any two levelling screws, say A and B.
 The two foot screws are turned uniformly towards each other or away from each
other until the plate bubble is central.
 The telescope is rotated through 90o so that it lies over the third foot screw.
 The third screw is turned until the plate bubble is central.
 The telescope is rotated through 900 to its original position and the above procedure
is repeated till the bubble remains central in both the positions.

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 The telescope is now rotated through 1800. The bubble should remain central if the
instrument is in proper adjustment.

Figure 1.15 : Total Station Levelling Process

c. Elimination of Parallax
It is consists of focussing the eyepiece and objective of the level.
a. Focussing the eyepiece
The operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear distinct and clearly visible.

b. Focussing the objective

This operation is done to bring the image of the object in the plane of the cross-hairs.

Figure 1.16 : Focussing the eyepiece & Focussing the objective

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1.4.2 Permanent adjustment

These adjustments are carried out once and will not alter unless it is being roughly handled or
tampered with. There are certain basic requirements for a theodolite that must be established
particularly when using it. The basic requirements are as follows:
a. The vertical axis of a theodolite should be truly vertical.
b. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
c. The horizontal axis should be truly horizontal.
d. The cross hairs should be truly vertical and horizontal.
e. The vertical circle should be at zero when the line of sight is horizontal.

For this study it is appropriate to know only the basic requirements for permanent adjustments.
The steps in carrying out the adjustments should be handled by the qualified person at the
laboratory.

1.5 Total Station’s errors and effect.

1.5.1 Errors
A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the same
quantity. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of
variance regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These variances are known as
errors and will need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards.

Even when carefully following established surveying procedures, observations may still contain
errors. Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value.
The true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of
repeated measurements. Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and knowledge
of surveying methods to minimize the amount of error in each measurement.

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1.5.2 Types of Errors

There are two types of errors, systematic and random. It is important for the surveyor to
understand the difference between the two errors in order to minimize them.
a. Blunders
A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by human error
that often leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of carelessness,
miscommunication, fatigue, or poor judgment.

Examples of common blunders are:

• Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
• Setting up the instrument or target over the wrong control point.
• Incorrectly entering a control point number in the data collector.
• Transposing numbers or misplacing the decimal point.

All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submitting a survey for inclusion in
the project mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and constantly examine
measurements to eliminate these mistakes. Blunders can be detected and eliminated by
reacting to “out-of-tolerance” messages by the data collector when they occur. They can
also be detected by carefully examining a plot of the collected survey points while in the
office.

b. Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are caused by the surveying equipment, observation methods, and
certain environmental factors. Under the same measurement conditions, these errors
will have the same magnitude and direction (positive or negative). Because systematic
errors are repetitive and tend to accumulate in a series of measurements, they are also
referred to as cumulative errors.

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Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must recognize the
conditions that cause such errors. The following list includes several examples of
systematic errors:
• Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observations.
• Not applying curvature and refraction constants.
• Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.
• Using an incorrect prism offset.
• Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.

The effect of these errors can be minimized by:

• Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.
• Entering the appropriate environmental correction factors in the data collector.
• Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights, and prism offset in the data
• collector.
• Periodically calibrating the surveying equipment.

If appropriate corrections are not made, these errors can accumulate and cause
significant discrepancies between measured values. By keeping equipment in proper
working order and following established surveying procedures, many of the systematic
errors can be eliminated.

c. Random Errors
Random (or accidental) errors are not directly related to the conditions or circumstances
of the observation. For a single measurement or a series of measurements, it is the
error remaining after all possible systematic errors and blunders have been eliminated.
As the name implies, random errors are unpredictable and are often caused by factors
beyond the control of the surveyor. Their occurrence, magnitude, and direction (positive

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or negative) cannot be predicted. Errors of this type are compensating and tend to at
least partially cancel themselves mathematically. Because the magnitude is also a
matter of chance they will remain, to some degree, in every measurement.

