SEMI ACTIVE SUSPENSION

DESIGN FOR VEHICLES

Batuhan BÜYÜKKÖROĞLU
Kaan KIRAÇ
Mustafa Enis ÇİMEN
Polat ÇINAR
Graduation Project
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
July 2020
 T.C.
ESKİŞEHİR TEKNİK ÜNİVERSİTESİ
MÜHENDİSLİK FAKÜLTESİ
ELEKTRİK-ELEKTRONİK MÜHENDİSLİĞİ
BÖLÜMÜ

EEM-24 nolu Batuhan BÜYÜKKÖROĞLU, Kaan KIRAÇ, Mustafa Enis ÇİMEN,

Polat ÇINAR tarafından hazırlanan “Semi Active Suspension Design for Vehicles”
başlıklı Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği Uygulamaları Dersi Projesi, tarafımızdan
kabul edilmiş ve proje savunması başarılı bulunmuştur.

25.06.2020

Adı-Soyadı İmza
Üye (Tez Danışmanı): Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Semiha TÜRKAY ......................

Üye : Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Hakkı Ulaş ÜNAL .......................

 ÖZET
Lisans Tezi

ARAÇLAR İÇİN YARI AKTİF

SÜSPANSİYON TASARIMI

Batuhan BÜYÜKKÖROĞLU
Kaan KIRAÇ
Mustafa Enis ÇİMEN
Polat ÇINAR

Eskişehir Teknik Üniversitesi

Mühendislik Fakültesi
Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği

Danışman: Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Semiha TÜRKAY

2020, 44 sayfa

Teknolojik gelişmelerin büyük bir ivme kazanmış olması sebebiyle enerjiye

duyduğumuz ihtiyaç her geçen gün daha da büyümektedir. Enerjinin yenilenebilir ve
yenilenemez birçok kaynağı vardır; fakat bu kaynakların sınırsızca kullanılabilmesi söz konusu
değildir. Bu yüzden enerji tasarrufu kavramı, teknolojinin tüm alt birimleri için son derece
önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Enerji tasarruflu sistemlerin kullanımı sayesinde çevreye
verilebilecek zararlar minimuma indirgenmekte ve gereksiz maliyetlerden kaçınılmaktadır. Bu
bağlamda, projenin amacı düşük enerji kullanımıyla yüksek performans veren bir süspansiyon
sisteminin tasarlanmasıdır. Tasarlanması planlanan süspansiyon sistemi yalnızca belli tip
araçlar için değil, tüm araçlarda kullanılmak üzere tasarlanacağı için proje kapsamı oldukça
geniştir. Özellikle trenler, arabalara göre çok daha büyük ve kompleks araçlar olduğundan raylı
sistemler alanında gerçekleşen gelişmeler arabalara göre yavaştır. Bu nedenle trenlere
uygulanacak bir süspansiyon sistemi tasarlamak oldukça zordur. Öncelikle farklı süspansiyon
tipleri modellenmeli, sonrasında bu modeller simüle edilmeli ve simülasyon sonuçları
gözlemlenmelidir. Çalışmada araçların dinamiklerinin yanı sıra, özellikle skyhook yarı aktif
kontrolörü yoğun bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmalardan sonra, yarı aktif
süspansiyon sistemlerinin pasif süspansiyon sistemlerine kıyasla daha yüksek performans
verdiği ve sistemin düşük maliyetlerle oluşturulabileceği görülecektir. Çalışmalar
sonuçlandığında, özellikle trenlere uygulanabilir sistemler oluşturulduğunda, sektöre yeni bir
soluk getirilecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Yarı-Aktif Süspansiyon, Raylı Sistemler, Enerji Tasarrufu, Sky-hook

I
 ABSTRACT
Graduation Thesis

SEMI ACTIVE SUSPENSION

DESIGN FOR VEHICLES

Batuhan BÜYÜKKÖROĞLU
Kaan KIRAÇ
Mustafa Enis ÇİMEN
Polat ÇINAR

Eskişehir Technical University

Engineering Faculty
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Supervisor: Assist.Prof.Dr. SEMİHA TÜRKAY

2020, 44 pages

As the technological developments have gained great momentum, our need for energy
is growing day by day. Energy has many renewable and non-renewable sources; however, it is
not possible to use these resources unlimitedly. Therefore, the concept of energy saving has an
extremely important place for all sub-units of technology. Thanks to the use of energy-efficient
systems, environmental damage can be minimized and unnecessary costs are avoided. In this
context, the aim of the project is to design a high performance suspension system with low
energy usage. . The scope of the project is quite wide since the suspension system planned to
be designed for all certain types of vehicles. Since the trains are much larger and more complex
than the cars, the developments in the field of rail systems are slower than the cars. For this
reason, it is very difficult to design a suspension system that will be applied to trains. First,
different suspension types should be modeled, then these models should be simulated and
simulation results should be observed. In addition to the dynamics of the vehicles, the skyhook
semi-active controller has been extensively studied in the study. After these studies, it will be
seen that semi-active suspension systems give higher performance compared to passive
suspension systems and the system can be created with low costs. When studies are completed,
a new breath will be brought to the sector, especially when systems applicable to trains are
created.

