0

DIAGRAM:

Scree
a

Laser source Optical fiber

cable c d

Tabular column:

Trail L Horizontal Vertical Mean Acceptance Numerical

No. (in cm) diameter diameter Diameter angle aperture
D1 D2 D  D
 0  tan 1  
NA  sin  0
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm)  2L 

1 2

2 4

3 6

4 8

1 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 1

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

AIM: To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

PRINCIPLE: The Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the numerical
aperture of the fiber. The acceptance angle can also be measured as the angle spread by the
light signal at the emerging end of the optical fiber. Therefore, by measuring the diameter of
the light spot on a screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end to the screen, we
can measure the acceptance angle and there by the numerical aperture of the fiber.

FORMULA: The Acceptance angle,

D
0  tan1  
 2L 
Where D – the diameter of the bright circle formed on screen,
L – the distance between the optical fiber end and screen.

And the Numerical Aperture,

NA  sin0
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the laser source and adjust the distance between output end of the optical
fiber and the screen ‘L’ (say2 cm).

2. Place a graph sheet on the screen and observe the circle formed on the graph sheet.

3. Mark the points ‘a’,’b’,’c’ & ‘d’ on the inner bright circle as shown in the diagram.
Note down the horizontal diameter D1 and vertical diameter D2 of the inner bright
circle in the tabular column.
4. Repeat the above steps for different values of L (for 4cm, 6cm, 8cm)

5. Find the Acceptance angle from the tabular column and hence the Numerical aperture.

RESULT:
The Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber are found to be
 0 = …………..
NA = ………….

2 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

A
x

OBSERVATIONS:

Radius of coil = a =………………. cm=…………………….m

TABULOR COLUMN:

Sl. Current X Deflections in degrees Average B

BH 
No. I in m θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ in B tan 
in A degree inT in T
1 0

2 0.05
0.5
3 0.10

4 0.15

5 0

6 0.05
1.0
7 0.10

8 0.15

3 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 2
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL
AIM: To determine the magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current and earth’s horizontal magnetic field by deflection method.

 0 nI a2 B
FORMULA: B  & BH 
2 a 2
 x 2

3
2 tan 

B – the magnetic field intensity at the center of a circular coil,

n – number of turns in the TG coil,
a – radius of the coil
x – distance between the center of the coil and pointer in the compass box
0 - permeability of free space = 4πx10-7 Hm-1.
I – the current through the coil
BH – horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field and
θ – mean deflection in TG.

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Arrange the deflection of the magnetometer in the magnetic meridian of the earth
3. Now align the plane of the coil with respect to 90°-90° line of the magnetometer.
4. Keep the magnetometer exactly at the center of the coil (for this case x = 0).
5. Pass a current I (say 0.5A) to flow through the coil and the corresponding magnetometer
deflections θ1 and θ2 are noted.
6. The direction of the current is reversed by using the commutator C and the corresponding
magnetometer deflections θ3 and θ4 are noted.
7. Average deflection θ is calculated.
8. Calculate the magnetic field at the center of the coil by using the given formula
 nl a2 and also BH .
B  0
2 a 2
3
 x2  2

9. Repeat the experiment for different values of x ( say 5cm, 10cm 15cm) by sliding the
magnetometer along the axis.
10. Find the average of both B and BH.

RESULT:
The magnetic field intensity decreases along the axis of the given circular coil as shown in
the tabular column. At the center (x = 0) it is found to be B = …………. T for I=0.5 A and
B = ………….T for I= 1 A
The Earth’s horizontal magnetic field intensity is found to be BH =……………. T

4 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

CALCULATIONS:

For I=0.5 A at x=0 cm= 0m

B H=

B=

For I=0.5 A at x=5 cm= 0.05m

B H=

B=

For I=0.5 A at x=10 cm= 0.1m

B H=

B=

For I=0.5 A at x=15 cm= 0.15m

B H=

B=

5 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

For I=1A at x=0 cm= 0m

B H=

B=

For I=1 A at x=5 cm= 0.05m

B H=

B=

For I=1 A at x=10 cm= 0.1m

B H=

B=

For I=1 A at x=15 cm= 0.15m

B H=

B=

6 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Figure

Laser Source Grating Screen

The distance between Grating and screen f = 100×10 -2 m = 1 m

TABULAR COLUMN:

2xn xn xn/f   tan 1

Xn sinθ
d sin 
Order in m in m f 
n
no in nm
(n)
1

7 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 3

DIFFRACTION GRATING (Semiconductor LASER)

AIM: To determine the wavelength of Semiconductor Laser by using Diffraction Grating by

calculating grating costant.

x
FORMULA:   tan 1 degree
f

d sin 
 m
n
1 1
Where d = Grating constant=   2.54  10  2 m =1.25×10-4m
N 200
n = order (n=1…, first order…..)
 = diffraction angle
 = wavelength of laser

PROCEDURE:

1. The grating is placed on grating stand and the laser beam is aligned such that the beam is
incident on the grating. At about one meter away on the path of the laser beam, screen is
placed. The distance between the grating stand and the image screen is set to be
f=100cm.

2. The laser is switched on, the diffraction pattern is observed as shown in fig, the position of
the diffraction spots are marked as x1, x2, x3,….

3. The center of the spots of the diffraction pattern are marked on the cm graph sheet and the
graph sheet is removed from the screen and the distance between consecutive order of
diffraction is measured using scale and tabulated.
4. The diffraction angle are calculated using the formula,

5. The wavelength of laser is calculated for all the orders of diffraction pattern using
the formula, and average value of wavelength is calculated

RESULT: The wavelength of Laser is found to be λ=_________n m

8 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

CALCULATIONS:

The diffraction angles are calculated using the formula,

x
  tan 1
f
For

n=1

n=2

n=3

n=4

n=5

1 1 -4
Grating constant =d =   2.54  10  2 m =1.25×10 m
N 200

9 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 The wavelength of laser is calculated for different orders of diffraction pattern using the
formula,
d sin 

n

For

n=1

n=2

n=3

n=4

n=5

Average λ=

10 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Circuit Diagram – Series Resonance Circuit

L R
C

mA

F.G + -

TABULAR COLUMN:

Trial Frequency f Current I

No. in K Hz in mA
01 1
02 2
03 3
04 4
05 5
06 6 I max

07 7
I max
08 8 2
09 9
10 10
11
12
f1 fr f2 f in K Hz
13
14
15

CALCULATIONS:
fr=……….KHz f1=……….KHz f2==……….KHz

L=

11 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 4

LCR CIRCUIT

AIM: To calculate resonance frequency, bandwidth, quality factor and L using series and
parallel resonance circuit.