Misclosures (or residuals) are the difference in a measurement or a series of

measurements from an established value. Random errors account for the misclosure
when systematic errors have been corrected and blunders have been removed.
Misclosures are computed when adjusting level loops, traverses, and GPS networks.

Random errors conform to the laws of probability and are therefore equally distributed
throughout the survey. Because of their random nature, correction factors cannot be
computed and applied as they are with some systematic errors. However, they can be
estimated using a procedure based on the laws of probability known as the least-
squares method of adjustment. This method computes the most probable adjusted
values and the precision of the survey. The least-squares method may also reveal the
presence of large blunders.

1.5.3 Sources Error

Sources of error in total station surveying is identified as following: –
a. Instrument Error
b. Personal Error
c. Natural Error

a. Instrument Error
This error is occure due to some faulty in the instruments. There are many types of error cause
by the instrumental faulty.

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b. Personal Error
The error is happening due to manipulation, error in reading and sighting, due to Parallax and
Mistakes in reading and recording. The following list includes several examples of personal
error:
• Instrument not set up exactly over point
• Bubbles not cantered perfectly
• Improper use of clamps and tangent screws
• Poor focusing
• Overly careful sights
• Careless plumbing and placement of rod.

c. Natural Error
Natural error is not due to human error or instrumental error. Although, instrumental error
seems to be natural error but it is already mentioned in the first category. While conducting
theodolite surveying a natural condition should be considered.

Otherwise the following are the error cause for the natural error.
• Error due equal atmosphere temperature which expand the various parts unequally.
• Error due unequal refracted
• Error due to high wind producing vibration
• Error due to unequal settlement of the tripod
Natural error cannot be eliminated, we should take the observation when the situation is
favorable.

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1.6 Latest development of Total Station instrument.

1.6.1 Robotic Total Station

Robotic Total Station or Robotic Tachometry System (RTS) widely used for surveying
purpose and solution. From surveyor to archeologist, professional used RTS to solve many
problems in collecting data such as to mapping the land use, archeology excavation site or used
in construction field. Latest technology adopted in modern total station is servo motors to drive
both the horizontal and vertical motion of the instruments. This technology designed special to
search automatically for prism target known as Automatic Target Recognition (ATR). Robotic
total stations allow the operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote control.
This eliminates the need for an assistant staff member as the operator holds the reflector and
controls the total station from the observed point.

Manufacturers such as Leica Geosystem, TOPCON Instrument, Trimble and Geodimeter

have designed an instrument with automatic target recognition (ATR). This technology utilizes
an infrared light bundle sent co-axially through the telescope. Usually, RTS will be used in
precise measurement application such as deformation monitoring or dimensional surveying for
industrial. Both applications needed high precision instrument and accuracy.

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Geodimeter 640 Topcon GTS 800 Leica TCRA1103 & RCS1100

Robotic Setup

Figure 1.17 : Robotic Total Station

1.6.2 Reflectorless Total Station

Reflectorless total stations can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color,
to a few hundred meters.

Topcon GPT 2005 Sokkia Set 4110 Leica TCR307

Figure 1.18: Reflectorless Total Station

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1.6.3 3D Laser Scanning

3D laser scanning surveys collect data points from a building or structure remotely and at a
speed and level of detail that conventional survey techniques cannot match. It is a non-invasive
technology that captures a set of data points (the point cloud) and maps them on a grid
coordinate of x, y and z.

Figure 1.19: Trimble TX5 3D Laser Scanner

1.7 Usage of Total Station in Civil Engineering work.

Total station is a most accurate surveying instrument mainly used for :
• preparing an engineering map in which engineering works are shown in detail such as
roads, railways, bridges, irrigation canals, dams, and so on.

Figure 1.20: Engineering Map

• prepare contour maps which help to determine the capacity of the reservoir, to find the
best possible transportation routes and so on.