Keywords: Semi Active Suspension, Railway Systems, Energy Saving, Sky-hook

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are so grateful for our advisor Assist.Prof.Dr . Semiha TÜRKAY’s supports to our
Project.

III
 CONTENTS

ÖZET ................................................................................................................................ I

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... III

CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. IV

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... VI

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ IX

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... X

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Project Background .......................................................................................... 1

1.2 Objectives of The Project ................................................................................. 3

1.3 Scope of Work .................................................................................................. 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 5

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Suspension ........................................................................................................ 5
2.2.1 Passive suspension ..................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Semi-active suspension............................................................................ 7
2.2.3 Active suspension .................................................................................... 8
2.3 Skyhook Control Strategy ................................................................................. 8
2.4 Handling .......................................................................................................... 10
2.5 External Conditions ....................................................................................... 11
2.6 Weight Distribution ....................................................................................... 12
2.7 Center of Gravity........................................................................................... 14

3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF VEHICLE SUSPENSION .............. 16

3.1 Quarter Car Model .......................................................................................... 16

3.1.1 Passive suspension for quarter car model .............................................. 17
3.1.2 Semi-active suspension for quarter car model ....................................... 18

IV
3.2 Half Car Model ................................................................................................... 21
3.2.1 Passive suspension for half car model ................................................... 21
3.2.2 Semi-active suspension for half car model ............................................ 23
3.3 Half Railway Model ............................................................................................. 29
3.3.1 Passive suspension for half railway model ............................................ 30
3.3.2 Semi-active suspension for half railway model ................................... 33

4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS .............................................................. 40

5 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 41

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Suspension model ........................................................................................ 6

Figure 2.2: Quarter car passive suspension model ......................................................... 7

Figure 2.3: Quarter car semi-active suspension model................................................... 7

Figure 2.4: Quarter car active suspension model ........................................................... 8

Figure 2.5: Skyhook suspension for a quarter car model ................................................. 9

Figure 2.6: Downforces acting on the car......................................................................... 11

Figure 2.7: A failure on the road .................................................................................... 11

Figure 2.8: Behavior of wheels on rainy road surface .................................................... 12

Figure 2.9: Forces generated at tire ................................................................................ 13

Figure 2.10: Weight transfer of vehicle .......................................................................... 14

Figure 2.11: Vehicle with high center of gravity and vehicle with low center of gravity15

Figure 3.1: Quarter car model......................................................................................... 16

Figure 3.2: Passive suspension for quarter car model .................................................... 17

Figure 3.3: Simulink block diagram of passive suspension for quarter car model ........ 18

Figure 3.4: Semi-active suspension with skyhook controller for quarter car model ...... 18

Figure 3.5: Simulink diagram of semi-active suspension with skyhook controller for

quarter car model ............................................................................................................ 19

Figure 3.6: Road holding of quarter car model .............................................................. 20

Figure 3.7: Suspension constrain of quarter car model .................................................. 21

Figure 3.8: 4 degree of freedom (4DOF) passive half car model ................................... 22

Figure 3.9: Simulink diagram of (4DOF) passive suspension half car model ............... 23

Figure 3.10: 4 degree of freedom (4DOF) semi-active suspension half car model ........ 23

VI
Figure 3.11: Simulink diagram of (4DOF) semi-active suspension half car model ...... 25

Figure 3.12: The carbody vertical (heave) acceleration frequency response magnitudes
........................................................................................................................................ 26

Figure 3.13: The carbody vertical (heave) acceleration frequency response magnitudes

with the new values ......................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3.14: The carbody pitch acceleration frequency response magnitudes ............... 27

Figure 3.15: The secondary suspension deflection frequency response magnitudes for

the front bogie ................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 3.16: The secondary suspension deflection frequency response magnitudes for

the rear bogie .................................................................................................................. 28

Figure 3.17: Tire deflection frequency response magnitudes for the front tire .............. 28

Figure 3.18: Tire deflection frequency response magnitudes for the rear tire ............... 29

Figure 3.19: Train vehicle and bogie structure ............................................................... 30

Figure 3.20: Passive suspension for half railway model ................................................ 31

Figure 3.21: Simulink diagram of passive suspension for half railway model .............. 33

Figure 3.22: Semi-active suspension for half railway model ......................................... 34

Figure 3.23: Simulink diagram of semi-active suspension for half railway model ........ 35

Figure 3.24: 6 DOF half-railway model carbody heave acceleration ............................. 36

Figure 3.25: 6 DOF half-railway model carbody pitch acceleration .............................. 36

Figure 3.26: Front bogie secondary suspension deflection of 6 DOF

half-railway model .......................................................................................................... 37

Figure 3.27: Rear bogie secondary suspension deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model
........................................................................................................................................ 37