FORMULA:

Frequency bandwidth = f2 - f1 KHz

fr
Quality factor Q 
f 2  f1
1
Self-inductance of the coil of inductor L  .mH
4 f r C
22

Where C is capacitance = 0.1 F

fr is resonance frequency

Series resonance circuit

1. Circuit connections are made according to the circuit diagrams.

2. Frequency multiplier knob is selected for multiple factor of 1K Hz, amplitude knob to the
maximum position, sine / square switch position to sine position on the audio oscillator.
Audio oscillator is switched ON.

3. The value of frequency and the corresponding current in the millimeter is noted down.

4. By changing the value of frequency in steps of 1 K Hz, step 3 is repeated and the readings
are tabulated in the tabular column. A graph of frequency along the X-axis and current
along Y-axis is plotted.

5. From the graph, note down resonance frequency fr, f1 and f2.

Result:

Resonance frequency fr =____________KHz

Frequency bandwidth f2 - f1 =____________KHz

fr
Quality factor Q  =____________
f 2  f1
1
Self-inductance of the coil of inductor L   ..................mH
4 f r C
2 2

12 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Circuit Diagram Parallel Resonance Circuit

R
L

mA

F.G  + -

TABULAR COLUMN

Frequency f Current I
Trial No.
in K Hz in mA
01 1
02 2
03 3
04 4
05 5
06 6
07 7
08 8
09 9 I min x2
10 10 I min
11
12
f1 fr f2 f in K Hz
13
14
15

CALCULATIONS:
fr=……..KHz f1=……….KHz f2==……….KHz

L=

13 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Parallel Resonance circuit

FORMULA:

Frequency bandwidth = f2 - f1 KHz

fr
Quality factor Q 
f 2  f1
1
Self-inductance of the coil of inductor L  .mH
4 f r C
22

Where C is capacitance = 0.1 F

fr is resonance frequency
Procedure:

1. Circuit connections are made according to the circuit diagrams.

2. Frequency multiplayer knob is selected for multiple factor of 1K Hz, amplitude knob to the
maximum position, sine / square switch position to sine position on the audio oscillator.
Audio oscillator is switched ON.

3. The value of frequency and the corresponding current in the milliammeter is noted down.

4. By changing the value of frequency in steps of 1 K Hz, step 3 is repeated and the readings
are tabulated in the tabular column. A graph of frequency along the X-axis and current
along Y-axis is plotted.

5. From the graph the resonance frequency fr, f1 and f2 is determined.

Result:

Resonance frequency fr =____________KHz

Frequency bandwidth f2 - f1 =____________KHz

fr
Quality factor Q  =____________
f 2  f1
1
Self-inductance of the coil of inductor L   ..................mH
4 f r C
2 2

14 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Circuit Diagram
V
Charging
C R
S
Discharging

 
Voltmeter

  t Time
Ba

TABULAR COLUMN:
Potential difference across the capacitor (R = 100k)
Time in Second
Charging in volts Discharging in volts
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120

Calculations:
t d x 10-6
Dielectric constant of a capacitor = r = = _______________
0.693 0 A R

15 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 5

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

AIM: To determine the dielectric constant of a capacitor.

FORMULA
Dielectric constant of a capacitor

Where A = area of the capacitor = 2∏r (r+h) = 12.5 x 10-3 m2

r = Radius of the capacitor strip = 0.635 x 10-2m

h = length of the capacitor = 2.5 x 10-2m
d = distance of separation of the capacitor strip = 0.53 x 10-3m
0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
R = Resistance in the circuit = 100 ×103 

Procedure:
1. An electrolytic cylinder capacitor of 2200 F is connected in series with a resistor
of 100 k. A multimeter with the polarity of voltmeter is connected across the
capacitor, and the path of two-way switch is connected to a battery.

2. The circuit is closed, a stop watch records the time during the charging. For every
10 seconds, the potential drop across the capacitor is noted.

3. By the end of two minutes the capacitor attains the saturation.

4. Now the switch is reversed to keep the battery open circuited during the discharge of
the capacitor the time is taken for every 10 second duration and the potential drop is
noted.

5. A graph of voltage verses time for both charging and discharging of a capacitor are
drawn in the same graph .

6. The curves intersect each other at particular time t is noted and dielectric constant
of a capacitor is calculated using formula

Result: Dielectric constant of the capacitor r = __________________________________

16 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Circuit Diagram
\

ammeter
Bulb log10P
  A
Slope = ____
AB
BC
V 
 B
C
n = _________

 
Ba log10R

From Stefan’s Law

“The law says that the amount of energy radiated in unit time from the surface of a
Perfectly block body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature”
P α R4
P = KR4.
log10P = log10K + 4log10R (Taking logarithms on both sides we get)
A graph of log10P verses log10R is a straight line with a slope 4

TABULAR COLUMN

Trial No V in Volts I in Amps R = V/I  P = VI watts log10 P log10 R

2
01
4
02
6
03
8
04
10
05
12
06

17 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 6

STEFAN’S lAW

AIM: To verify Stefan’s Law

Procedure:

1. The circuit connections are made as shown in the figure. A voltmeter is connected parallel
to the bulb.

2. The circuit is switched on and the voltage in the voltmeter is varied in steps of 2v when the
bulb starts glowing.

3. The readings in voltmeter and the ammeter are recorded

4. By turning the fine moment in the battery various values of current and voltmeter readings
are recorded.

5. The power dissipated for each current and the corresponding value of filament resistance
are calculated using the relations P = VI & R = V/I respectively.

6. Stefan’s law states that E α T4. To convert this into electrical measurement, we
Write P α R4 or P = KR4. Taking logarithms on both sides we get
log10P = log10K + log10R. A graph is plotted with log10P on the Y axis and log10R on the X
axis.

7. The slope of the straight line obtained in the graph is calculated and it gives the value
of Stefan index denoted by n. Stefan index should have a value of 4 for a perfect black
body. Its value is less than 4 for any other body.

Result: The value of Stefan index, n = ________

Hence Stefan’s law is verified.

