NPWR/2020/004381572

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY /WORKSHOP PRACTICE ME 214 (1 UNIT)

COURSE OUTLINE
1.0 Industrial safety
2.0 Identification of Engineering components

3.0 Use of Hand Tools

4.0 Measuring Instruments

5.0 Simple Machine Drilling

6.0 Wood work

1.0 INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

Industrial safety is defined as policies and protections put in place to ensure plant and factory
worker protection from hazards that can cause injury. Safety policies put in place by
the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) are examples of industrial
safety policies. Industrial safety is important as it safeguards human life, especially in high risk areas
such as nuclear, aircraft, chemical, oil and gases, and mining industries, where a fatal mistake can be
catastrophic. Industrial Safety reduces risks to people, and processes.

1.1 Environmental Factors Affecting health and Safety

Environment refers to all parts of a workplace. Moreover, there are six aspects of
a workplace that can be a potential hazard. The condition of all surfaces on which people walk or
where company places its things is important. Further, unsafe or poor conditions such as
overcrowding and poor ventilation become important. Furthermore, hazards caused by physical
agents such as light, temperature, and noise are vital to analyze. It is important to consider
housekeeping hazards such as spilled cleaning fluids, since they can be inhaled. Maintenance
hazards such as blocked stairs, debris on stairs, and blocked floors and exits are critical for
hazard analysis.

1.2 TYPES OF HAZARDS IN A WORKPLACE

Mechanical Hazards: Mechanical hazards are created as a result of either powered or manual (human)
use of tools, equipment or machinery and plant. An example of a mechanical hazard is: contact and/or
entanglement with unguarded moving parts on a machine.
Mechanical Hazards Occur. Hazards often occur at the point of operation, or the point where work is
performed on the material. This could be cutting, shaping, boring, or forming of stock. Regardless the
type of work, the point of operation of the work must be safeguarded. Examples of mechanical hazards
 include crushing, shearing, cutting or severing, entanglement, trapping, impact, stabbing or
puncture, abrasion.
Chemical Hazards: Chemical hazards are hazardous substances that can cause harm. These
hazards can result in both health and physical impacts, such as skin irritation, respiratory system
irritation, blindness, corrosion and explosions.
ELECTRICAL ACCIDENTS
An electrical accident is an undesired event caused by electric current resulting to injury to a
person or damage to property. An incident is an undesirable event where an electric current could
have led to injury of a person or damage to property. The three main causes of electrical
accidents include;
 working on unsafe equipment,
 unsafe work environments,
 Unsafe work performance.

Unsafe Equipment and Electrical Accidents

Improperly installed or maintained electrical equipment greatly increases the risk of electrical
accidents. For safe operation, all equipment must be installed according to the manufacturer’s
instructions and used within its labelled capacity. Matching equipment to load expectations is an
important aspect of electrical safety that should be performed by a qualified electrician.
Unsafe Environments
Unsafe work environments increase the risk of electrical accidents. Water, rain, and wet
conditions have negative effects on electrical safety. Cluttered workspaces increase the risk of
accidents whether or not electricity is involved. Missing equipment guards, overhead power
lines, and the use of extension cords can also contribute to an unsafe electrical environment.
Unsafe work Performance
All employees who work with electricity should receive proper electrical safety training. Most
electrical accidents are preventable with the right training and consistent application of safe work
practices such as:
 de-energizing equipment before maintenance and inspections,
 performing preventative maintenance on electrical equipment and systems,
 regular inspection of electrical tools,
 caution when working near live wires,
 using lockout/tag out procedures to prevent accidental electrical equipment startup,
 use and maintenance of appropriate personal protective equipment.

