CONTROL OF

EXTERNAL EXPOSURE
Dr. Abd. Nassir Ibrahim
Managing Director
Madani NDT Training Centre (MNTC)
 CLASSIFICATI
ON OF
WORKING
AREAS
(CLAUSE 17
• 3 AREAS: CONTROLLED, SUPERVISED AND CLEAN
BSSAREAS 2010)
• DETERMINE (CALCULATE) BOUNDARIES OF THESE AREAS
• CONTROLLED AREA IS WHERE DOSE MOST LIKELY TO EXCEED 3/10 OF
DOSE LIMIT
• CONTROL AREA MUST BE DELINEATE PHYSICALLY OR IF NOT SUITABLE
BY OTHER MEANS
• SUPERVISED AREA: DEPENDS ON NATURE AND EXTEND OF RADIATION,
DELINEATE BY SUITABLE MEANS
 CLASSIFICATI
ON OF
WORKING
AREAS
(CLAUSE
• CONTROLLED AND SUPERVISED AREAS CLEARLY DEMARCATED, 17
DISPLAY WARNING
NOTICE AND SIGN
• NOTICE IN BAHASA MALAYSIA + ENGLISH
BSS 2010)
• PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT MUST BE PROVIDED AT THE ENTRANCE TO
CONTROLLED AREA (WHEN REQUIRED)
• EQUIPMENT FOR MONITORING CONTAMINATION OF SKIN AND CLOTHING, OR ANY
OBJECT REMOVES FROM THE AREA, FACILITIES FOR WASHING AND STORAGE FOR
CONTAMINATED CLOTH MUST BE PROVIDED AT THE EXIT OF CONTROLLED AREA
• OPERATING INSTRUCTION RELEVANT TO CONTROLLED AREA MUST BE POSTED
CONSPICOUSLY
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURE IN
SUPERVISED AND CONTROLLED AREAS
(CLAUSE 18 BS 2010)
• Restrict access to control area such as use of permit and
physical barrier
• Degree of restriction commensurate with magnitude and
likelihood of expected exposure
• Only those who are assigned and authorized by licensee can
enter controlled area
• Persons entering controlled area must follow instructions
• Periodically review protection measures, safety measures
and boundaries between controlled and supervised area
SPECIAL CONDITIONS FOR YOUNG
PERSONS AND PREGNANT WOMEN
(CLAUSE 19 BS 2010)
• PERSONS UNDER 16 YEARS MUST NOT WORK IN A
CONTROLLED OR SUPERVISED AREA
• PERSONS 16-18 YEARS MUST NOT WORK IN CONTROLLED
AREA UNLESS SUPERVISED AND FOR TRAINING ONLY
• IF WOMEN WORKERS CONFIRMED PREGNANT LICENSEES
MUST PLAN FOR HER TO WORK TO COMPLY CLAUSE 8(5) BS
2010
TIME DISTANCE

SHIELDING
 WORKING TIME

• QUANTITY OF RADIATION EXPOSED TO AN INDIVIDUAL

WORKING IN RADIATION AREA IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE
TIME SPENT IN THE AREA.

• THE LONGER HE SPENT IN THE AREA THE MORE RADIATION

HE ABSORBS

• SHORTEST EXPOSURE TIME CAN BE ACHIEVED BY:

• PROPER PLANNING TO AVOID RE-SHOOTING

• USING THE SHORTEST SFD POSSIBLE

• USING THE FASTEST FILM POSSIBLE

 Working Time
EXAMPLE: IF DOSE RATE AT A DISTANCE OF 1 METER IS 10
mSv/hr
1 hour 10mSv

20mSv
2 hours
Radiation
source 40mSv
4 hours
80mSv

8 hours

REMEMBER EXPOSURE (MsV) = DOSE RATE(mSv/hr) x

 Working Time

EXAMPLE
A RADIATION WORKER IS FOUND TO HAVE RECEIVE AN EXPOSURE
OF 10mSv AFTER STANDING FOR 2 MINUTES AT A DISTANCE OF 1
METER FROM THE SOURCE. WHAT WOULD BE THE EXPOSURE IF
HE STANDS AT THE SAME DISTANCE FOR 5 MINUTES?
DOSE RATE = 10mSv/2 min
= 5 mSv/min
FOR 5 mins. Total exposure would be:

EXPOSURE = DOSE RATE X TIME

= 5mSv/minute X 5 mins.
= 25 mSv
 WORKING DISTANCE
 RELATION BETWEEN THE INTENSITY OF
RADIATION WITH DISTANCE BETWEEN
THE SOURCE AND THE PERSON IS
DETERMINED BY INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 THIS LAW SAYS THAT RADIATION
INTENSITY VARIES INVERSELY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF
DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SOURCE AND
THE DETECTOR.
 IN RADIOGRAPHY MAXIMUM DISTANCE
CAN BE ACHIEVED BY:
 USING LONGEST GUIDE TUBE AND CABLE
 RADIOGRAPHER STANDS OUTSIDE SAFE
BOUNDARY
 WORKING DISTANCE

d1

• INVERSE SQUARE LAW SOURCE

I1
EXPRESSED
MATHEMATICALLY AS: I2

I1 / I2 = (d2 / d1)2 d2

• WHRE I1 AND I2 ARE

RADIATION INTENSITIES AT
DISTANCES OF d1 AND d2 d1

FROM THE SOURCE

RESPECTIVELY. d2
WORKING DISTANCE

• EXAMPLE: DOSRATE
AT A DISTANCE OF d1
2m FROM A GAMMA
SOURCE IS 0.8 Punca
I1
mSv/hr. AT WHAT
DISTANCE FROM I2
THIS SOURCE THAT d2
COINCIDE WITH THE
DOSERATE OF 7.5
μSv/hr?
 WORKING
DISTANCE
Example
The dose rate at 2 meters from a particular gamma source is
1mSv/hour. At What distance will it gives a dose rate of
7.5µSv/hour?

Solution:
I1 /I2 = (d2 /d1)2
Where,
I1 = 1 mSv=1000µSv/hour; I2 = 7.5µSv/hour
d1 = 2 meters; d2 = ?

1000µSv/hour (d2)2 4 x 1000

------------------ = ------ ; d2 = --------- = 23.1 m
7.5µSv/hour (2)2 7.5m
 WORKING
DISTANCE
SOURCE OUTPUT AND DOSERATE CONSTANT (K)
Both constants are used for the purpose of
measuring and calculating:
Doserate at various distances from the source
Determination of boundary for radiography
works
 WORKING DISTANCE

Source output and doserate constant can be used to calculate

dosrate at certain distances from a source with an acitivity of A
or an X-ray machine (mA)

Use the following formula;

eA
I 
d2
where
I is radiation intensity at a distance of d
e is the source output or doserate constant K
A is an activity in Bq or GBq) or current of an x-ray machine (mA)
 CONTROL OF EXTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE (WORKING
DISTANCE)
Example

1. Given : Calculate the dose rate a 5 meters from the source 370GBq of Ir-192

2. What is the intensity at 5 meters from an X-ray machine operated at the following
conditions:

Tube Voltage = 150kV

Tube current = 5 mA
E (150kV) = 1.75R/min./mA at one meter Remember:
1. I = e.A/d2
2. I1/I2 = (d2/d1)2
 Types of Open Sites (-ray)

Fully Open
Sites (Field
warning light,
sites)
radiation sign
remote windout
control

source
container

Define boundary
doserate
0.75 mR/hr or 0.25
mR/hr
remote
switch for
warning
lights
 Types of Open Sites (x-ray)
Fully Open
Sites (Field
warning light,
sites)
radiation sign

X-ray control
panel; remote
switch for
warning lights

tubehead

Define boundary
doserate
0.75 mR/hr or 0.25
mR/hr
 Types of Open Sites (-ray)

Partly
Open
warning light, Sites
radiation sign
(Field
remote windout sites)
control

source
container

Define boundary
doserate
0.75 mR/hr or 0.25
remote mR/hr
switch
for
warning
lights
 SHIELDING
• Definition: materials placed between a
radiation source and human being for the
purpose of reducing intensity of radiation.
• Shielding effectiveness depends on:
• Atomic number of material
• Material density
• Shielding thickness
• Energy of radiation used
• Lesser interaction between high energy
radiation and material makes it very
penetrating
 SHIELDING

• Uranium and tungsten are the best

shielding followed by lead and steel
• Concrete is not as good shielding as
uranium and tungsten but considered
as the most economic for construction
of exposure room and other enclosure
• Collimators is a good shielding to limit
the divergence of radiation beam
 Guide tube

Gamma source Radiographer

Cable winder Gamma projector directly
exposed to
Exposure without radiation
shielding