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• plan and execute engineering projects like bridges, buildings, irrigation canal, and so on.
This field uses highest application of surveying in civil engineering.
• set out and transfer details from map to realistic view to ground
• Detail survey i.e., data collection.
• Control Survey (Traverse).
• Height measurement (Remove elevation measurement- REM).
• Resection.
• Area calculations,
• Missing line measurement (MLM).

2.0 Basic principles of traversing

2.1 Traverse concept in survey works
Traverse is a series of measured lines connected by measured angles. A traverse is a chain of
straight lines to be use as a basis for the measurement of detail. The straight line between two
consecutive traverse stations is called a traverse leg. The angle at any key station between two
consecutive traverse legs is known as a traverse angle.

The survey procedure known as traversing is fundamental to much survey measurement. The
procedure consists of using a variety of instrument combinations to create polar vectors in
space, that is 'lines' with a magnitude (distance) and direction (bearing). These vectors are
generally contiguous and create a polygon that conforms to various mathematical and
geometrical rules (which can be used to check the fieldwork and computations). The equipment
used generally consists of something to determine direction like a compass or theodolite, and
something to determine distance like a tape or Electromagnetic Distance Meter (EDM).

A traverse, in general, is to locate the features already existing in the area to be survey or in
accordance with predetermined measurements. Travers is classification as both closed and
open.

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2.2 Opened and closed traverse

2.2.1 Closed Traverse

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.21 : Examples of closed traverses

Closed traverse begins on a point of known position and closes to another point of known
position (often a closed loop on the initial point). (Figure 1.19 (a)) When closing to a different
point of known position, it is called a connecting traverse. (Figure 1.19 (b)) A closed traverse is
employed for locating the boundaries of lakes and woods across which tie lines cannot be
measured, for area determination, control for mapping, and for surveying moderately large
area.

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2.2.2 Open Traverse

Figure 1.22: Examples of open traverses

Open traverse begins at a known point and goes to another point whose location is uncertain.
This point cannot be checked for error except by another traverse. It is employed for surveying
long narrow strips of country. E.g.: the path, a highway, railway, canal, pipeline, coastline,
transmission line, etc.

2.3 Terms related to traverse survey

Table 1.0: Term in traverse survey

Terms Description
Fore Bearing Bearing measured in the direction of progress of the survey
Back Bearing Bearing measured opposite to the direction of survey
If the face of the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, the observation
Face Left
of the angle is known as Face left observation
If the face of the vertical circle is to the right of the observer, the
Face Right
observation of the angle is known as Face right observation
Mean Bearing Average of the observation from the left and right circles.
Final Bearing Last adjustment after ‘c’ correction.

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2.3.1 Booking And Correction

Table 1.1: Booking and Correction Form

BEARING / ANGLE From Final To Final

Station Average
Face Left Face Right Stn. Bearing Stn Distance
Datum
PA 6033 245 30 00 2 245 30 00 1 55.764
from
BKL BKL

1 245 30 00 65 30 00 118 47 00 2 118 47 00 3 64.319

2 BKL C - 14
3 118 47 00 298 47 00
118 46 46
2 298 47 00 118 47 00 230 25 30 3 230 25 00 4 59.802
3 PKT C - 28
4 230 25 40 50 25 20
230 25 02
3 50 25 30 230 25 30 269 15 40 4 269 15 00 5 65.049
4 PKT C - 42
5 269 15 40 89 15 40
269 14 58
4 89 15 40 269 15 40 300 09 20 5 300 08 30 1 67.236
5 PKT C - 56
1 300 09 10 120 09 30
300 08 24
5 120 09 20 300 09 20 65 31 10 1 65 30 00 2 Refer
1 BKL C – 01 10 space 1
2 65 31 10 245 31 10
65 35 00

Line 1-2 reading = 65 31’ 10”

Surposed reading = 65 30’ 00”
Misclosure = + 01’ 10” for each station of 2,3,4,5 and 1
Error = - 14” per station

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2.3.2 Standard Order Survey

Traverse survey divide to 4 standard orders. It is used for decided the field procedure and
ensure the required survey equipment and for ensure the survey accuracy before start the
fieldwork of survey. The different classes of traverse have different accuracy.