FIRE PREVENTION
A fire needs three elements - heat, oxygen and fuel.
Without heat, oxygen and fuel a fire will not start or spread. A
key strategy to prevent fire is to remove one or more
of heat, oxygen or fuel. 
General Fire Safety Measures

The following are general safety measures in establishing and maintaining fire protection in the
workplace:
 Never pile or lay material in a way that it covers or blocks access to firefighting
equipment.
 Make sure to use only approved containers for the separation and disposal of combustible
refuse. Remember to always replace the lid.
 Never store flammable materials within 10 feet of a building or other structure.
 Stack and pile all materials in orderly and stable piles.
 Never let unnecessary combustible materials get accumulated in any part of your work
area.
 Make a periodic clean-up of entire work site and keep grass and weeds under control.
 Regularly dispose of combustible debris and scrap from your work area.
 Use only approved containers and tanks for storage, handling, and transport of
combustible and flammable liquid.
 Always perform evaluation procedures before performing operations that present fire
hazards like welding.
More Fire Safety Measures

Fire extinguishers are commonly used as fire suppression equipment. You may also add fire
hoses to your emergency box/glass in the workplace. Here are guidelines you must follow in
using fire equipment:
 First, inspect and maintain firefighting equipment regularly.
 Place an adequate number of firefighting equipment in plain view in your work areas.
When appropriate, label the location of each one and make sure it is properly rated.
 Provide employees with proper training in fire prevention and protection.
 Prohibit smoking at or around work areas where fire hazards are present. Put up signs,
saying NO SMOKING or OPEN FLAMES.
 Configure an alarm system that consists of both visual and audible signals (bells, sirens,
whistles, blinking lights).

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) includes all clothing and accessories designed to protect
against workplace hazards.
SAFETY FOR THE HEAD
Wearing a helmet offers protection and can prevent head
injuries. Select a strong helmet that is adapted to the
working conditions. These days you can find many elegant
designs and you can choose extra options such as an
adjustable interior harness and comfortable sweatbands.

PROTECT YOUR EYES

The eyes are the most complex and fragile parts of our body.
Each day, more than 600 people worldwide sustain eye
injuries during their work. Thanks to a good pair of safety
glasses, these injuries could be prevented. Do you come into
contact with bright light or infrared radiation? Then welding
HEARING PROTECTION
Do you work in an environment with high sound levels? In
that case it is very important to consider hearing
protection. Earplugs are very comfortable, but earmuffs are
convenient on the work floor as you can quickly put these on
or take them off.

MAINTAIN A GOOD RESPIRATION

Wearing a mask at work is no luxury, definitely not when coming into

contact with hazardous materials. Employees inhale vapours, smoke, powder
or dusk while performing their job. Dust masks offer protection against fine
dust and other dangerous particles. If the materials are truly toxic, use a full-
face mask. This adheres tightly to the face, to protect the nose and mouth
against harmful pollution.

PROTECT YOUR HANDS WITH THE RIGHT GLOVES

Hands and fingers are often injured, so it is vital to protect them properly.
Depending on the sector you work in, you can choose from gloves for different
applications:
 protection against vibrations
 protection against cuts by sharp materials
 protection against cold or heat
 protection against bacteriological risks
 protection against splashes from diluted chemicals.

PROTECTION FOR THE FEET

 Even your feet need solid protection. Safety shoes (type Sb, S1, S2 or
S3) and boots (type S4 or S5) are the ideal solution to protect the feet
against heavy weights. An antiskid sole is useful when working in a damp
environment, definitely if you know that 16,2% of all industrial accidents
are caused by tripping or sliding. On slippery surfaces, such as snow and
ice, shoe claws are recommended. Special socks can provide extra comfort.

WEAR THE CORRECT WORK CLOTHING

Preventing accidents is crucial in a crowded workshop. That is why a good

visibility at work is a must: a high-visibility jacket and pants made of
a strong fabric can help prevent accidents. Just like the hand protection,
there are versions for different applications.

2.0 IDENTIFICATION OF ENGINEERING COMPONENTS

BOLTS AND NUTS

Nuts are almost always used in conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten

multiple parts together. The two partners are kept together by a
combination of their threads' friction (with slight elastic deformation), a
slight stretching of the bolt, and compression of the parts to be held
together.

SCREW THREAD

A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert

between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge
wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being
called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw thread is
the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a threaded
fastener.