Figure 3.28: First wheel tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model........................... 38

Figure 3.29: Second wheel tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model.. ................. 38

Figure 3.30: Third tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model.................................... 39

VII
Figure 3.31: Fourth wheel tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model... .................... 39

VIII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The vehicle system parameters for the quarter car model…………………..20

Table 2: The vehicle system parameters for the 4DOF model……………………….25

Table 3: Body motions of the railway vehicle………………………………………..30

Table 4: The vehicle system parameters for the 6DOF model……………………….33

IX
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DOF: Degree of freedom

ER: Electrorheological

LQG: Linear Quadratic Gaussian

LQR: Linear Quadratic Regulator

MR: Magnetorheological

X
 1 INTRODUCTION

It is aimed to give general information about the subjects that determine the
content of the thesis study. When the studies conducted in the past are examined, it is
seen that the project subject has an industrial importance and is open to development.
However, the improvements that are aimed to be realized with the studies in this field are
explained. The literature research results related to the contents mentioned in the project
study are given in the relevant sections. Finally, in the second section of the thesis, what
is generally explained in the sections forming the content of the thesis is stated.

1.1. Project Background

Throughout human history, the methods applied to achieve a goal have been
continuously developed and changed. Until recently, mechanical systems, which are the
building blocks of technology, have adapted to this change and left their places to
electronic and electromechanical systems. Factors such as operating electromechanical
systems more rationally, controlling and longer lifespan than mechanical systems play an
important role in increasing the speed of technological development. One of the most
important sectors in which these systems contribute to technological development is
undoubtedly the automotive industry. Cars that provide great convenience in people's
daily lives are widely used. For this reason, it is of great importance for people that the
automotive, which is intertwined with human life, contains certain elements. Features
such as safety, handling and driving comfort are some of the important aspects of
automotive performance [1]-[2] .
Suspension systems, which are one of the most important systems of the vehicles,
enable the said elements to be realized. Suspension systems, the primary task of which is
to keep the connection between the wheels and the road at the maximum level, allows the
vehicle to hold onto the road [3]. In addition, it protects the vehicle body against high or
low frequency random road inputs, which can vary according to the road profile, and
provides insulation against unexpected road effects [4]-[5].
The beginning of the studies on suspension systems dates back approximately 100
years. The first applications were made after the invention of cars called "horseless cars",
1
which appeared as the first step towards automotive technology. During the use of these
cars, the problems of high vibration, driving discomfort and driving insecurity, which
were exposed when the vehicle speed increased, made people look for a solution. Ideas
have emerged to reduce irregularities on the road or to eliminate these problems by
designing a new system to be used in the vehicle [6]. In this way, suspension systems
have taken their place in history. Of course, as with every piece of technology, suspension
systems have evolved into different types in the historical process. Suspension systems
are examined under three main headings. These are passive, active and semi-active
suspension systems.
Passive suspension systems are the most preferred suspension types due to their
low cost and simple structure compared to other suspension types. However, this simple
structure brings some deficiencies with it. Passive suspension systems, which are more
limited systems than other suspension systems, cannot satisfy the criteria such as handling
and comfort performance, which are the main duties of the suspension, and have to
compromise on its performance. When the distance traveled by the piston is extended,
driving comfort increases as the amount of impact from the road decreases; however, a
reduction in handling performance is observed [7]. When the distance traveled by the
piston is reduced, an increase in handling performance occurs while a reduction in driving
comfort is observed as the effects from the road cannot dampen [8].
Active suspension systems are much more advanced systems. The most important
point that distinguishes active suspension systems from passive suspension systems is
that they are controllable systems through a controller. Active suspension systems that
sense the forces acting on the wheels continuously adjust the link groups between the
chassis and the wheel to optimally absorb these forces [9]. As they are controllable
systems, they can be adjusted for various road profiles. As a result, they operate with
much higher performance than passive suspension systems. However, this high
performance brings with it high costs.
Semi-active suspension systems are systems that are expected to give high
performance as well as expected to have a low cost [10]. They operate on the principle of
controlling the damping force in the shock absorber by a controller. Semi-active
suspension systems have a spring like other systems, the damper is controllable and
operates with a very small external energy [11].
In this thesis, it is aimed to design a semi-active suspension system, which is an
extremely economical system for vehicles, because of its high performance and low cost.
2
1.2. Objectives Of The Project

Throughout this thesis, the focus is on the design of a semi-active suspension

system for vehicles. In the first stage of the thesis, literature research has been made and
a study has been conducted on how different suspension types can give performance
outputs and how different suspension systems have characteristic features. In the second
stage of the thesis study, the internal structure of the semi-active suspension systems has
been examined and investigations have been made on the researches previously
conducted in this field. Mathematical equations expressing the system have been proved
and characteristic equations of models with different degrees of freedom have been
expressed.
In the third part of the thesis study, modeling of suspension systems is based on.
First of all, different types of suspension with different degrees of freedom were examined
in order to understand the general structure of the suspension systems. First of all, passive
suspension systems are mathematically modeled using the Simulink extension of the
Matlab program. The performance data obtained as a result of this modeling provided
concrete information on road handling and driving comfort. Then, the semi-active
suspension system was modeled, and performance data of this system was obtained.
Performance data of two different suspension types are compared on the same graph and
interpreted in terms of handling and ride comfort [12]. In this way, it was possible to
observe which system and how it reacted in random path inputs.