Guide tube

Gamma source Radiographer

Cable winder Gamma behind a
projector shielding
receives less
Exposure with shielding exposure
 SHIELDING MECHANISM
• When x or gamma rays traverse a material, it will undergo
photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production
• These processes produce electron and radiation of lower
intensities
• Process of reduction of dose intensity by a material is
known as attenuation

a
Punca
sinaran
Pengesan

d
c
 Attenuation

• Each material has its own 90% 90% 90% 90%

attenuation coefficient
• Attenuation coefficient
depends on gamma ray
energy
100 90 81 73 66
• For monoenergetic beam,
attenuation coefficient
remains unchanged
• If a layer reduces 10%
intensity, and initial intensity
is 100 then, attenuation would
be as shown in the diagram
 Attenuation Ix

Ketebalan x

• mathematically: Ix = Io exp(-ux)
Ix = radiation intensity after traversing a material
with a thickness of x (cm),
I0 = initial radiation intensity(mSv/jam),
 = total linear attenuation coefficient (cm-1) (µ = µf + µC
+ µpp)
x = shielding thickness (cm)
• Linear attenuation coefficient is a characteristic of
shielding material indicating shielding ability to reduce
radiation intensity
Example of calculation

• A radiographer was at a distance of 1 meter from an Ir

192 source of 1850 GBq activity . What is the doserate
received by him if a plumbum shielding of 10mm
thickness is place between him and the source.
(Doserate constant (k) for irridium-192 is 0.113
mSv/GBq/hour)
 Solution

• At a distance of 1 meter from the source doserate from a

1850GBq source is 0.113 x 1850 mSv/hour or 209 mSv/hour
• µ for a combination of an Ir-192 source and lead shielding is
1.435 cm-1 and the thickness x is 10mm (1 cm), I0= 209 mSv/jam

209 mSv / hour 209 mSv / hour

Ix  1.435
  49.7 mSv / hour
e 4.2
 SHIELDING-HALF VALUE
LAYER
• HALF VALUE LAYER FOR A MATERIAL
IS DEFINED AS A THICKNESS
REQUIRED TO REDUCE RADIATION
DOSERATEE TO HALF OF THE
ORIGINAL VALUE..
I I/2
• HALF VALUE LAYER DIFFERENT FOR
DIFFERENT MATERIALS
• HVL= 0.693/ 

Io = 200 mSv/hr Ix = 100 mSv/h 25 mSv/hr

50 mSv/hr

1 HVL 2 HVL 3 HVL

 SHIELDING-TENTH VALUE
LAYER
• TENTH VALUE LAYER IS
DEFINED AS A
THICKNESS REQUIRED TO
REDUCE RADIATION
DOSERATE TO ONE
TENTH OF ITS ORIGINAL
VALUE.
I I/10
• HALF VALUE LAYER IS
DIFFERENT FOR
DIFFERENT MATERIAL
• TVL=2.303/ 
Design and Construction
of An Exposure Room
 General Requirement

• Provide protection to workers and public

• Equipped with warning signs & light
• Control by approved personnel (RPO)
• Approved by Authority (LPTA)
Points of Consideration
 Enough space
 Water and electrical supply
 Design pipe, conduit and passage
properly (slanted) to avoid leakage
 Appropriate materials of adequate
thickness (no void & streaming
source
Methods of shielding when pipes, ducts,
conduits or cables must pass through
walls

LEAD

pipes Concrete wall

duct
cable

Lead
buffles
Streaming Effect

Concrete block

source
Points of consideration
 Separate place for control panel or
winder
 Proper door of adequate thickness
(machine will not operate if door
open)
 Door must be easily opened from
inside and outside
 Provide switch inside the room
Door Design
Radiation Source

Incorrect door design Lead lining

Hinged Door

Sliding Door
Points of consideration
 Provide surveymeter for checking
before entering room
 Floor, wall and ceiling provide
minimum backscattering-preferably
lead lining
 Blinking light when in operation
 Provide reliable lock and interlock
system
Points of consideration
(additional for gamma room)
 Consider the type and strength of the
radioisotope to be used
 Provide pit for storage of projector
 Source changing facility
 Attach room for projector
maintenance activities
Design of exposure room with labyrinth
structure

Sliding door

Exposure
area
Parameters to be considered when
designing exposure room
• Maximum kV or source energy
• Maximum mA or activity
• Permissible dose at points of interest
• Workload (W) in mA min/week or inRad/week at 1 meter for
gamma.
• Use factor U
• Occupancy factor T
• Maximum dose output or RHM factor
• Type of material for shielding: lead, concrete or combination
Design of an exposure room

Store Dark Office

Room

Exposure
area
Sliding Floor area for
door incomingsam
ple

Sliding
door
Exposure
area