WASHERS

Washers are sometimes used together with bolts and nuts. The function of
the washer is to ensure a evenly distributed pressure of the bolt/nut. In
certain circumstances, where thin sheets are fastened, washers help
prevent pull out of bolts. Again there are many types of washers that aim
to prevent the loosening of bolts. This can vary quite widely.
SET SCREWS

A set screw, also known as a blind screw or a grub screw, is a type

of screw generally used to secure an object within or against another
object, usually without using a nut The most common examples are securing
a pulley or gear to a shaft. Set screws are usually headless, meaning that the
screw is fully threaded and has no head projecting past the thread's major
diameter. 
STUDS

Studs are mechanical fasteners which are threaded on one or both ends.
One end is secured to an object. The other end is used typically with a
nut. Studs may be used for fastening large parts together, with nuts at each
end to form a bolt. There are many other uses for this type of stud in
providing an adjustable member for structures and machines. 

SPLIT PINS/ COTTTER PINS

Split Cotter Pins are inserted through holes or slots, the ends
are split to hold the shaft/assembly in place. Usually used
when dimension control is not critical.

KEYS/KEYWAYS

A key and the keyways make up a Keyed joint to secure the hub and the
shaft to prevent relative movement between a power transmitting shaft
and an attached component. For example, Gear drives, Pulleys or
Sprockets are connected securely using keys to the power transmitting
shaft.

RIVETS
 Rivets are permanent fasteners. The common ones are pop
rivets where they are riveted with a pop rivet gun. The gun
pulls a long segment which deforms the shaft and fill up
the clearances of the hole and creating a secondary head on
the other end that holds the two plates together.

SHAFTS

A shaft is a mechanical components which is sued

for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to
connect other components of drive train that
cannot be connected directly because of distance or
the need for relative movement.

COLLARS
Collars help position components on shafts, commonly used with a grub
screw. Excellent in the early design phase as this could be easily removed
through the loosening of the grub screw. More examples would be shown
in the section Drive Mechanism Design.

CRANKS
Cranks are used to increase mechanical advantage (MA)
in rotary motion. One such example is the bicycle crank.

COUPLINGS

A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at

their ends for the purpose of transmitting power. The primary
purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating
equipment while permitting some degree of misalignment or
end movement or both. In a more general context, a coupling
can also be a mechanical device that serves to connect the
ends of adjacent parts or objects.
CLUTCHES

A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages power transmission

especially from driving shaft to driven shaft.In the simplest application, clutches
connect and disconnect two rotating shafts (drive shafts or line shafts). In these
devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit (the driving
member) while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work.
While typically the motions involved are rotary, linear clutches are also possible.

BEARINGS JOURNAL AND ROLLING

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and
reduces friction between moving parts
Ball bearing, in which the rolling elements are spherical balls.
Roller bearing, in which the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper or spherical rollers.
Journal bearing is the simplest type of bearing, comprising just a bearing surface and no rolling
elements. Therefore, the journal (i.e., the part of the shaft in contact with the bearing) slides over
the bearing surface. The simplest example of a plain bearing is a shaft rotating in a hole. A
simple linear bearing can be a pair of flat surfaces designed to allow motion; e.g., a drawer and
the slides it rests on or the ways on the bed of a lathe.

GEARS

The basic purpose of gears is to change the speed or direction of

transmitted motion.  Two gears mesh together to transmit torque. The
gears themselves are toothed wheels usually linked to an axle. If you
are using gears in your device, you will need to look at the shape and
ratio which you require to transmit the enegy. 

CHAINS AND SPROCKETS

 A chain and sprocket drive is a type of power transmission in which a
roller chain engages with two or more toothed wheels or sprockets, used in engines as a
drive from crankshaft to camshaft. A chain and sprocket drive is one way of conveying
power to the wheels of a vehicle.

ROPES AND BELT DRIVES

Belts and Pulleys are used to transmit motion and move objects. Similar to gears, speed and
torque can be altered by varying the pulley sizes. A common problem in belt and pulley
systems is Slippage. Slippage occurs when the belt slips on the pulley and power is not
transmitted efficiency. It causes heat to build up and wear the belt. If slippage occurs
frequently, a possible reason is poor selection of belt (load is too high for the belt system to
drive it) or if there is too much slack.