1.3. Scope Of Work

Scopes of this project are:

1. Modelling 2DOF quarter car model for passive and semi-active suspension system
diagram using Simulink software. To develop skyhook controller for 2DOF semi-active
suspension system.

2. Modelling 4DOF half car model for passive and semi-active suspension system
diagram using Simulink software To develop skyhook controller for 4DOF semi-active
suspension system.

3
3. Modelling 6DOF half railway vehicle model for passive and semi-active suspension
system diagram using Simulink software. To develop skyhook controller for 6DOF semi-
active suspension system.

4. Examination of designed models performance criterias such as handling, ride comfort,

suspension constrain in frequency domain.

4
 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

In this section, the main issues to be considered while designing and modeling
suspension system are presented. Suspension system types and their purposes are
specified. The similarities and differences of the suspension systems, the results of these
differences, and the skyhook control algorithm are mentioned. As a result of
technological advances, the effects of the development of electromechanical
components, sensors and controllers on suspension systems are mentioned. The parts of
the vehicle dynamics related to suspension have been examined and interpreted. The
relationship between the handling performance and the subsystems of the vehicle was
examined, and the effects of the external conditions on the vehicle handling were also
mentioned.

2.2. Suspension

The composition of various parts designed to absorb shocks and vibrations in

vehicles constitutes the suspension system. The suspension system is one of the main
systems that have a direct impact on the performance and comfort of the vehicle, which
is responsible for keeping the contact between tires, road and vehicle body at the desired
level. One of the main goals of the system is to create friction between the wheels and the
road so that the vehicle does not lose its grip. Why is this important? Because of the
suspension system takes on vital tasks to get a quick response when braking and to change
direction immediately when you turn the steering wheel. The fact that the roads fray out
and have bumps and pits in time makes this task more important. Because when vehicles
reach a certain speed, they are more affected by such disturbances on the roads. It is
essential to examine the suspension system well to prevent accidents and damage to the
cars and loss of vehicle control due to these problems [13]. Also, if vibrations caused by
road defects do not dampen in suspension systems, as a result of the prolonged travel
periods, vibrations affecting human health can be exposed, and although these seem less
insignificant, these vibrations can wear down the mechanical parts in the vehicle and

5
significantly decrease the life of the equipment. In short, suspension systems are
indispensable in order to ensure safety and to provide high quality in terms of comfort
and performance. In addition, the suspension system must dampen vibrations in order to
protect the vehicle's main and sub-systems from the bad effects of road disturbances.

Figure 2.1: Suspension model [18]

2.2.1. Passive suspension

Passive suspension is the most primitive of the suspension types. Despite the
improvements in suspension equipment, it is still the most preferred suspension type in
the automotive industry due to its simple structure and low cost. The word passive means
that the spring and damper stiffness coefficients that make up the suspension have
constant values. This causes that the passive suspension cannot provide additional energy
to the system. Because of this feature, passive systems cannot offer high quality in terms
of performance.

6
 Figure 2.2: Quarter car passive suspension model [14]

2.2.2. Semi active suspension

Semi-active suspension systems operate according to the principle that the damper
stiffness coefficient changes according to the road input. From this statement, it can be
understood that the damper to be used in semi-active systems is a special damper type.
Based on the principle that the properties of the liquid used in the damper change
depending on the electric field or magnetic field, two types of damper types have been
developed [1]. The viscosities of liquids exposed to the electric field or magnetic field
change so that the stiffness coefficient of the damper can change at the desired level. The
two dampers mentioned here are called electro rheological damper and magneto
rheological damper. These dampers do not add extra energy to the system due to their
working principles [14]. In this way, semi-active systems consume less energy and are
simpler than active systems and provides better performance than passive systems.

Figure 2.3: Quarter car semi-active suspension model [14]

7
 2.2.3. Active suspension

In addition to springs and dampers, active suspension systems are systems in

which sensors and actuators play a major role with an improved control structure. Various
methods and various structures have been developed on active suspension systems. The
prominent methods are H8 theory, LQR, LQG and adaptive robust control [1]. Basically
in active systems, there are actuators that add or remove energy to the system. These
actuators can apply force directly to the system through controllers.. This improve the
system's performance but make the system more complex. In addition, these actuators
constantly lead to high energy consumption. The energy consumption problem is one of
the biggest problems in active suspension [14]. Due to the fact that there is an extra
element in the system and this element consumes high energy, the cost of active
suspension is high. For this reason, active suspension is generally preferred for use in
luxury vehicles.