18 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Circuit diagram: Nature of graph
V2
V in volts
Bulb supply

Bulb

K A

O
R
I in mA

+
µA
-

+ -

V1
- +

Tabular column:

Light intensity
Trial
no. V2=2.5Volt V2=3.5Volt
V1 in volt I ( µA) V1 in volt I ( µA)
1 -0.5 -0.5
2 -1.0 -1.0
3 -1.5 -1.5
4 -2.0 -2.0
5 -2.5 -2.5
6 -3.0 -3.0
7 -3.5 -3.5
8 -4.0 -4.0
9 -4.5 -4.5
10 -5.0 -5.0

19 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No.7

PHOTO DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To obtain V-I characteristics of a photo Diode for different light intensity in
the reverse bias condition.

Procedure:

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram of reverse bias.

2. Switch on the voltage regulated Power supply & apply voltage in steps of 0.5v from
1V to 6V, note down the corresponding current in each step & tabulate the readings in
the tabular column.

3. Repeat step2 for different intensity of light & tabulate the readings in the tabular
column.

4. Plot the graph of reverse voltage VR verses the reverse current IR.

5. In order to make IR (reverse current) zero, reverse the supply voltage terminals, i.e
apply forward bias & increase voltage in steps of 0.1v until current becomes zero. The
corresponding +ve voltage is called VT . Tabulate the result in tabular column.

Result:
The V-I characteristics of a photo Diode for different light intensity in the reverse bias
condition is studied and graph is plotted and VT is shown in the graph.

20 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

OBSERVATIONS

Dimensions of the circular plate

Mass of the circular plate = M = ……………………… kg.
Diameter of the circular plate =D . . . . . . …………….…m
Radius of the circular plate =R=D/2……………..……….m

M.I of the circular plate perpendicular to its plane = MR2/2 =……………..…….kgm2

M.I. of the circular plate along its diameter = MR2/4 =………………………….kgm2

Length of the wire = l = ……………….…m

Radius of wire

No. of divisions in circular scale=100

Least count LC=Pitch/ No. of divisions in circular scale =1/100

L C =0.01mm

Tabular column 8.1: To determine Diameter of the wire

Trial PSR CHSR TR=PSR+(CHSR×LC)

no d in mm

Diameter of the wire d=……………………..m

Radius of the wire, r = d/2=…………………. m.

21 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 8

AIM: To determine the moment of inertia and rigidity modulus, given Circular plate
and wire by using torsional pendulum.

FORMULA
The rigidity modulus n

n = {8πl / r4} × {I/T2}Mean N/m2

where r is radius of the wire

l is length of the wire
I moment of inertia
T is period of oscillations

Procedure:

1. The diameter ‘D’ of the circular plate is measured using a meter scale. The moments
of inertia of these bodies about different axes are calculated using relevant equation.

2. A steel wire with chuck-nuts at its ends is used for suspending circular plate from a
stand fitted with a clamp. The length ‘l’ of the steel wire between the chuck –nuts is
measured using a meter scale.

3. Calculate moment of inertia of circular plate perpendicular to its plane and parallel
to its diameter

4. Measure diameter of the wire by using screw gauge

5. Measure the time period of torsional oscillations of a circular plate suspend along
perpendicular to its plane and parallel to its diameter

6. Calculate (I/T2) for torsional oscillations of a circular plate suspend along

perpendicular to its plane and parallel to its diameter. Find out mean of (I/T 2)

1. Substitute mean (I/T2) to calculate the rigidity modulus of the wire using formula.

22 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Body Axis Time for 10 Period MI in I/T2
oscillations(t) T=t(avg)/10 kg-m2
t1sec t 2sec tavg sec (sec)

I=MR2/2
Circular
plate

1.

Perpendicular
to its plane

I=MR2/4
2.

Along the ----------

diameter

I/T2 mean =

CALCULATION:

n = {8πl / r4} X {I/T2}Mean N/m2

23 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Result:
1.
The moment of inertia of the circular plate perpendicular to its plane is found to be
I=MR2/2=………..Kg-m2.

2.
The moment of inertia of the circular plate parallel to its diameter is found to be
I=MR2/4=………..Kg-m2.

3.
The rigidity modulus of the wire is found to be n=……………N/m2.

24 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Resistance
R in Ω
A
Slope = ____
AB
BC
 -
-
-
-
-
+ -
V - --- -
+ - mA
- ------
- ------ Beaker
----
+ - Copper coil Thermometer

Tabular column: Hot water

Trial Temperature T=[t+273] V I R=V/I

no. t in 0C 0K In mV In mA in Ω

1 85 358

2 80 353

3 75 348

4 70 343

5 65 338

Calculation:
The Fermi energy of Copper wire

25 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 9

FERMI ENERGY

AIM: To determine the Fermi energy of given copper coil.

FORMULA:

The Fermi energy of Copper wire is

Where A= Area of cross section of copper wire (m2) = πd2/4

d =0.5x10-3 m (d=diameter of the copper wire
ρ=density of copper =8693 kg/ m3
= length of copper wire =3.6m
= Slope

Procedure:

1. The copper wire of the suitable dimensions is wounded on the insulating material.
This copper coil and thermometer are placed in beaker containing hot water (90 0 C)
2. The circuit connections are made as shown in the diagram.
3. For every 5°decrease of temperature (say 85, 80,75,70,65 degrees) of water the
voltmeter and ammeter readings are tabulated.
4. Resistance is calculated for each temperature and tabulated in the tabular column.

5. A graph of resistance R versus temperature in°K is plotted and slope is calculated.

6. The Fermi energy of Copper is determined using formula

RESULT: The Fermi energy of the given copper coil is found to be E F =……………..ev

26 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

DIAGRAM:-

a
b

F = mg F = mg

Series combination Parallel combination

To find k1
Pointer reading with initial load(w=150gm), a = ………… cm
Load Spring stretch Force, F Spring constant
Trial Pointer reading ‘b’
in gm (x = b - a) (F = mg) k1 = F/x
No. in cm
(W+m) in cm in N in N/m
1 W + 50

2 W + 100

3 W + 150

Average k1 = …………….. N/m

To find k2
Pointer reading with initial load(w=150gm), a = ………… cm
Load Spring stretch Force, F Spring constant
Trial Pointer reading ‘b’
in gm (x = b - a) (F = mg) K2 = F/x
No. in cm
(W+m) in cm in N in N/m
1 W + 50

2 W + 100

3 W + 150

27 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Average k2 = …………….. N/m
Experiment No.10

SPRING CONSTANT
AIM: - To determine the spring constants in Series and Parallel combination.