SPRINGS
Springs are components which deflect under load to store relatively large amounts
of energy. They are very common in mechanical engineering, used (just to mention
a few) to: carry load (eg, vehicle suspensions), apply force (eg, spring loaded
safety valves), control movement (eg, throttle return springs), reduce impact (eg,
rubber buffers).    

3.0 HAND TOOLS

Hand tools are used to remove small amount of materials, usually from small areas of a work
piece. The following reasons necessitate the use of hand tools;
1. No machine is available to do the job.
2. The work piece is too large to be mounted on a machine.
3. The shape of the work piece is too intricate.
4. It will be very expensive to set up a machine to do the work.
Since the use of hand tools is labour intensive it is therefore necessary that the amount of
material to be removed is minimum and the correct tool is chosen for the task. Wherever
possible, the use of powered hand tools can be explored so as to reduce fatigue, increase the
speed of operation and reduce cost.

Vice or Engineer’s vice

A vice is bench or machine mounted clamping device for holding the work piece, while the
manual or machine operations such as filing, chipping, sawing, drilling etc. are being carried out
on the work-piece. It comprises of two parallel jaws which are brought together by a hand
operated screw to clamp the work piece. The jaws are made of hardened steel and serrated to
improve their grip. To avoid accident, soft metals or other material grips made of lead copper
aluminium or fiber may be fitted. The various types of vice in general use are as follows:
1. Bench vice: It is used for general fitting work.
2. Machine vice: It is used for mounting work pieces on for carrying out operations such as
drilling, milling etc. on a machine.
3. Pin or Hand vice: It is used for holding small workpiece such as wires etc.
4. Leg vice: It used for holding hot work piece during forging in smithing work.
5. Pipe vice: For holding pipes during cutting.
6. Swivel vice: for holding tapered work.

Machine vice Bench vice

Chisels

A chisel is a cutting tool usually held in the hand and struck with a hammer. Cold chisels are
used to cut heavy metal that cannot be cut with a saw or shears, usually because space is limited.
They are also used for any number of repair jobs, such as cutting off rivet heads or slicing
through rusted nuts and bolts, and other heavy work. Cold chisels are made from carbon tool-
steel, which is usually octagonal in cross-section. Tool-steel is used as it can be hardened to form
a hard and tough cutting edge. Two main types of chisels used for metal work include hot chisels
for cutting hot metals and cold chisels for cutting cold metals. Both chisels are normally fitted
with a handle. The most important types of cold chisels include:

1. Flat chisel: The flat chisel is the most widely used and has a place in every workshop and
tool kit. It has a broad cutting edge which should be slightly rounded so that the corners
do not dig into the metal. This chisel can be used for cutting off rods, cutting out sheet
metal, and other jobs of this sort. In the days before machine-made files, a worker would
use a special wide and short flat chisel to cut the teeth in a file before it was hardened. 

2. Cross cut chisel: The crosscut or cape chisel is forged so that the cutting edge is slightly
wider than the body; this is to ensure that the chisel does not bind in the cut when it is
used for deep grooves. As well as cutting single grooves, the crosscut chisel is used to cut
a grid pattern of grooves when a lot of material must be cut away from a surface. After
the grid pattern has been cut you can use the flat chisel to chip off the remaining square
pieces.
3. Half round chisel: A round-nose or half-round chisel is used for special work, such as
forming flutes and channels. You can cut the oil ways on the inside surface of a bearing
bush using a round nosed chisel.
 4. Diamond point chisel: The diamond-pointed chisel is drawn down to a square section at
the end and then ground away to a single bevel. It is used for chipping through plates and
cleaning out square internal angles. A tool very similar to the diamond-point chisel is
used to cut the teeth on a wood rasp.

Hammers and Mallets

A hammer is a hand tool which is mostly used for striking or blowing purposes on metals, nails,
punches, chisels, rivets etc. and thus drives the tool. It consists of a heavy steel head on the end
of a hand held shank usually made of wood, or sometimes made of steel tube with a hand grip.
Hammers are available in many sizes and weights from 100g to 10Kg and with many shapes of
head, to give blows of varying force. Types of hammers include

Ball Pein

Normally used by engineers, the pein in this case, is rounded and is usually used for shaping
metal and closing rivets. Ball pein hammers are available from 55 - 1100 (4 oz up to 2 lb.), 110 -
165g (8oz 12oz) are the most suitable for general use. Handles are normally wood, usually Ash
or Hickory.