Figure 2.4: Quarter car active suspension model [14]

2.3. Skyhook Control Strategy

The skyhook control theory is an effective vibration algorithm and it can distribute
the energy of the system at a high rate. It is commonly used in control studies of the semi-
active suspension systems. This algorithm was patented by Karnopp in 1974 [15]. In order
to reduce the vertical vibrations of the chassis and axle independently , is the chassis
8
linked to the sky. The purpose of the skyhook controller is to reduce the vibration of the
hanging mass, thereby to improve the performance of the vehicle. While the controller
continues the road induced vibrations, while providing as little movement of the body as
possible, more of the non-suspended mass causes too much vertical movement. This
means that performance gained from comfort, it shows that it has been achieved by losing
its handling performance.The general representation of skyhook suspension is given by
Figure 2.4 .

Figure 2.5 : Skyhook suspension for a quarter car model [16]

Skyhook control is used in both semi-active and active suspension systems. Since
it cannot provide bidirectional force in the semi-active suspension system, the optimum
performance contribution that can be obtained from the virtual damper is only possible
with the active suspension system.
The skyhook control law for the figure is:

𝑢 = −𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 𝑧̇𝑑𝑒𝑓 − 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1 − 𝛼)𝑧̇𝑢 (2.2.1)

Where 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 is the damping coefficient of the skyhook controller.

In this equation, 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 > 0 and 𝛼 € [0,1] are the parameters that directly affect the
design. By changing the 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 and 𝛼 values effects the road holding and suspension
constrain directly. It is very important to find the optimum values of 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 and 𝛼 to get the
ideal performance of the vehicle [16]. By choosing 𝛼 = 0, 𝑢 force is independent of the
axle’s vertical displacement. This implies the oscillation of the vertical displacement of
the axle. The situation in which neither chassis nor axle can be damped is the case , where
9
𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 0. The damping of the vertical movements of the chassis can be controlled, if
the 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 ≠ 0. The damping of the vertical movements of the axle takes place by
determining the 𝛼 value [17].In a spring - damper system it is well known that increasing
the damping coefficient improves the peak response but decreases the filtering
performance.

2.4. Handling

Undoubtedly, one of the factors that should be most effective in the choice of
vehicles is vehicle handling. The reaction of the vehicle to the inputs that the driver
transmits to the vehicle constitutes the general logic of the vehicle handling. Vehicle
handling can also be called as an indicator of how compatible the driver & vehicle
combination is [19].Achieving this harmony is directly related to the performance of the
systems in the vehicle. If any system in the vehicle performs less than it should be, vehicle
handling will be severely affected.
Although each system in the vehicle affects vehicle handling, certain systems
affect the vehicle handling much more. One of the main systems affecting vehicle
handling is the suspension system. The characteristics of the suspension, such as how it
reacts at which road inputs and how soft or hard it is, are extremely important in
determining vehicle handling performance. One of the components that is almost as
effective as suspensions in vehicle handling is the wheel [20]. Factors such as the material
from which the wheel is produced, the thickness and stiffness of the wheel also
significantly affect vehicle handling.
In addition, the aerodynamics of the vehicle also plays an important role in vehicle
handling performance. As the vehicle speed increases, the size of the downward forces
acting on the vehicle increases. This force can be used to improve vehicle handling
performance. It is a great advantage to use downward forces to increase handling
performance, especially on rolling roads.

10
 Figure 2.6: Downforces acting on the car [21]

Finally, it is also extremely important to use advanced braking systems to achieve

high vehicle handling performance. In cases where sudden braking is required, it is
imperative for the vehicles not to lose control of the vehicle and to maintain a high level
of safety [22].

2.5. External Conditions

In addition to the internal dynamics of the vehicle, external factors have an

important role in the handling performance of the vehicle. When external factors affect
any system of the vehicle, other systems that interact with each other are also affected,
and vehicle handling performance varies. Road disturbances, bumps, pits and different
weather conditions are examples of external factors.

Figure 2.7: A failure on the road [23]

Vehicle handling performance may be degraded due to the impact of road surfaces
due to different weather conditions. Due to the “freezing” that occurs on the roads in cold
weather, the vehicle wheels cannot provide maximum adhesion to the road, therefore

11
suspensions cannot work. A similar situation is observed in rainy weather, the vehicle
wheels cannot hold onto the road, but more friction is observed on the roads compared to
the weather conditions where "freezing" occurs.

Figure 2.8: Behavior of wheels on rainy road surface

2.6. Weight Distribution

The way to increase vehicle handling performance is by understanding and

controlling the forces affecting the tire. In this section, three forces acting on the tire will
be mentioned. In the unbalanced distribution of these forces, there is no contact between
the tire and the road, and this could lead to undesirable situations such as skidding or
rolling over. The way to get rid of these undesirable conditions indirectly depends on the
quality of the suspension system. A well-designed suspension system can dissipate
unbalanced forces while the vehicle is maneuvering and dampen the negative effects of
the forces generated. So it is necessary to examine the suspension model from all
directions to get more realistic and accurate results.

