ANCIENT-MEDIEVAL HISTORY AND INDIAN CULTURE

LECTURE-10 THE COMING OF MUSLIMS

RISE AND SPREAD OF ISLAM
• In the 7th century CE, a new religion called Islam was founded in Arabia by Prophet Muhammad
(c.570–632 CE), an Arab merchant from the city of Mecca.
• An important event in the history of rise of Islam is the migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca
to Medina (Hijra) in 622CE, which is regarded as the start of the Islamic Calendar.
• In a very short span of time, Islam carved out an empire extending from North Africa to the Iberian
Peninsula, to Iran and India. This religion transformed the religious, political, and social life, not only
of the people of Arabia but also of many other parts of the world.
• Islam lays an emphasis upon the belief in one God – Allah (Shahada) and its holy book, the Quran,
which is considered as the supreme authority in Islam as, according to Muslims, it was revealed by
Allah to the Prophet Muhammad. Every Muslim is asked to pray five times a day (Salat), to fast during
the month of Ramzan or Ramadan (Sawm), to distribute alms (Zakat), and to make a pilgrimage to
Mecca (Hajj) once in their lives, if possible.
Islamic Empire after Prophet Muhammad – the Caliphate
• After the death of the Prophet in c. 632 CE, the task of providing the political leadership to the
Muslims passed on to the Caliphs (Khalifa). The word Caliph is derived from the Arabic word ‘Khalifa’,
which means ‘deputy’, and was the title given to the rulers who succeeded Prophet Muhammad.
• Between c.632 and 661 CE, there were four Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphs, all close companions
of the Prophet. The Rashidun Caliphs were selected to the office by the consent of the Muslim
community (Ummat).
• The policy of the Rashidun Caliphs was to continue Muhammad’s aggressive territorial expansion.
• The first of these companions to be appointed Caliph was Abu Bakr, who was one of Muhammad’s
father-in-law and had been the first man after Muhammad to convert to Islam.
• Abu Bakr died in c. 634 CE and leadership passed to the next Caliph Umar, another early convert to
Islam who had spent 17 years at Muhammad’s side. During the Caliphate of Umar, Muslim armies
conquered almost the entire Middle East, including the Levant, Egypt, and much of Persia.
• The rest of Persia was conquered under the reigns of the two subsequent Rashidun Caliphs, Usman
and Ali.
• After the death of Ali, the principle of election of Caliph was abandoned in favour of the military rule
based on dynastic succession.
• The Umayyad Caliphate (c.661–750 CE) succeeded the pious Caliphs. The Umayyad dynasty gave
stability and prosperity to the Caliphate and was followed by the Abbasid Caliphate (c.750–1258 CE).
During the time of later Abbasids, the Caliphs began to loose political control and independent
Sultans (Muslim rulers) emerged in several regions.
The Arab Conquest of Sindh (c.712 CE)
• As a part of the expansion policy of the Umayyad Caliphate, the invasions started as early as the 8th
century in India.
• In c.712 CE, Arabs invaded India from the north-west region (Sindh) under Muhammad bin Qasim,
who was a general of the Umayyad caliphate.
• At that time, Sindh was ruled by Dahir of the Brahman Chach dynasty.
• However, the reason for the invasion of Sindh was to avenge the plunder of Arab Ships by the pirates
of Debal (port city of Sindh). When King Dahir refused to punish the pirates, al-Hajjaj (the governor
of Iraq) despatched an army under his nephew and son-in-law Muhammad bin Qasim.
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• Qasim arrived in Sind in c.712 CE, and besieged Debal. This was followed by a decisive victory over
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King Dahir at the fort of Raor near his capital Alor.