APPARATUS: Springs, Scale, Rigid stand, Slotted weights, etc.

FORMULA: - 1) Spring constant,

F
k in Nm 1 Where, F – Force applied (= mg) in N.
x
x – Displacement produced in the spring in m.
2) Spring constant for Series combination of springs,

k1 k 2
k Series  in Nm 1
k1  k 2

3) Spring constant for Parallel combination of springs,

k Parallel  k1  k 2 in Nm 1

PROCEDURE:-
To find spring constant:
1. Hang the spring1 to the given rigid stand with dead load and note down the position ‘a’ of
the pointer on the scale with initial load.
2. Add some more load into the weight hanger (say 50gm) and note down the position ‘b’ of
the pointer on the scale with final load.
3. Repeat the same for some more loads in steps of 50gm and tabulate the readings in the
tabular column.
4. Find out the average spring constant ‘k1’.
5. Repeat the above steps for the spring 2 and find out ‘k2’.
To verify Series combination law of springs:
6. Hang the springs in series combination as shown in the diagram. With the initial load, note
down the position ‘a’ of the pointer on the scale.
7. Add some more load into the weight hanger (say 50gm) and note down the position ‘b’ of
the pointer on the scale with final load.
8. Repeat the same for some more loads in steps of 50gm and tabulate the readings in the
tabular column.
9. Find out the average spring constant ‘Kseries’.
To verify Parallel combination law of springs:
10. Hang the springs in parallel combination as shown in the diagram. With the initial load,
note down the position ‘a’ of the pointer on the scale. Repeat the steps 7-9
11. Find out the average spring constant ‘Kparallel’.
12. Calculate the theoretical values of Kseries and Kparallel and compare the values with
experimental values.

28 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

To verify series combination of springs
Pointer reading with initial load(w=100gm), a = ………… cm
Load Spring stretch Force, F Spring constant
Trial Pointer reading ‘b’
in gm (x = b - a) (F = mg) Kseries = F/x
No. in cm
(W+m) in cm in N in N/m
1 W + 50
2 W + 100
3 W + 150

Average Kseries = …………….. N/m

To verify parallel combination of springs

Pointer reading with initial load(w=150), a = ………… cm
Load ‘m’ Spring stretch Force, F Spring constant
Trial Pointer reading ‘b’
in gm (x = b - a) (F = mg) Kparallel = F/x
No. in cm
(W+m) in cm in N in N/m
1 W + 50
2 W + 100
3 W + 150

Average Parallel = …………….. N/m

CALCULATIONS

Theoretical calculation,
m=50gm=0.05Kg k k
k Series  1 2 in Nm 1
k1  k 2
F=mg= …………..N

m=100gm=0.10Kg

F=mg= …………N
Theoretical calculation,
k Parallel  k1  k 2 in Nm 1
m=150gm=0.15Kg

F=mg= …………N

29 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

RESULT

1. The spring constants for the spring1 are found to be, k1 = …………… N/m

2. The spring constants for the spring2 are found to be, k2 = …………… N/m

3. The spring constant for the series combination of springs Ks=…………….N/m

(Experimentally)

The spring constant for the series combination of springs Ks=…………….N/m

(Theoretically)

4. The spring constant for the parallel combination of springs Kp=…………….N/m

(Experimentally)

The spring constant for the parallel combination of springs Kp=…………….N/m

(Theoretically)

30 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Nature of Graph:
Resitivity

1.0

0.9

0.8
Resitivity (ohm/cm)

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034

1/T (/K)

OBSERVATION
1. Distance between the probes(s)=0.5mm
2. Thickness of the crystal(w)=2mm
3. Current (I)=2 mA (constant)
4. Correction factor f(w/s) = 5.5451

31 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No.11

FOUR PROBE METHOD

AIM: - To find the energy gap and resistivity of a semiconductor using the Four Probe
method

APPARATUS: -
Four probes arrangement, Semiconductor(Ge), heating oven, constant current source,
milliammeter, Voltmeter

FORMULA:
ρ0 is resitivity at 0K
ρ0 = 2πs*(V/I)

ρ(T) is resitivity at temperature T is

ρ(T) = (2πs/f)(V/I)

Eg is energy gap of semiconductor

KB is Boltzmann’s constant=8.625X10-5 eV/K

Eg= 2*2.303*KB*slope

FOUR PROBE SETUP:

1. Probe arrangement: It has four individually loaded probes, coated with Zn at the
tips. The probes are collinear and equally spaced. The Zn coated and individual
spring ensures good electrical contacts with the sample. The probes are mounted in
a Teflon bush, which ensure a good electrical insulation between the probes, a
Teflon spacer near the tips is also provided to keep the probes at equal distance.
The whole arrangement is mounted on a suitable stand and leads are provided for
current and voltage measurements.
2. Sample: Ge (Germanium) crystal in the form of a chip slice.
3. Oven: It is a small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from room
temperature to about 200°C.
4. Four probe setup (Measuring Unit): It has three subunits all enclosed in one
cabinet
(a)Multi-range Digital Voltmeter
(b)Constant Current Power supply
(c)Oven Power Supply

32 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

TABULAR COLUMN

Sl.No T V ρ0 ρ= ρ0/f(w/s) log ρ I/T

(in K) (in mV) (Ohm cm) (Ohm cm) (/K)
1. 400
2. 395
3. 390
4. 385
5. 380
6. 375
7. 370
8. 365
9. 360
10. 355
11. 350
12. 345
13. 340
14. 335
15. 330
16. 325
17. 320
18. 315
19. 310
20. 305
21. 300

SLOPE=AB/BC=

Eg=2xKBx2.303xSLOPE

=
=
=

eV

33 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

THEORY:
The four points probe, as depicted schematically in above figure, contains four thin
collinear probes are made to contact the sample under test. Current -I is made to
flow between to outer probes, and voltage V is measured between the two inner
probes, dealy without drawing any current. If the sample is of semi-infinite volume
and if inter probe spacing are s1=s2=s3=s, then it can be shown that the resistivity of
the semi –infinite volume is given by ρ = (2πs/w)(V/I)