12
 Figure 2.9 : Forces generated at tire (a) vertical forces(blue) (b) lateral forces(red) (c) longitudinal
forces(green)

The first of these forces is vertical forces. Vertical forces are always occur due to
the weight of the vehicle. Another one is longitudinal forces. These are generated when
vehicle accelerating or braking. Last force is the lateral forces. When the vehicle takes a
corner lateral forces get generated at tire contact path and they play a key role in the
handling performance. To understand these forces, it is necessary to understand how the
weight distribution of the vehicle during various situations.
The weight of the vehicle is not evenly distributed on each wheel, one of the
reasons for this is the location of the vehicle's engine. When a vehicle with a front engined
is stationary, the front wheels of the vehicle carry more weight. In other words, the vertical
forces applied to the front wheels are higher than the rear wheels. These forces are not
constant and vary depending on the vehicle's movement. When the vehicle brakes, the
front wheels carry more weight, while the vehicle accelerates similarly, the rear wheels
carry more weight. As can be seen weights carried by tires alternating according to
situation. Another example can be seen when the vehicle turns. The left wheels of the
vehicle carry more weight as the vehicle turns right.

13
 Figure 2.10: Weight transfer of vehicle (a) standing position (b) brake position (c) right turn position
[24]

Suspension systems are critical for the vehicle to avoid the effects of these
mentioned force imbalances. For such situations in active suspensions, with the help of
actuators, unbalanced forces can be suppressed. Or in semi-active suspensions, damper
stiffness may change depending on the road input and dampen the bad effects of this force
imbalance. In summary, forces that reduce driving performance on the vehicle can be
prevented by the suspension. In this way, undesirable situations such as understeer,
oversteer, wobble or roll over can be avoided.

2.7. Center of Gravity

In this section, the effects of the vehicle's center of gravity on the vehicle and how
these effects should be regulated with the help of the suspension system are briefly
explained. Center of gravity is an indirect factor affecting the suspension system design.
Since the position of the center of gravity affects the vehicle's weight distribution,
indirectly, the behavior of the suspension should be appropriate to regulate and balance
this weight distribution. In SUV type vehicles, the center of gravity of the vehicle is high
and its suspension is soft in order to prevent bad effects of terrain conditions on the driver.

14
Unlike SUVs, racing cars have a low center of gravity and a hard suspension is used to
provide high handling performance. In race cars, the weight transfer is less than in SUVs,
which leads to better steering control. In short, these are the reasons why racing vehicles
are bad in comfort but good in performance and maneuverability. Likewise, SUV type
vehicles have high comfort but tend to rollover due to high weight transfer. In summary,
in this case there is a tradeoff between handling and ride comfort. It is clear that handling
is more important for racing vehicles and ride comfort is more important for SUVs, but
the most optimal choice for other vehicle types should be made considering these
conditions. and in this context, suspension systems should be designed according to the
desired conditions.

Figure 2.11 : Vehicle with high center of gravity and vehicle with low center of gravity

15
3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF VEHICLE SUSPENSIONS

In this section, the designed passive and semi-active suspension systems are
mentioned. The stages of designing the quarter car model, half car model and half railway
model are explained. The developed models are expressed mathematically and simulated
in Matlab Simulink environment. Suspension systems are arranged optimally with
various parameters entered into the system. Simulation results were examined in bode
diagrams, performance criterias for passive and semi-active systems were compared.

3.1. Quarter Car Model

Quarter car model is a model that represents a quarter of the vehicle, that is, each
wheel and its suspension system. In this model, vertical movements of the suspension can
be examined. Although this model is very good in analyzing the vertical movements of
the vehicle, pitch and roll motion cannot be observed. Suspension system schematic
model is shown in Figure 3.1. In this way, sprung mass represents body of the vehicle and
unsprung mass represents tyre of the vehicle. Ks and Kt values show the values of the
spring stiffness.The c value indicates the damper's damping coefficient.

Figure 3.1: Quarter car mode

16
 3.1.1. Passive suspension for quarter car model

In order to better understand the suspension models, Passive suspension was

examined for the quarter vehicle model and mathematical equations were obtained
according to Newton's 2nd law of motion. Passive suspension model for quarter car is
shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Passive suspension for quarter car model

The dynamic equations are represented by equations (3.1.1.1). Zr is given as the

road input in to the system.

(3.1.1.1)

During the design of the passive suspension, the road input Zr is selected as the
bandlimited white noise to the system. The Simulink block diagram is represented in
Figure 3.3.

17
 Figure 3.3: Simulink diagram of passive suspension for quarter car model

3.1.2. Semi-active suspension for quarter car model

The skyhook control theorem has been applied for the semi-active suspension
design, and the dynamic equations of the model have been reconstructed. The damper
used in this model is different from the damper used in the passive system. If a physical
experiment is desired, an ER or MR damper should be used instead of the 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 damper.
The general form of the semi-active suspension with the skyhook controller is shown
below in Figure 3.4 .