Each Standard class survey has the accuracy value. Generally, the have four types:
1. General order Traverse
2. First order survey
3. Second order survey
4. Third order survey
Table 1.2: The criteria of standard order survey
Linear Observation Observation Plotted Crossing
Class Closer error
misclosure Distance Bearing Bearing observation
Standard 1:25000 0.001m 1” 10” 1’15”@ 10ps 2

1 1:8000 0.001m 1”/10” 10” 1’15” @10ps 2

2 1:4000 0.001m 10”/20” 30” 2’30”@ 20ps 2

3 1:3000 0.01m 1” 1” 1’@ 40ps 1
*ps = per station
If relative accuracy is satisfactory, i.e., if relative accuracy meets
Rural land 1:5000
Suburban 1:7500
Urban 1:10000

2.4 Instruments used in traversing

List types of instruments used in traversing are :
a. Total Station
b. Prism
c. Tripod
d. Mini Pole
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2.5 Traversing procedures

The following steps are required to establish a traverse:
i. Reconnaissance
Preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be covered is known as reconnaissance.
During the reconnaissance, the surveyor goes to the entire area and decides the best plan
of working. If a map of the area is available, it would be help in planning the survey work.
Reconnaissance the following:
a) Examination of the area to be surveyed
b) Selection of suitable positions for traverse stations
c) Insuring the indivisibility of traverse stations
d) Deciding method of traversing and instruments o be employed.
e) Collection of miscellaneous information related to traversing such as:
- Transport facilities
- Availability of food and water for the survey party
- Camping ground or stay arrangements
- Availability of labour

ii. Selection of traverse stations

While selecting a traverse stations, the following points must be taken into account:
a) As far as possible, the survey work should be based upon the basic principle of
surveying. i.e., working from the whole to the part.
b) Number of stations is a minimum
c) Length of traverse lines is as long as possible to reduce the effect of centering
errors.
d) Stations are according to the requirement of the work and they are also useful
for picking up details.
e) Stations are intervisible
f) Stations are selected on firm and level ground
g) The ground conditions between the stations are suitable for linear
measurements
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h) The line of sight should be at least 1 m above the ground surface to reduce the
effect of shimmering due to refraction

iii. Marking stations

After finalizing the locations of traverse stations, their positions are marked should be of
permanent nature as for as possible so that the stations can be used in future, if required.
For ordinary traverse, a peg with a tack on its top, is driven almost flush with ground (Fig.
1.24 (a))

Nail

Wooden peg

Figure 1.23 (a) : Wooden Peg

If the traverse stations are to be permanently fixed, the stations mark of concrete block
wit steel bolt indicating the centre of block, should be (fig: 1.24(i)). The station mark is
etched on the bolt. In the mountainous area, the stations mark usually cut in the nature
solid rocks, after marking the stations, their distances from at the least three permanent
reference points around the station should be measured and recorded marking sketch to
relocate the stations at a later stage (fig: 1.24(ii)).

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Bolt
Bolt

Solid rock
Concrete
block

(i) (ii)

Figure 1.24 (i) (ii) Permanent marking

iv. Locating details

In traversing, the details can be located by any method. The angles and distances should
preferably be measured from the traverse stations to avoid the errors in measurement of
distance along the traverse lines.

v. Mark distance
Distance between traverse stations are measured directly by chaining which is a more
reliable method except in rough ground. Each distance must be measured independent
deftly by a 30-meter chain and 20-meter chain separately. Both chains are tested
regularly against standard tapes. When better accuracy is required, steel tape are used
for measuring the traverse legs. In case, measurements by two chains differ by more
than 1 in 1000 in between two stations, the line must be premeasured by both of chain.

The distances given by a 20-meter chain serves only a check on measurement. The
distances measured by a 30 meter, chain is only used in computation. The means of
distances measured by long and short chains should never accept for computation.