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the outer pair of probes to the constant power supply and the inner
pair to the probe voltage terminals.
2. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven.
3. Switch on the constant current supply and heat it up to 400 degree Kelvin–
and the rate of heating may be selected with the help of band switch of
oven power supply.
4. Measure the inner probe voltage for various decreasing temperature.
5. Plot the graph of log ρ as the function of 1/T.
6. Calculate the energy gap of a given semiconductor using a formula
2*2.303*KB*slope

RESULT:
Energy gap, Eg=
Resistivity ρ@300k =

34 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

DIAGRAM:

35 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. 12

FORCED OSCILLATIONS
MELDE’s STRING EXPERIMENT (METHOD-1)
AIM: - To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork by,
1. Transverse mode of vibration
2. Longitudinal mode of vibration

APPARATUS: Electrical Tunning fork, scale pan, weights

FORMULA: For transverse mode -

For longitudinal mode -

f - frequency of tuning fork in Hz

g - acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s²
M - Total mass = mass of the scale pan + mass suspended
mass of the scale pan =
μ - linear density in kg/m = mass of the string / length of the string =
Mass of string =
Length of the string =
l - length of one loop in m

36 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 TABULAR COLUMN:
For Transverse mode-

For longitudinal mode-

CALCULATIONS:
For transverse mode -

For longitudinal mode -

37 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

PROCEDURE:
Transverse mode of vibration of the string-
1. The apparatus is arranged with the length of the string is parallel to the prong
of the tuning fork on which one end of the string is attached.
2. The other end of the string carrying a scale pan is passed over a pulley fixed at
one end of the table.
3. When the tuning fork is excited, it vibrates perpendicular to the length of the
string.
4. The scale pan is detached from the string and its mass and length is determined
using common balance and meter scale. Hence linear density is calculated.
5. The scale pan is again suspended at the end of the string and mass is added in
the scale pan.
6. The circuit is closed and the tuning fork is set into vibration.
7. The string vibrates transversely producing stationary waves.
8. The length of the string is so adjusted to get well defined loops.
9. Keeping two long knitting needles at two nodes, length of N loops is measured
and average length is calculated. Using the equation, frequency of the tuning
fork is calculated.

Longitudinal mode of vibration of the string-

1. The apparatus is arranged with the length of the string perpendicular to the
prong of the fork.
2. In this case, when the tuning is vibrated parallel to the length of the string.
3. The experiment is performed exactly as in the previous case.

RESULT:
1. The frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork at longitudinal mode of
vibration =....................... Hz
2. The frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork at transverse mode of vibration
=..................... Hz

38 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Diagram

TM
Condensing
Lens

Sodium
Vapour Lamp

Glass Plate
G L1

L
Plano
convex lens
Glass Plate

Observation:
1MSD
Least count of TM    cm
Total No. of VSD

LEFT MSR CVD TR = MSR + [CVD x LC] cm

12TH RING
10TH RING
8TH RING
6TH RING
4TH RING
2ND RING

RIGHT MSR CVD TR = MSR + [CVD x LC]

12TH RING
10TH RING
8TH RING
6TH RING
4TH RING
2ND RING

39 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 Experiment No. EXTRA

NEWTON’S RINGS

AIM: To determine the radius of curvature of the given Plano-convex lens

FORMULA:

R
D m
2
 Dn
2
 m
4m  n 

Where Dm is diameter of mth ring

Dn is diameter of nth ring
(m-n)=6
λ is the wavelength of sodium source = 5893 x 10-10m

Procedure:

1. Set the apparatus as shown in the figure, i.e. when the Plano convex surface is placed
on the plane glass plate , due to the air gap, dark and bright circular rings are formed
when illuminated by sodium vapor lamp.

2. Set the traveling microscope to central dark ring. Move the TM to left side and set the
horizontal cross wire for circumference of 12th ring. Note down the reading.

3. Readings are noted for 10th, 8th, 6th, 4th and 2nd rings of the left side.

4. By moving the TM towards right side note down the readings of 2 nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th
and 12th rings in the tabular column.

5. Calculate the ring diameter for 12th, 10th, 8th, 6th, 4th, and 2nd rings.

6. The radius of curvature of the given Plano convex lens is calculated using the
formula.

RESULT: The radius of curvature of the given Plano convex lens is R  ......................m

Note: To get well defined alternate dark and bright Newton’s rings

1. Adjust condensing lens

2. Adjust inclined plate in proper position
3. Adjust proper focusing in traveling microscope.

40 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Tabular column:

Ring T.M Ring Dm2 Ring T.M Reading Ring Dn2 Dm2 -Dn2
no Reading diameter no diameter
Left Right Dm=L-R cm2 Left Right Dn=L-R cm2 cm2
cm cm cm cm cm cm

12 6

10 4

8 2

Mean
 2 2

Dm  Dn            10 4 m

CALCULATIONS:

The radius of curvature of the given Plano convex lens is R =

D  Dn
m
2 2

4m  n 

41 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 RAMAN EFFECT

Raman at the 1930 Nobel Prize Award Ceremony with other winners, from left
C. V. Raman (physics), Hans Fischer (chemistry), Karl Landsteiner (medicine)
and Sinclair Lewis (literature)

An early Raman spectrum of benzene published by Raman and Krishnan.

Raman effect, change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam
is deflected by molecules. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free,
transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light
emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of
this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has
wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of
the Raman effect.

The energies corresponding to the Raman frequency shifts are found to be the
energies associated with transitions between differentrotational and vibrational
states of the scattering molecule.

42 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 VIVA

QUESTION AND ANSWER

43 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE
1. Which principle of light is responsible for the propagation?
Ans: Total Internal Reflection

2. What is the Critical angle?

Ans: It is the angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90 degree when light
travels from denser medium to rarer medium.

3. What is numerical aperture?

Ans: NA=sinϴ0 . It is dimensionless number specifying pit size to gather light. It is
the sine of acceptance angle.

4. What happens when light enters with an angle greater than acceptance angle into
optical fiber?
Ans: Does not Propagate as TIR condition is not achieved.

5. Why RI of cladding must be smaller than core?

Ans: In order to maintain condition of TIR, light must travel from denser
medium to rarer medium.

6. Does NA changes if length between optical fiber and screen changes?

Ans: No.