Claw hammer

The most popular hammer for general work, available with a wooden (often hickory), glass-fibre
or steel handle; with or without rubber grip. The most popular weights are 455-680g (16 to
24oz). The claw is normally curved, and incorporates a 'V' cut-out to draw nails from timber. The
claw can be used to lever up floorboards or where other places where a lever is required; care
must be taken (especially with cheaper models) as the force applied can easily weaken the joint
between the handle and the head.

Sledge hammer

Used for the heavier jobs, such as driving in stakes or to break up concrete, stone or masonry.
For lighter jobs just the weight of the head may be used for blows, but for heavier work, the
hammer is swung like an axe. Wear suitable protective clothing, including safety glasses.
Weights 7, 10 and 14 lb

Cross pein hammer

This hammer has a flat face at an edge. This edge is at right angle to the length of the handle, or
is at cross with the shaft. Hence, the name cross pein. Its flat face is used for striking and the
cross face is used for peening, making grooves, for hammering on curve and shoulder bending
and stretching metals.
Soft-faced hammer
Various types are available, with hard and soft rubber, plastic or copper faces. Some come with a
choice of faces which are interchangeable. Useful for striking materials such as chrome wing
outs, where a steel face would cause damage. In some cases, can replace a mallet for cabinet
work.

Ball pein
Cross pein Mallet/ Rubber hammer

Claw hammer Sledge hammer

Files

Files are cutting tools used to remove/smooth rough and sharp edges from cut metal. They are also used
to file metal to shape or size. For each type of material there is an ideal tooth form that gives the most
efficient cutting action. A file consists of a bar of hardened and tapered high carbon steel on which
cutting teeth have been formed. It has a tapered tang which fits in to a handle usually made of wood or
rubber.
 1. Point
2. Face
3. Shoulder
4. Tang
5. Length.

The features of a file are:

 length
 shape or kind
 grade or cut.

Length - measured from the point to the shoulder (does not include the tang).

Shape or kind - a files name is usually derived from its cross-sectional shape, eg square, flat,
triangular, half round and round (small round are known as 'rat tails').

Grade or cut - The grade or degree of coarseness (roughness) of a file means the number of
teeth per inch cm. it also means the distance between two teeth i.e. pitch (mm). iles are graded
according to the size and spacing of cutting teeth. There are three standard cuts in regular use:

 bastard - is a course file for roughing down work to a general shape where a good finish
is not required
 second cut - used on hard metals, across narrow surfaces (more teeth in contact with the
work), or for general work to close sizes requiring a reasonable finish
 smooth - produces a very fine finish.

Uses of common types of files

Flat files are used for sharpening tools, cleaning relay contacts, cleaning painted or rusted
surfaces for earthing purposes.
Half Round files are used for producing both flat and concave surfaces, cleaning large steel conduits
internally, enlarging cable entry into cubicles etc.

Round files are used for opening up holes and finishing concave surfaces, filing mounting holes
for meters, lamps or switches in component case, enlarging entries into motor connections boxes,
switchboards, mounting blocks etc., slotting mounting holes.
Square files are used for making square and rectangular holes, filing mounting holes for switches
in component case, filing keyways in pulleys, etc, filing mounting holes for coach bolts.
Triangular files are used for clearing out square corners and filing acute internal angles greater
than 60 degrees, re-shaping damaged threads on bolts and screws, etc.
File handles

File handles are generally made of plastic (wooden handles were commonly used). New files are
often supplied without handles, but must not be used without a handle. This is to:

 avoid the danger of the tang piercing your hand

 give good control when using the file.

To fit a handle, select a handle to suit the length of the file. Insert the tang into the handle and
then bang the end of the handle down onto a bench.

Care of files

 Keep files clean and dry.

 Never rap a file on a solid surface or strike it with a metal object.
 Never subject the file to bending or excessive pressure.
 Store files separately from each other and from other tools.
 Check that the handle is not split and that it fits securely.