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 Traverse Survey

3.0 Adjustment in Survey works

3.1 Latitude and Departure

By definition, latitude is the north/south rectangular component of line. The differentiate
direction, north is considered plus, whereas south is considered minus. Similarly, departure is
the east/west re rectangular component of line. The differentiate direction, east is considered
plus, whereas west is considered minus. When working with azimuths. The plus/minus
designation is directly given by the appropriate trigonometric function:

Latitude ∆y = distance (H) cos α

Departure ∆x = distance (H) sin α

Where α is the bearing or azimuth of the traverse course, and distance (H) is the horizontal
distance of the traverse course.

Latitudes (lats) and departures (deps) can be used to calculate the precision of a traverse by
noting the plus/minus closure of both latitudes and departures. If the survey has been perfectly
performed (angle and distance), the plus latitudes will equal the minus latitudes, and the plus
departures will equal the minus departures.

00
Latit (+ve) Latit (+ve)

Dipat (-ve) Dipat (+ve)

270 90

Latit (-ve) Latit (-ve)

Dipat (-ve) Dipat (+ve)

180
Figure 1.25 Latitude and departure quadrant

33
 Traverse Survey

The figure 1.26 is the summary value of Latitudes (lats) and departures (deps) depends to the
value of bearing line.

3.2 Error of Closure and Precision

If you begin a traverse at one point and walk around the complete traverse and return back to
the original point that you started, you will have walked as far north (+) as you have walked
south (-) and as far east (+) as you have walked west (-). This means that for a closed traverse
the sum of latitudes should equal to zero (i.e., the northerly latitudes (+) plus the southerly
latitudes (-) add up to zero). Similarly, the sum of departures should equal zero (i.e., the
easterly departures (+) plus the westerly departures (-) add up to zero). However, when the
latitude and departures are calculated and summed, the result will never be exactly zero
(unless you are really good – you’re not). Therefore, a measure of error in closed-traverse is
the error of closure defined as

Eclosure = (EL )2 + (ED )2

Where: EL = total error in latitude

ED = total error in departure

The precision of the measurement is also defined as

Eclosure
Precision =
Perimeter

3.3 Balancing Latitudes and Departures

The following processes are only valid if the traverse closes within an acceptable tolerance. It is
possible to distribute the misclosure of the traverse throughout the network to compensate for
the accumulation of random errors. It is important that the process is understood, because
statistically it is based on the assumption that the misclosure is caused by random error in the
distance measurement (angular misclosure having already been eliminated). The process
cannot be used to eliminate mistakes; all that happens is that the blunder is distributed

34
 Traverse Survey

throughout the traverse instead of being isolated in one or two lines. This only makes a bad job
worse.

There are two procedures commonly used to distribute the misclosure, one based on
experience and knowledge of the survey, the other based on the theory that the misclosure is
proportional to the distance measured.
The two procedures are:
i. Bowditch Method – proportional to line distances.
ii. Transit Method- proportional to ∆E ∆N values

3.3.1 Bowditch Method

This method also knows the method of the compass. In this method the correction is
proportional to line distances. Where the bounder line is very long, the value of correction is
greater.

Latitude correction = Line distance x differential Latitude

∑ Traverse distance

Departure correction = Line distance x differential Departure

∑ Traverse distance

After the latitudes and departures are balanced, the length and bearing of the sides of a
traverse will be slightly changed. The corrected length of each side can be now calculated
LAB = (Dep AB )2 + (Lat AB )2

And the adjusted bearing may be determined by trigonometry

Adjusted Departure
tan (Bearing) =
Adjusted Latitude

35
 Traverse Survey

3.3.2 Transit Method

In this method, the correction is proportional to ∆E ∆N values. Where the ∆E ∆N value is very
grater, the value of correction is also grater.

Latitude correction = Latitude for line x Latitude differential

∑traverse distance

Departure correction = Departure for line x Departure differential

∑traverse distance

In for all this method, the correction value (positive and negative) refers the total value for
latitude and departure. If the total for latitude is positive (NORTH) grater from total value
latitude (negative (South), then correction value for all latitude (NORTH) is negative and all
latitude negative (SOUTH) is positive. The same process for get Departure correction. Refer
table 1.3 and 1.4.