44 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL

1. Write and draw the variation of magnetic field at an axial point of a circular coil does
with the axial distance?

 0 nI a2
B 
2 a 2
 x2  3
2

 0 nI a2
2. From which law, B  is obtained?
2 a 2
 x2 
3
2

Ans: Biot Savart,s law

3. State Biot Savart’s law.

Ans: The magnetic flux density dB, is directly proportional to the length of the
element dl, the current I, the sine of the angle and θ between direction of the current
and the vector joining a given point of the field and the current element and is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the given point from the current
element, r.

4. If number of turns in the coil increases, magnetic field…………….

Ans: Increases

5. If current flow in the coil increases, magnetic field…………….

Ans: Increases

6. As the distance from the centre of the coil increases on the axis the intensity of the
magnetic field …………………….
Ans: Decreases

45 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 DIFRACTION GRATING

1. On what phenomenon of light this experiment is based?

Ans. Diffraction.

2. Define diffraction.
Ans. The deviation of a light ray from its rectilinear path, when it passes across objects
whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of incident light is called
diffraction.

3. How many types of diffraction are there? What are they?

Ans. There are two types of diffraction:
i) Fresnel diffraction
ii) Frauhofer diffraction
Frenel’s diffraction is the diffraction effect observed due to spherical wave fonts. No
lenses are used to observe the diffraction pattern, since the source and the screen are at
finite distances from the obstacle.
Fraunhofer diffraction is the diffraction effect observed when a plane or cylindrical
wave font is involved. Such a condition requires establishing a gap of infinite distance
between both the source and the screen from the obstacle, which is obtained by
employing suitable lenses.

4. Mention few differences between interference and diffraction.

Ans. i) Interference is due to the resultant effect of overlapping of light waves,
originating from the coherent sources. Diffraction is due to the resultant effect of
overlapping of light waves originating from every point on the exposed part of the same
wave font.

ii) In interference, intensity of dark and bright fringes will be uniform over the entire
range of interference pattern. In diffraction, the intensity of fringes/ spectrum decreases
and vanishes over a small range of diffraction pattern.

iii) The fringe width in the case of interference could be either constant (air wedge) or
varying (Newton’s rings). In diffraction, the fringe width always varies.

5. What is Grating?
Ans. A grating is a plane glass plate, on which a large number of opaque rulings ( 200
LPI) are drawn at equidistance with a diamond head. The distance between two
successive opaque rulings acts as a slit whose width will be comparable with
wavelength of incident light. Thus, when light falls on a grating it undergoes
diffraction.
6. What is grating constant?
Ans. The distance between two consecutive opaque rulings or width of the slit is known
as grating constant C.

46 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 7. What is the grating constant of say, 5000 LPI?
Ans. Then the width of the slit will be more and the diffraction effects will not be
pronounced.

8. Distinguish between the spectrum due to diffraction grating and prism.

Ans. Broadly speaking diffraction is nothing, but bending of light around an opaque
obstacle. The bending effect is more for waves of longer wavelengths. Thus, red light
deviates more than the blue light around a diffracting object. This is in contrast to the
phenomenon of refraction wherein the blue light deviates more than the red light since
the refractive index (RI) of the material causing dispersion (refraction) is more for blue
light than for red light. The deviation is proportional to the RI. Because of this inverse
effect the spectrum obtained by a diffraction grating is the reverse order compared to
the one obtained by a prism.

9 .How does first order spectrum differ from the second order spectrum in its
physical characteristics?
Ans. The intensity of the spectrum decreases as the order increases.

10. How do you calculate the granting constant if g is not given?

Ans. The granting constant C is nothing but the reciprocal of the number of rulings per
inch N. 1
Thus, C= =N , if N =200 LPI
1
Then, C = 200 / 2.54 x 10-2 m
2.54 x 10-2 (m)
or C=
200

11. Where is the zeroth order (n=0) spectrum?

Ans. The central maxima (nothing but the direct slit) is the zeroth order (n-0) spectrum.

12. Define Wavelength.

Ans. The distance between consecutive crests or troughs is called the wavelength

13) What is the acronym of Laser?

Ans. LASER stands for Light Amplification stimulated emission of radiation.

14) What are the basic principles of LASER?

Ans. Basic principles of LASER are
 Induced absorption
 Spontaneous emission
 Stimulated emission

47 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 LCR SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT

1. What is resonance?
Ans. Resonance is the matching of 2 frequencies (forced frequency and natural
frequency)

2. Why the current is maximum in the series and minimum in parallel resonance?
Ans. In series resonance the impedance is purely resistance and there is no contribution
of inductive and capacitive reactants so current is minimum. In parallel resonance the
impedance becomes large due to inductive and capacity reactants so current becomes
minimum.

3. Define self inductance of the coil.

Ans. It is defined as electrical inertia of growth or decay of a current in a coil.

4. Define mutual inductance of the coil.

Ans. It is defined as electrical inertia of one coil for growth or decay of current in another
coil.

5. What is Reactance?
Ans. The frequency depended opposition for flow of AC current in pure inductor or
capacitor is called Reactance.

6. What is impedance?
Ans. the frequency dependent opposition by combined ohmic and reactive elements is
called impedance.

7. Why series circuit is called a high pass filter and parallel circuit a low pass filter?
Ans. A filter circuit is one which allows only selected frequencies.
Series LCR circuit allows a wide band of frequencies so that it is called high pass filter.
Parallel LCR circuit allows only a narrow band of frequencies so that is called low pass
filter.

8. What is meant by band width?

Ans. The frequency range in which the r.m.s value of the current flows is called band
width.

9. What is meant by quality factor?

Ans. The quality factor is a measure of filter performance of LC combination.

10. Why resistance need be connected in parallel with L&C?

Ans. for filter action only inductance and capacitance take part but resistance reduces
the current in the branch.

48 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A CAPACITOR

1. What is Dielectric?
Ans. A dielectric is an electrically non-conductivity material which provides electrical
insulation between two media which are at different potentials.

2. What is a capacitor?
Ans. A capacitor is a device, which stores electrical energy.

3. What is polarization of dielectric?

Ans. When an electric field is applied between the plates of charged capacitor in which a
dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor then the positive charges gets
displaced in the direction of applied field and the negative charges are displaced in the
opposite direction of the field. This effect is known as polarization of dielectric.

4. Define Dielectric Constant.

Ans. It is the ration of the capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric to the capacitance of
the same capacitor without the electric.