Figure 3.4: Semi-active suspension with skyhook controller for quarter car model
18
 In the semi-active system, band limited white noise was given as the road input as
in the passive system. The dynamic equations are represented by equation (3.1.2.1). Zr is
given as the road input in to the system. In this semi-active suspension model,the vertical
motion of the chassis (zs) [16] and the vertical motion of the unsprung mass (zu) are
represented in Figure 3.4 .

= ( )+ (- ) +
(3.1.2.1)
= + ( )+ ( )

Parameters from various sources are entered in MATLAB [16]. Mathematical

equations expressing the semi-active suspension model are transferred to the simulink
environment. The system created with the help of block diagrams is simulated. Simulink
diagram for semi-active suspension is shown in Figure 3.5 . To obtain the skyhook control
theorem the parameter values are [17] :

𝛼=0.5 ; 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 4400 𝑁𝑠/𝑚

Figure 3.5: Simulink diagram of semi-active suspension with skyhook controller for quarter car model

19
 TABLE 1. The vehicle system parameters for the quarter car model

The parameters of the quarter car model are given in Table 1. Simulation results
are analyzed on the bode diagram. Outcomes of passive and semi-active systems were
drawn on top of each other and differences were observed.

Figure 3.6: Road holding of quarter car model: (–): the passive suspension; (-.-): the semi-active
suspension

Road Holding performance criteria is obtained by evaluating the transfer function zu /zr.
Improvements were seen when the semi-active system was compared with the passive
system.

20
Figure 3.7: Suspension constrain of quarter car model: (–): the passive suspension; (-.-): the semi-active
suspension

The performance criteria suspension constrain is obtained by the transfer function

(zs-zu) / zr . As can be seen from the analysis of the graph, the improvements of the semi-
active system are seen as an important result in the study.

3.2. Half Car Model

Half car model is a model that represents a half of the vehicle. Although there is
one wheel in the quarter vehicle model, there are 2 wheels in the half car model which
are front and rear. So in addition to vertical movements, pitch movements can be
observed. Therefore this model is more realistic than the quarter car model. The system
became more complicated as the number of wheels analyzed increased, so the degree of
freedom also increased and became to 4.

3.2.1. Passive suspension for half car model

In passive suspension model the springs and dampers are passive components.
According to the passive suspension model, the dynamic equations were obtained
matematically. The general representation of a passive suspension model for a half car
model is represented in Figure 3.8 .

21
 Figure 3.8: 4 degree of freedom (4DOF) passive half car model

This model consists of vehicle body Ms, two bogie mass Mu1, Mu2 and front /
rear wheels. The passive suspension system consists of passive springs (Ks1, Ks2, Kt1,
Kt2) and dampers (Cs1, Cs2, Ct1, Ct2). The dynamic equations [25] for the passive
suspension takes the following :

𝑚𝑠 𝑥̈ 𝐺 = −𝑘𝑠1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) − 𝐶𝑠1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) − 𝑘𝑠2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥4 ) − 𝐶𝑠2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) (3.2.1.1)

𝐼𝑃 𝜃̈ = −𝑙1 𝑘𝑠1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) − 𝑙1 𝑐𝑠1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) + 𝑙2 𝑘𝑠2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥4 ) + 𝑙2 𝑐𝑠2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) (3.2.1.2)

𝑚𝑢1 𝑥̈ 3 = 𝑘𝑠1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) + 𝐶𝑠1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) − 𝑘𝑡1 (𝑥3 − 𝑤1 ) − 𝐶𝑡1 (𝑥̇ 3 − 𝑤̇ 1 ) (3.2.1.3)

𝑚𝑢2 𝑥̈ 4 = 𝑘𝑠2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥4 ) + 𝐶𝑠2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) − 𝑘𝑡2 (𝑥4 − 𝑤2 ) − 𝐶𝑡2 (𝑥̇ 4 − 𝑤̇ 2 ) (3.2.1.4)

The Simulink diagram which is shown in Figure 3.9 is more complicated than
quarter car model. This is because the system is getting more realistic [29] . The road
inputs 𝑤1 and 𝑤2 are choosen as the bandlimited white noise. The displacements of the
front and rear are related to 𝜃 and 𝑥𝐺 by:

𝑥1 =𝑥𝐺 + 𝑙1 𝜃 (3.2.1.5)

𝑥2 = 𝑥𝐺 − 𝑙1 𝜃 (3.2.1.6)

22
 Figure 3.9: Simulink diagram of (4DOF) passive suspension half car model

3.2.2. Semi-active suspension for half car model

Dynamic equations were obtained mathematically by adapting the skyhook

control theorem to the half car model [25] . The semi-active suspension model obtained
by adding the skyhook dampers to the half car model as shown in Figure 3.10 .