36
 Traverse Survey
Table 1.3: Bowditch Method
Latitude Departure Final Final Coordinate
Station Bearing Distance
N S E W Latitude Departure N/S E/W
1 + 0.053 + 0.048
2 16 38 12 252.230 241.672 72.214
+ 0.060 + 0.054
3 73 19 12 284.210 81.576 272.251
- 0.081 - 0.074
4 195 17 30 384.730 371.109 101.466
+ 0.052 - 0.047
1 281 04 36 247.840 47.616 243.223

1169.010 370.864 371.109 344.465 344.689

+ 0.245 + 0.224

LATIT DIPAT AFTER ADJUSTMENT MISCLOSE

1
2 16 38 12 252.230 241.725 72.262
= (0.245)2 + (0.224)2
1169.010
3 73 19 12 284.210 81.636 272.305
= 1: 3521

4 195 17 30 384.730 371.028 101.392

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.668 243.176

371.029 371.028 344.567 344.568

+ 0.001 + 0.001

37
 Traverse Survey

Table 1.4: Transit Method

Latitude Departure Final Final Coordinate

Station Bering Distance
N S E W Latitude Departure N/S E/W
1 + 0.080 + 0.023
2 16 38 12 252.230 241.672 72.214
+ 0.027 + 0.088
3 73 19 12 284.210 81.576 272.251
- 0.123 - 0.033
4 195 17 30 384.730 371.109 101.466
+ 0.016 - 0.07
1 281 04 36 247.840 47.616 243.223

370.864 371.109 344.465 344.689

+ 0.245 + 0.224

 Latitude 741.973  Departure 689.154

LATIT AND DIPAT AFTER ADJUSTMENT

1
2 16 38 12 252.230 241.752 72.237

3 73 19 12 284.210 81.603 272.339

4 195 17 30 384.730 370.986 101.433

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.632 243.144

370.987 370.986 344.576 344.577

+ 0.001 + 0.001

38
 Traverse Survey

3.4 Traverse Calculation

After compute Latitudes (lats) and departures (deps) adjustment, the next task uses the data to
measure the item were related with traverses. The measurement including are:
a) Coordinate
b) Area computation
c) Direct distances and bearing

3.4.1 Coordinate
Origin point is for refer different values of coordinates from each state in Malaysia. The origin
value for North and East is zero (0). This point is use for reference for all survey work in that
state. The second coordinate point be found depend the calculation of latitudes and
departures value. Therefore, to calculate the next coordinate, you must start from known
coordinate point.

Table 1.5 : The origin point for State in Peninsular Malaysia.

State Coordinate System

Original Point
State / System North East
(Origin)
(Chain) (Chain)
Kedah & Perlis 0.000 0.000 G. Perak
Kelantan 0.000 0.000 Bukit Panau
Pahang 0.000 0.000 G. Sinyum
Perak + 6633.947 0.000 G. Hijau Larut
Johor 0.000 0.000 G. Blumut
Negeri Sembilan & Melaka - 47.152 - 12.030 Gun Hill
Selangor + 2781.802 - 1081.656 Bukit Asa
Pulau Pinang 0.000 0.000 Fort Cornwallis
Terengganu 0.000 0.000 Gajah Trom
(Refer: JUPEM)

39
 Table 1.6: The calculation coordinates for closed traverse.
The coordinates for all station reference to station 1 when the values are N1000.000, E1000.000.
Latitude Departure Final Final Coordinate
Station Bearing Distance
N S E W Latitude Departures N/S E/W

1 1000.000 1000.000

2 16 38 12 252.230 241.725 72.262 1241.725 1072.262

3 73 19 12 284.210 81.636 272.305 1323.361 1344.567

4 195 17 30 384.730 371.028 101.392 952.333 1243.175

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.668 243.176 1000.001 999.999

Example

Coordinate (N) Station 2 = Coordinate (U) Station 1 + Latitude 1 – 2

= 1000.000 + 241.725
= 1241.725
Coordinate (E) Station 2 = Coordinate (E) Station 1 + Departure 1 – 2
= 1000.000 + 72.262
= 1072.262
The positive and negative value must be considered in calculation.