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 • Susequently, Alor, Brahmanabad, and Multan (near Indus river and parts of lower Punjab) were
taken. This military conquest is mentioned in the Chachnama, which is an early 13th century Persian
translation of an old Arabic history of bin Qasim.
• Qasim reorganized the administration of Sind. The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis
(protected subjects) and were supposed to pay a special poll tax Jaziya.
• Soon, Qasim was recalled by the Caliph. However, Sind continued to be under the Arabs.
• But the Muslims could not expand their authority further into India due to the presence of the
powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.
• Cultural Impact: Although the conquest of Sind did not lead to further conquests immediately, it had
resulted in the diffusion of Indian culture abroad. Many Arab travelers visited Sind. Indian medicine
and astronomy were carried to far off lands through the Arabs. The Indian numerals in the Arabic
form went to Europe through them.
The Age of conflict (c.1000–1200 CE)
• The period from c.1000 to 1200 CE witnessed many changes both in West and Central Asia, and in
northern India as well. The period saw the rise of Turkish Islamic kingdoms in the Central and West
Asia. The Turkish sultans paid nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphs but were for all practical
purposes independent. Towards the end of this period, there were a series of incursions of the Turks
into northern India as well.
The Ghaznavids and Mahmud of Ghazni
• By the end of the 9th century CE, the Abbasid Caliphate was in decline and a large number of states
under Islamised Turks were beginning to emerge. In the 9th and 10th centuries, most of Afghanistan
was under the control of the Samanids who ruled over most parts of Persia, Transoxania & Khorasan.
• Among the Samanid governors was a Turkish slave, Alptagin, who started as the governor of Balkh
and in course of time established an independent Turkish dynasty with its capital at Ghazni,
Afghanistan.
• He was succeeded by his slave and son-in-law, Subuktagin, who established his own rule in Ghazni
in 977 CE. The Samanid kingdom soon ended, and the Ghaznavids became independent.
• Subuktagin was succeeded by his son Mahmud (r. 998– 1030 CE) at Ghazni. He was 27 years old
then, and the first ruler to get the title of “Sultan”. Due to his stout defence against the central Asian
Turkish tribal invaders, he was considered a hero of the Islamic people by medieval Muslim
historians. He was also closely associated with the renaissance of the Persian (Iranian) spirit. In fact,
Persian renaissance writer Firdausi was the poet laureate at the court of Mahmud, who glorified the
ancient Iranian heroes. The Persian language and culture now became the language and culture of
the Ghaznavid empire.
• To aid his project of empire building in Central Asia, Mahmud launched a series of invasions of India
with a purpose to loot the wealth of India, destroy Hindu temples and promote Islam. In fact, he is
also known as butt-shikan or destroyer of images.
The Ghaznavid Invasions of India
Subuktagin (c. 977–998 CE)
• Hindu Shahi king, Jayapala, who held territories extending from Punjab and modern Afghanistan,
was first to realise the danger posed by the Ghaznanids. He thus invaded Ghazni, but he had to suffer
defeat and Subuktagin succeeded in forcing him into a humiliating treaty.
Mahmud of Ghazni (c.998–1030 CE)
• During the period between c.1000 – 1027 CE, he attacked India 17 times. He started his invasions in
India during the period when the Rajput power had declined.
• In c.1000 CE, he first invaded modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and defeated the Hindu Shahi ruler
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Jayapala in the First Battle of Waihind. It is believed that Jayapala burnt himself in the funeral pyre,
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unable to bear his disgrace.

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 • In the years c. 1004–06 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the rulers of Multan.
• In c.1008 CE, the Second Battle of Waihind between Mahmud of Ghazni and Anandapala (son of
Jayapala) was fought near Peshawar. Even though Anandapala was supported by the Sultan of
Multan and many princes of north-western India, like the rulers of Kannauj and Rajasthan and the
Khokhars (a brave war tribe of Punjab), and despite his forces being numerically larger, he lost the
war. One of the major reasons behind Mahmud’s success was his fast moving cavalry, in comparison
to the slow Indian troops, which were mainly driven by elephants. Strategically, he annexed Punjab
to have easy access to India.
• In c.1014 CE, Mahmud took Thaneshwar (near Delhi) and burnt the temple of Mathura.
• In c.1018 CE, he sacked Kannauj. In the same year he defeated and killed two more rulers, Hindu
Shahi Trilochanapala (Anandapala’s successor) and his son Bhimapala, thereby conquering Lahore.
• In c.1025 CE (his 16th expedition), he plundered the Somnath temple dedicated to Shiva in
Kathiawar, Saurashtra.
• In c.1026 CE, he returned and punished Jats of Punjab Haryana region for colluding against him.
• The objective of Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder the riches of temples and palaces and was
not interested in expanding his empire to India. However, in context of his Central Asian Empire,
Mahmud was not a mere raider and plunderer. His vast empire included Persia, Transoxania,
Afghanistan and Punjab.
• He patronised three important people:
▪ Al Biruni – The scholar from central Asia, and the composer of the Kitab-ul-Hind
▪ Firdausi – The Persian poet called the Homer of the East, writer of the Shahnama
▪ Utbi – The court historian of Mahmud of Ghazni, writer of the Kitab-ud-Yamni
• In c.1030 CE, Mahmud died, and following his death a powerful empire called the Seljuk empire
came into being. This empire included Syria, Iran, and Transoxiana, and contended with the
Ghaznavids for the control of Khorasan. In a famous battle, Masud, the son of Mahmud, was
completely defeated and he had to flee to Lahore for refuge. The Ghaznavid empire was now
confined to Ghazni and the Punjab.
• In the field of culture, a process of interaction between Islam and Hindu religion and society started.
Lahore emerged as a centre of Arabic and Persian language. Muslim traders helped in augmenting
the India’s trade with the central and west Asian countries.
The Ghurid Empire and Muhammad Ghori
• We had just discussed about the establishment of the Seljuk empire which eclipsed the Ghaznavids.
However, towards the middle of the 12th century, the power of the Seljuk Turks declined and in the
vacuum, two new powers rose to prominence, the Khwarezmid empire based in Iran, and the Ghurid
empire based in Ghur in northwest Afghanistan.
• The Ghurids had started as vassals of Ghazni but they soon overpowered them. The power of the
Ghurids increased under Sultan Alauddin who earned the title of Jahan-Soz (the world burner) since
captured Ghazni in 1151 and burnt it for 7 days.
• Many historians assert that the actual founder of the Islamic Empire in India was Shahabuddin
Muhammad (also known as Mui’zz ud-din Muhammad bin Sam), popularly called Muhammad Ghori,
who was the Sultan of the Ghurid empire along with his brother Ghiyath ud-din from c.1173–1202
CE, and the supreme ruler of the Ghurid empire from c.1202–1206 CE.
• In c.1173 CE, Muhammad Ghori ascended the throne at Ghazni while his elder brother was ruling at
Ghur. Ghori, being a very ambitious ruler, was not satisfied with only Ghazni and wanted to expand
his empire to get hold of more power and control. So, he carried out a number of invasions to
establish his rule over India. It is pertinent to note that unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori
was very much interested in establishing a permanent empire in India and not merely looting its
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wealth. His campaigns were well organised and whenever he conquered any territory, he left a
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general behind to govern it in his absence. His invasions resulted in the permanent establishment of
the Turkish Sultanate in India.