5. What is an insulation?
Ans. An insulation is a material which does not allow the current to pass through it.

6. Define the electric loss.

Ans. The loss of energy associated with the molecular movement against internal fiction
which appears as heat when a dielectric material is subjected to an AC voltage.

7. What are non polar dielectrics?

Ans. The dielectric which are polarized only when they are placed in an electric field are
called non polar dielectrics. Even though they does not posses any permanent electric
dipole movement, they acquire dipole movement by the process of induction.

8. What are polar dielectrics?

Ans. The dielectric which have permanent electric dipole movement with their random
orientation in the absence of external electric field

49 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 VERIFICATION OF STEFAN’S LAW

1. What is radiation?
Ans. It is a process by which heat is transmitted from one point to another without any
media.

2. What is emissive power?

Ans. The emissive power of a body at a particular temperature is the total energy radiated
per unit time per unit area.

3. What is absorptive power?

Ans. Total amount of thermal radiation absorbed by the body to the total amount of thermal
radiation incident on that body in the given time.

4. What is black body?

Ans. A black body is one which is capable of absorbing radiation of all wave lengths
emitted on it and it emits radiation of all the wave lengths when heated.

5. Even though the bulb is not black why is it called the black body?
Ans. The bulb is called a black body because it is emitting the radiation in terms of heat and
light.

6. Define Stefan’s law.

Ans. The total energy radiated from unit surface area of a black body is directly
proportional to four power of absolute temperature of the body.
E  T4
E =  T4
were  is stefan’s constant.

7. Define Wien’s law.

Ans. The wave length of the radiation emitted by a black body at any temperature is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the body.
1/T
 T = constant

50 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 PHOTO DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

1. What is a Photo diode?

Ans . It is a photo detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage depending upon the mode of operation.

2. What are the types of photo diode?

Ans. i) Planar diffusion type.
ii) PIN type
iii) Schottky type
iv) Avalanche type

3. What are the features of photo diode?

Ans. i) Excellent linearity with respect to incident light
ii) Low noise
iii)Wide spectral response
iv)Mechanically rugged
v) Compact and light weight
vi) Long life.

4. In how many ways a photo diode can be used?

Ans. It can be used in two ways:
i) Photo voltaic( it becomes a current source when illuminated)
ii) Photo conducting(it is used in reverse bias condition i.e it will allow a
current to flow when it is illuminatied).

5 How the photo diode is different from semi conductor diode?

Ans. Photo diodes are designated with a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction.

6 What is a PIN diode?

Ans. A PIN is a diode with lightly doped near intrinsic semiconductor between a
p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor region. They are used for Ohmic
contacts.

7 What are the applications of photo diode?

Ans. i) They are used in photo detectors such as photo conductors, charge-
coupled devises and photo multipler tubes.
iii) To generate an output which depends upon illumination
iv) Consumer electronics devises such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors
v) Used as receivers from Infrared remote control devises in television
vi) Used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry.

51 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 8 How can light intensity received by the photo diode be reduced?
Ans. To reduce the light intensity received by the photo diode, one could use
optical instruments such as beam splittes, filters or polariser’s placed on optical
path between the source and the detector.

9 Is there a specific type of power supply used to bias the photo diode?
Ans. A stable dc voltage is all that is required to reverse bias a photo diode

10 What happens of the photo diode is biased with a voltage larger than the
specified maximum reverse bias?
Ans. A device may experience a reverse bias breakdown is biased over the
specified maximum value and a high current will flow through the devise which
could lead to the destruction of the photo diode.

52 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 MOMENT OF INERTIA AND RIGIDITY MODULUS
BY TORSIONAL PENDULUM

1. What are torsional oscillations?

Ans. The oscillation of a body due to the twisting of the wire by which it is
suspended is called torsional oscillations.

2. What is the time period of torsional oscillations?

Ans. T=2 where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis
under consideration and C is the couple per unit twist of the suspension.

3. Write down the expression for couple per unit twist of the suspension wire.
Ans. The couple (C) per unit twist is given by
C=πnr4 / 2l
Where ‘n’ is the rigidity modulus 0f the material of the wire , ‘r’ is the radius
and ‘l’ is the length of the wire.

4. Show that I/T2 is constant.

Ans. The time period of torsional oscillations is given by T=2 or
2 2
T = 4 (I/C)
OR I/T2=C/4 2 which is a constant for a wire of given length and radius.

5. What is Rigidity Modulus? What is its unit?

Ans. The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called rigidity modulus.
Unit is N/m2.

6. What are the units of stress and strain?

Ans. Unit of Stress is N/m2. Strain has no units.

53 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 FERMI ENERGY

1. What is Fermi Energy?

Ans. It is the highest energy occupied in energy level of a conductor at 0K.

2. What is Fermi level?

Ans. The highest energy level occupied by an electron in a conductor at 0K.

3. What is Fermi velocity?

Ans. The maximum velocity of an electron at Fermi level is Fermi velocity.

4. Define Pauli’s exclusion principle.

Ans. Since the electrons obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, they are called as ‘Fermions’.
It states that no two electrons in an atom having all four quantum numbers.
(Principle quantum number [n], Orbital quantum number [l], Magnetic quantum number
[m] and Spin quantum number [s])

5. What are the draw backs of classical free electron theory?

Ans.
(i) This theory predicts T which is not in agreement with the experimental result,
that resistivity is proposional to the temperature.
(ii) This theory predicts the molar specific heat as CV = 3/2R, But at low temperature
this relation is not hold good.
(iii) The spin of an electron cannot be accounted by this theory.
(iv) This theory does not account for the classification of the materials such as
conductors, semi conductors and dielectrics.

6. State the assumptions of quantum free electrons theory.

Ans. (i) The energy level of conduction electrons are quantized.
(ii) The electrons occupy the various energy level according to the Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
(iii) The electric field due to the lattice ions is constant throughout the metal and the
electrons are confined within the metal.
(iv) The repulsion between the electron – electron, the attraction between the electron -
lattice ion are neglected.

7. Define drift velocity.

Ans. The resultant velocity acquired by the electrons in the steady state of metals in the
presence of an external electric field is called drift velocity.

54 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 FORCE CONSTANT

1. Define force constant

Ans. The force that produces unit displacement (extension/compression) within the
elastic limit.

2. How does the force constant depend upon the mass of the load?
Ans. Force constant does not depend on mass of the load

3. Physical Significance of force constant

Ans. The force constant measures stiffness.

4. Write the equation of motion for free oscillations

Ans.