Calculate by: ………………………………… Date: ……………………… No. Survey layout: …………………….. No. Sheet : …………….

Check by :: ………………………………… Date: ……………………… Surveyor : …………………….. No. Plan : …………….

Diluluskan oleh : ………………………………… Tarikh : ……………………… Buku kerja Luar & Halaman : ………. Mukim : …………….

40
3.4.2 Area computation
DMD method – Double Meridian Distance
The best known procedure for calculating a land area with a calculator is the Double Meridian
Distance (DMD) method. This method also uses at Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia
(JUPEM) to measure the traverse. The meridian distance of a line is the distance; parallel to the
east-west direction, from the midpoint of the line to the reference meridian (usually the north
arrow placed at the most easterly point of the traverse).

Calculation method, Refer figure 1.9

To facilitate the calculation, a reference meridian line drawn on the most western point where
it is vertical lines parallel to the north-south. In this case, the meridian through the westerly
point is taken as the reference meridian. The distance between two lines dividing point of two
traverse points and reference meridians called the meridian distance.

The meridian distance for line 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-1 is AA’, BB’, CC’, DD’ and EE’. The
calculations to get the distance meridian for line 2-3 are as below:

Jarak Meridian
Meridian distance

Meridian
Rujukan

Reference
Meridian

Figure 1.27: Area computation using Double Meridian Distance Method

41
 BB’ = meridian distance 1-2 + dipat1-2 + dipat2-3
2 2
From equation:
2(BB’) = 2(meridian distance 1-2) + dipat1-2 + dipat2-3

So, 2(BB’) is two time meridian distance line 2-3, means:

Consider the positive and negative value in calculation

(Final meridian distance = Final Depart)

Final meridian distance + Departure + Departure

Back line back line

Therefore:
Area 123451 = Trapezium 2’233’ + Trapezium 3’344’ + Trapezium 4’450
- 2’21 - 150
= JM2-3 x Latit2-3 + JM3-4 x Latit3-4 + JM4-5 x Latit4-5
- JM1-2 x Latit1-2 – JM5-1 x Latit5-1

The value of meridian distance is half from the value of Final departure, so replace the
value for final departure to formula:

2 x Area 123451 = DKD2-3 x Latit2-3 + DKD3-4 x Latit3-4 + DKD4-5 x

Latit4-5 - DKD1-2 x Latit1-2 – DKD5-1 x Latit5-1

42
 Table 1.7: The calculation the area use the DMD method – Double Meridian Distance

Latitude Departure Final Final Coordinate

Stn Bearing Distance
N S E W Latitude Departures N/S E/W
1
Start

2 16 38 12 252.230 241.725 72.262 337.061 72.262

3 73 19 12 284.210 81.636 272.305 660.422 416.829

4 195 17 30 384.730 371.028 101.392 371.030 587.742

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.668 243.176 47.668 243.174

Start
calculation

Area = ½ [DKLi x Dipati + DKLi + 1 x Dipati + 1…… 47.668 72.262

= ½ [ (337.061 x 72.262) + (660.422 x 272.305) + 47.668 + 72.262
+ (371.030 x –101.392) + (47.668 x –243.176)] 95.336 144.524
= ½ [(24356.702) + (179836.213) – (37619.474) + 241.725 + 272.305
- (11591.714)]
337.061 416.829
= ½ (204192.915) – (49211.188)
+ 241.725 + 272.305
= ½ (154981.727)
578.786 689.134
= 77490.864 m2
+ 81.636 - 101.392
= 7.749 ha
660.422 587.742
+ 81.636 - 101.392
742.058 486.350
- 371.028 - 243.176
371.030 243.174