Flat file
Half round file Round file

Square file
Triangular file
Marking Out Tools

Scriber Straight edge

Steel try square

Divider Steel square

Combination square

Tram
Protractor mel point Steel Rule

Cen
Steel Circumference Rule
ter Punch
Tape Rule
Scriber
This is used to mark lines on metal. It can be used in conjunction with a straight edge and square.
Straight Edge
The Straight Edge is used as a guide for a scriber or pencil when marking or drawing a straight between
two points. It is also used in conjunction with square to draw lines at right angles.
Divider
This is made with each straight leg tapered to a needle point. Dividers are manufactured in various sizes
and types and are used to space off equal distances, to divide lines into equal parts and to scribe arcs and
circles. Spring loaded screw dividers are also available. Supplied in lengths from 150mm to 500mm.
Spring dividers are also available in sizes from 75mm to 300mm.

Steel Square
The flat Steel Square is used to layout right angles (90°) and can also be used as a scale. It is an
invaluable tool for accurate layout work in pattern drafting. The long arm is known as the body or blade,
the short arm is known as the heel or tongue. These squares come in various sizes.
Steel Try Square
It is used for marking and checking right angles (90°). These squares come in various sizes from 75mm to
300mm.

Combination Square
This is one of the most useful and convenient tools for laying out small work. It is used as a square for
measuring or laying out 90° or 45° angles. A spirit level is mounted in the stock. Available in 300mm
lengths.
Protractor
This is a device for measuring and laying out angles from the edge of the work. This protractor consists of
a head and a movable blade. The head of the protractor has a semicircular scale graduated from zero to
180°.

Trammel Points
These are used for scribing large arcs and circles. They are manufactured in various types with two
straight, removable legs tapered to needle points and attached to separated heads or holders.
The heads or holders slide on wood or steel beams and are held in place by thumb screws. Either of the
points can be removed and often one point has adjustment for fine settings. A special clamp for a pencil
can be attached to one of the points.

Steel Rule
Steel rules are manufactured in a variety of types and lengths; each of which is designed for measuring or
laying out different work. Available in lengths from 100mm to 1000mm.
Centre Punch
Similar in design to the prick punch except that the tapered point is ground to an angle of 90° included.
They are available in various shapes and sizes and are used for locating centres for drilling etc.

Steel Circumference Rule

This is used much like the common rule. It is invaluable for laying out patterns. It is available in metric or
imperial graduations. Its length is 24” or 600mm depending on the type. The purpose of this rule is for
finding the circumference of cylinders and for angular measurement.

Tape Rule
It is very popular for measuring and laying out large jobs. Available in various lengths,

Cutting Tools

Straight Snips
These snips are used for straight line cutting. They are available
in many different sizes. Available from 200mm to 350mm long.

Combination Snips

These snips are used to cut straight and irregular lines and curves. These
are the snips used most commonly by the industrial insulator. They are
available in the same sizes and capacities as straight snips and are also
available for right or left hand use. Spring loaded snips known as aviation
snips are very good for cutting light metal and for notching work.

Side Cutting Pliers These pliers have flat jaws grooved to hold the work, and are
sharpened to cut light wire.
Combination Pliers

These are used for holding, cutting and bending work. The pliers are so
constructed that the jaws can be adjusted for holding different sizes of
work.

Hacksaw

The Hack Saw is used for cutting materials by hand. It consists of a

renewable hardened steel saw blade fitted into an adjustable frame,
which is usually provided with a screw adjustment for controlling the
tension of the blade. It is necessary to have both junior and senior hack
saws in your tool kit.

Pop Riveting Guns

“Pop” Riveting Guns are used extensively with “pop” rivets for the assembly of light fabrications
and are particularly useful for the assembly of metal cladding where access is restricted to one
side of the work only. There are three different types available: hand “pop” gun, lazy tongs and
pneumatic (air).

Hand “Pop” Gun Riveting in confined spaces requires the use of a hand “pop” gun. These
are unsuitable for larger dimensions of rivets, due to the reduced amount
of leverage available.