1. Write the equation of motion for damped oscillations

Ans.

2. Write the equation of motion for forced oscillations

Ans.

55 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 FOUR PROBE SETUP
1. Why is the current kept constant for measuring the resistivity of a semiconductor
using four probes at different temperatures?
Ans. In Four Probe Method, the voltage across the inner two probes at different
temperatures is recorded. This voltage is an indication of resistance or resistivity only
if V is proprtional to R or I is constant. This is why a constant current source is
necessary.
2. How do the conductivities of metals and semiconductor depend on temperature?
A. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increasing temperature while that
of a metal decreases with increasing temperature

3. What is the equation giving the variation of conductivity/resistivity of a

semiconductor with temperature?
Ans. Resistivity:

4. Define band gap.

Ans. Band gap is the difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction
band of a solid material (such as an insulator or semiconductor) that consists of the
range of energy values forbidden to electrons in the material

5.Why do we get circular fringes in Newton’s ring exponent?

Ans. Because the air film is symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens and plane
glass plate.

6. Why the center of a Newton’s ring is dark?

Ans. The Newton’s ring is obtained by reflected rays with a path difference of /2.

7. Why rings are concentric and unequally spaced?

Ans. The air gap formed in between the plane glass and plano convex lens is not
uniformly changing outwards form the central contract point. Path difference  rn2 .

8. Why there is no preference of dark or bright fringes?

Ans. When d m2  d n2 is considered, both bright rings and dark rings gives the same result.
Hence there is no preference of bright or dark rings.

9. What happens when white light is used in Newton’s ring experiment?

Ans. When a source of white light is used. The central band is white all the other rings
have mixed colours.

10. Why do you call the gap between two plane glass plates a wedge method?
Ans. The air gap between glass plates is of wedge form.

56 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 MELDE’S APPARATUS

1. What is resonance?
When the externally applied frequency matches the natural frequency of the system, a
vibration of large amplitude is obtained, this is termed as resonance.

2. Define transverse mode.

When the vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, it is
to be transverse mode.

3. Define longitudinal mode.

When the vibrations are along the direction of propagation of the wave, it is to be
longitudinal mode.

4. What are stationary waves?

The phenomenon is the result of interference between two waves moving in opposite
directions, each having the same amplitude and frequency.

5. Define the term frequency of a wave.

Frequency is defined as the number of vibrations in one second. Unit is Hz or S -1

6. Does the frequency of tuning fork change with mass added on the slab?
No, the frequency of the tuning fork does not depend on the mass added onto the slab.

7. Does the frequency of tuning fork change with length of the string?
No, the frequency of the tuning fork does not depend on the length of the string.

57 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 YOUNG’S MODULUS

1. What is Elasticity?
Ans. The property of the body which regains original dimension after deformed force
within the elastic limit is removed is called elasticity of the body.

2. State Hooke’s Law.

Ans. Within elastic limit, Stress is proportional to the Strain, this is Hooke’s law.

3. Define elastic body.

Ans. A body that regains to its original shape and size on the removal of the deforming
force.

4. Define plastic body.

Ans. A body that does not return to its original shape and size on the removal of the
deforming force.

5. Define young’s modulus, rigidity modulus, Bulk modulus.

Young’s Modulus (y) = Longitudinal Stress
Longitudinal Strain

Rigidity Modulus (n) = Tangential Stress

Shear Strain

Bulk Modulus (k) = volmetric Stress

Volume Strain

6. Does rigidity modulus change with radius and length?

Ans. Rigidity modulus is a constant for a materials and is independent of radius and
length.

7. Define neutral layer in the case of uniform bending of a beam.

Ans. The layer which neither elongates not contracts during bending is called neutral
layer.

8. Does Young’s modulus change with breadth and thickness of the beam?
Ans. Young’s modulus is a constant for a material. So it is independent of breadth and
thickness of beam.

9. What is meant by increase in length and original length?

Ans. Young’s modulus is a constant for a material. So it is independent of breadth and
thickness of beam.

10. Does the Young’s modulus change for different length?

Ans. Young’s modulus is a constant for a given material and it does not change for
different lengths.

58 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 11. What is a microscope?
Ans. The lens system which magnifies very small objects kept within the focal length of
the lens a microscope.

12. What do you mean by Pitch, Least count, Zero error and Zero-correction of
screw gauge?
Ans. The distance between two consecutive screw grooves is called the pitch of the
screw. The smallest length that can be accurately measured is called least count. If zero
of head scale lies above or below the pitch reference line, these number of divisions are
called zero – error. The negative value of zero error is zero correction.

13. What happens to the elastic modulus when temperature is increased?

Ans. As temperature increases the elastic moduli decreases (binding energy decreases).

59 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual

 NEWTON’S RING EXPERIMENT

1. What is destructive interference?

Ans. Points where energy is “cancelled” at the locations when a crest overlaps a through
or vice versa, path difference is equal to odd /2 and phase difference is equal to odd
integral of .

2. What is an optical path difference?

Ans. The difference in geometric lengths when multiplied by the refractive index of the
medium through which rays travel is called optical path difference.

3. How dark and bright fringes are formed?

Ans. If two waves superpose in phase, bright fringe forms. If two waves superpose out of
phase, dark fringe forms.

4. Define radius of curvature of a plane convex lens.

Ans. The radius of the imaginary sphere of which the curved surface of lens forms a part
is called radius of curvature of a plane convex lens.

5.Why do we get circular fringes in Newton’s ring exponent?

Ans. Because the air film is symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens and plane
glass plate.

6. Why the center of a Newton’s ring is dark?

Ans. The Newton’s ring is obtained by reflected rays with a path difference of /2.

7. Why rings are concentric and unequally spaced?

Ans. The air gap formed in between the plane glass and plano convex lens is not
uniformly changing outwards form the central contract point. Path difference  rn2 .

8. Why there is no preference of dark or bright fringes?

Ans. When d m2  d n2 is considered, both bright rings and dark rings gives the same result.
Hence there is no preference of bright or dark rings.

9. What happens when white light is used in Newton’s ring experiment?

Ans. When a source of white light is used. The central band is white all the other rings
have mixed colours.

10. Why do you call the gap between two plane glass plates a wedge method?
Ans. The air gap between glass plates is of wedge form.

60 R R Institute of Technology, Bangalore Engineering Physics Lab Manual