43
Coordinate method
Another method to determine the area is to use Coordinate Geometry, often called the COGO
method. This method can use when the traverse station have the coordinate value. The X and
Y coordinates for each point on the traverse are determined using a reference point and adding
the latitudes and departures to the next point as you go around the traverse. Once each point’s
coordinates are determined, the area can be calculated.
Calculation method,

Figure 1.28 : Area computation using coordinate method

For example the traverse have 5 stations are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

AREA = AREA A23B + AREA B34D + AREA D45E – l AREA A21C – AREA C15E
2 AREA = (T2 + T3)(U2 – U3) + (T3 + T4)(U3 – U4) + (T4 + T5)(U4 – U5) – (T2 + T1)(U2 –
U1) – (T1 + T5)(U1 – U5)

EVALUATE;

2 AREA = (U1T2 + U2T3 + U3T4 + U4T5 + U5T1) – (U2T1 + U3T2 + U4T3 + U5T4 + U1T5)

44
Calculation application in practical:
a) Arrange the coordinate:

NORTH EAST
U1 T1
U2 T2
U3 T3
U4 T4
U5 T5
U1 T1

b) Then, cross multiplication the NORTH and East value (left side) and add the total.
Repeat the same process for right side.
c) The area value must get positive. Ignore the negative value.
d) Following is the calculation using this method: (Refer Table 7.4)

Area = ½ [ 1000 1241.725 1323.361 952.333 1000.001]

[1000 1072.262 1344.567 1243.175 999.999]

= ½ (5339345.817) – (5184365.237)
= ½ (154980.580)
= 77490.290 m2
= 7.749 ha

45
 EXERCISE

1. A 2nd class traverse survey fieldwork has been formatted at FIVE (5) station. The
observation data from the theodolite are recorded in table below. Calculate the bearing
adjustment and determine the final bearing for each line of the traverse.
Bearing Min
Stn From Stn Final Bearing To Stn
Face Left Face Right Bearing
0
Datum from PC 120 30’ 00’’ 2 1200 30’ 00’’ 1
1 1200 30’ 00’’ 3000 30’ 00’’
2
3 3230 52’ 27’’ 1430 53’ 08’’ 2 3
2
3
4 360 44’ 58’’ 2160 44’ 56’’ 3 4
3
4
5 1320 03’ 49’’ 3120 05’ 22’’ 4 5
4
5
1 2250 21’ 21’’ 450 20’ 00’’ 5 1
5
1
2 3000 30’ 40’’ 1200 30’ 60’’ 1 2

2. Table below shows data for theodolite booking at site. Based on this information, solve:
i. Latitude and departure for each line
ii. Calculate the Arithmetical sum of departure and latitude
iii. Calculate the closing error

Line Bearing Length(M)

AB 343° 54’ 00’’ 235.00
BC 87° 52’ 00’’ 317.50
CD 172° 42’ 00’’ 215.00
DE 265° 14’ 00’’ 281.50

46
 REFERENCE

Main reference supporting the course

Jerry Nathanson (2011), Surveying Fundamentals and Practices. New Jersey: Pearson Education
Inc.

Additional references supporting the course

Ab. Hamid Mohamed (2000), Asas Ukur Kejuruteraan. Skudai Malaysia: UTM.

Arthur Bannister (1998), Surveying. England: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.

Barry F. Kavanagh, S.J. Glenn Bird (2008), Surveying: Principles and Applications. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.

Barry F. Kavanagh, Dianne K. Slattery (2015) Surveying with Construction Applications. England.
Pearson education inc.

Charles D. Ghilani, Paul R. Wolf (2012), Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics.

New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.

Jasmee Jaafar, Redzwan Misran, Adli Redzuan Shaary, Roslina Idris, Mohd Nasri Md Rani (2016),
Asas Ukur Kejuruteraan. Shah Alam Malaysia: UiTM.

47