Lazy Tongs
Lazy Tongs are used for the larger diameters of rivets, where
sufficient working space is available to permit operation of the tool.
The construction of the tool permits a moderate pressure on the
handle to provide a strong pulling force on the rivet mandrel.

4.0 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Measurement of components is a vital part of both manufacturing and inspection processes. A
large percentage of such measurement is concerned with linear dimension such as lengths,
widths, thicknesses, diameters, etc and this involves the use of a wide variety of measuring
instruments.
The basic principle of linear measurement is that of comparison with a standard of length.
The engineer’s rule is a simple example of such a comparative measuring standard, the dimension
being read by direct observation. The engraving of the division on the rule necessitates the use of
another standard of comparison, and in turn such standards are indirectly related to the use of an
absolute standard of linear measurement.

RULER
A ruler, sometimes called a rule or line gauge,
is an instrument used in geometry, technical
drawing, printing and engineering to measure
distances and/or to rule straight lines.

MEASURING TAPE
It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, or metal strip with linear
measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool. Its
flexibility allows for a measure of great length to be easily carried
in pocket or toolkit and permits one to measure around curves or
corners.

VERNIER CALIPER

A Vernier caliper is
precision measuring tool.
It can measure inside,
outside and depth.

1Outside jaws: used to measure external lengths

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal lengths
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths
4. Main scale (mm)
5. Main scale (inch)
6. Vernier (cm)
7. Vernier gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an (inch)
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring a measurement
To read a vernier caliper

 To obtain the main scale reading: Look at the image above, 2.1 cm is to the immediate

left of the zero on the vernier scale. Hence, the main scale reading is 2.1 cm
 To obtain the vernier scale reading: Look at the image above and look closely for
an alignment of the scale lines of the main scale and vernier scale. In the image above,
the aligned line correspond to 3. Hence, the vernier scale reading is 0.03 cm.
In order to obtain the final measurement reading, we will add the main scale reading and
vernier scale reading together. This will give 2.1 cm + 0.03 cm = 2.13 cm.

Main scale reading = 3.00cm Vernier scale reading =0.04m

Final reading 3.0+0.04 = 3.04cm

Main scale reading = 10.00mm Vernier scale reading

=0.02cm
Final reading 10+0.02 = 10.02cm

MICROMETER
It is used to check outside diameter of a circle by means of accuracy of 0.01mm or up to 0.001mm.
Usually micrometer is more accurate than vernier caliper.
How to Read a Micrometer Screw Gauge

First part of the measurement: 2.5 mm

Second part of the measurement: 0.38 mm
Final measurement: 2.88 mm

HEIGHT GUAGE

This measuring tool is used in metal working or metrology to either

set or measure vertical distances. A height gauge is a measuring
device used either for determining the height of something, or for
repetitious marking of items to be worked on.
Feeler gauge
A feeler gauge is a simple tool used to measure gap widths. Feeler gauges are mostly used in
engineering to measure the clearance between two parts. They consist of a number of small
lengths of steel of different thicknesses with measurements marked on each piece.
They are flexible enough that, even if they are all on the same hinge, several can be stacked
together to gauge intermediate values.

Thread Gauge
A thread pitch gauge, also known as a screw pitch gauge or pitch gauge, is used to measure the
pitch or lead of a screw thread.
Is used as a precision measuring instrument.
Allows the user to determine the profile of the given thread.
Allows to categorize the thread by shape and pitch.

Surface plate/table
A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal
reference plane for precision inspection, marking out and tooling
setup. The surface plate is often used as the baseline for all
measurements to the work piece.

Dial Indicator
 Dial indicator is used for sensing or detecting small movements or
size variations in a work piece.

V Blocks

These are widely used for workshop and inspection purposes for
checking out the roundness of cylindrical workpieces and for
marking centres accurately, etc. Generally the angle of V is 90°

6.0 Wood work

The various wood working tools include:
 Power saws
 Hand saws
 Planes
 Sanders
 Files
 Hammer
 Mallet
 Drill
 Screw Gun
 Tape Measure
 Square
 Sawhorses
 Workbench
Wood lathe

Power saw Power screw

Chisels