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 Ghurid Invasions of India
• Conquest of Multan and Upper Sindh (c.1175–1178 CE): In c. 1175 CE, he led his first expedition
against Multan, which was largely successful. In the same campaign, he captured Uchch (in Upper
Sindh) from the Bhatti Rajputs and established a fort there.
• Conquest of Gujarat (c. 1178 CE): He marched to conquer Gujarat but the Chalukya ruler of Gujarat,
Solanki Bhima II, defeated him at the battle of Kayadara (near Anhilwara, the capital of Gujarat). But
this defeat did not discourage Muhammad Ghori and he realised the necessity of creating a suitable
base in Punjab before venturing on the further conquest of India.
• Conquest of Punjab and Lahore (c.1179–1186 CE): He thus launched a campaign against the
Ghaznavid possessions in Punjab. As a result he conquered Peshawar c.1179, Sindh in c.1182 CE
Punjab and Lahore in c.1186.
• First Battle of Tarain (c.1191 CE): Ghori’s possession of Punjab and his attempt to advance into the
Gangetic Doab brought him into direct conflict with the Rajput ruler, Prithivaraja Chauhan, who had
already overrun many small states in Rajputana, captured Delhi and wanted to extend his control
over Punjab and Ganga valley. In the first battle fought at Tarain (a place near Karnal in the present
Haryana), Ghori’s army was routed and he narrowly escaped death. Prithviraj conquered Bhatinda
but he made no efforts to garrison it effectively. This gave Ghori an opportunity to re-assemble his
forces and make preparations for another advance into India.
• Second Battle of Tarain (c.1192 CE): This battle is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian
history, as Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and Ghori emerged successful. Interestingly, the Indian
forces were more in number but Turkish forces under Ghori were well organised with swift-moving
cavalry. The bulky Indian forces were no match against the superior organisation, skill, and speed of
the Turkish cavalry. Prithviraj was allowed to rule over Ajmer for some time as the coins pertaining
to this period bear legend “Prithvirajadeva” on one side and the words ”Sri Muhammad Sam” on the
other. However, soon after, Prithviraj was executed on the charges of conspiracy.
• Capture of Delhi and Ajmer: The Turkish army captured the fortresses of Hansi, Saraswati, Samana,
Delhi, and Ajmer.
• Battle of Chandwar (c.1194 CE): Ghori defeated Jaichandra (the ruler of Kannauj) of the Gahadavalas
dynasty. Thus, the battles of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in Northern
India. After this, Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs of India in the hand of his trusted slave
general Qutab-ud-din Aibak, who continued his conquests in India.
• Simultaneously, Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji (another general of Muhammad
Ghori) conquered Bihar in 1197 CE and Bengal in 1202 CE and destroyed the universities of Nalanda
and Vikramshila. Khalji thus became the viceroy of Bengal and Bihar.
• After the death of Ghori in 1206, his possessions passed on to his slave generals – Aibak in Delhi-
Ajmer region, Qabacha in Multan, Bakhtiyar Khalji in Bengal. Qutubuddin Aibak would go on to lay
the foundation of Delhi Sultanate in India, which will be consolidated and expanded by his
successors.
Causes for the failure of Hindu kingdoms
• The causes for the downfall of Hindu states have to be analysed historically.
• The most important cause was that they lacked unity. They were divided by factions. The Rajput
princes exhausted one another by their mutual conflicts.
• Secondly, many Hindu states were declining in power. Their military methods were out of date and
far inferior to those of Muslims. Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed
quick-moving cavalry.
• The Muslims soldiers had better organization. Their religious zeal and their greed for the greater
wealth of India provided stimulus to them.
• Among the Hindus, the duty of fighting was confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas. Moreover,
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the Hindus were always on the defensive, which was always a weak position.
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