Figure 3.10: 4 degree of freedom (4DOF) semi-active suspension half car model

23
According to the Newton’s second law the dynamic equations are reconstructed by the
following:

𝑚𝑠 𝑥̈ 𝐺 = −𝑘𝑠1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) − 𝐶𝑠1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) − 𝑘𝑠2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥4 ) − 𝐶𝑠2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) − 𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) −
𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
2
(𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) −
2
. 𝑥̇ 2 − 2
. 𝑥̇1

(3.2.2.1)

𝐼𝑃 𝜃̈ = −𝑙1 𝑘𝑠1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) − 𝑙1 𝑐𝑠1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) + 𝑙2 𝑘𝑠2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥4 ) + 𝑙2 𝑐𝑠2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) −

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑙2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) + 𝑙1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) − 𝑙2 𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑙1 𝑥̇ 1
2 2 2 2

(3.2.2.2)

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑚𝑢1 𝑥̈ 3 = 𝑘𝑠1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) + 𝐶𝑠1 (𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 3 ) − (𝑥̇ 4 − 𝑥̇ 2 ) − 𝑘𝑡1 (𝑥3 − 𝑤1 ) − 𝐶𝑡1 (𝑥̇ 3 − 𝑤̇1 )
2

(3.2.2.3)

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑚𝑢2 𝑥̈ 4 = 𝑘𝑠2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥4 ) + 𝐶𝑠2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 4 ) − (𝑥̇ 3 − 𝑥̇ 1 ) − 𝑘𝑡2 (𝑥4 − 𝑤2 ) − 𝐶𝑡2 (𝑥̇ 4 − 𝑤̇2 )
2

(3.2.2.4)

The pitch moment of inertia is represented by 𝐼𝑃 , the body mass by 𝑚𝑠 , two bogie
mass with 𝑚𝑢1 and 𝑚𝑢2 , secondary springs are 𝑘𝑠1 and 𝑘𝑠2 , 𝐶𝑠1 and 𝐶𝑠2 are the bogie
damping coefficients, 𝐶𝑡1 and 𝐶𝑡2 are the tire damping coefficients. The semi-active
suspension with the skyhook control theorem was designed in Simulink as shown in
Figure 3.11 .

24
 Figure 3.11: Simulink diagram of (4DOF) semi-active suspension half car model

The parameter values of the 4DOF model are given in Table 1. and simulation
results were obtained on the bode diagram, and passive and semi-active suspension
models were compared according to performance criteria. To apply the skyhook control
theorem the values are [26]:
𝛼=0.3715 ; 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 1342.8 𝑁𝑠/𝑚

TABLE 2. The vehicle system parameters for the 4DOF model

25
 Figure 3.12. : The carbody vertical (heave) acceleration frequency response magnitudes:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension

Figure 3.12 shows the bode diagram of the carbody vertical acceleration
frequency response magnitudes.There are some improvements by using the semi-active
suspension compared to the passive suspension. Changing the 𝛼 value to 0.24 and 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 to
5000 𝑁𝑠/𝑚 will lead the improvements to be different.The new bode diagram by
changing the values is shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13: The carbody vertical (heave) acceleration frequency response magnitudes with the new
values:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

26
 Figure 3.14: The carbody pitch acceleration frequency response magnitudes:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

In Figure 3.14 a very small improvement of the frequency response can be seen.
This shows that the results of using the skyhook control theory is better than the passive
system.

Figure 3.15: The secondary suspension deflection frequency response magnitudes for the front bogie:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

The secondary suspension deflection of front bogie is shown in Figure 3.15 and
for the rear bogie is shown in Figure 3.16. The road inputs have to be delayed by using
the Transport Delay block diagram. Otherwise the rear and front wheels outputs will be

27
the same.

Figure 3.16: The secondary suspension deflection frequency response magnitudes for the rear bogie:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension

Figure 3.17: Tire deflection frequency response magnitudes for the front tire:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension

The tire deflection ,which actually represents the road holding is an important
performance criteria to compare the suspension systems. As can be seen from the
graphics, there are differences between passive and semi-active suspension systems.
Optimum values should be found in order to optimize the performance of semi-active
systems. Simulation results of the bode plots are represented for front wheel in Figure
28
3.17, and for the rear wheel in Figure 3.18 .

Figure 3.18: Tire deflection frequency response magnitudes for the rear tire:
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension

Analysis and results of the 4DOF model constituted an important preliminary

study for the 6DOF model.

3.3. Half Railway Model

In this model, a suspension design for the train is designed, unlike the car models
mentioned earlier in the thesis. Trains are indispensable for public transportation and
goods transportation. The reason for this situation is that it is fast and cheap compared to
the alternatives of railway transportation. The development of trains has been slower than
cars, but with the energy problem that has emerged in recent years, the importance of
trains has increased. One of the main reasons for the slow development of trains is that it
has a complex structure. these huge and complex vehicles can reach high speeds but this
causes some problems. The trains are constantly exposed to vibration due to the bump
effect of the welding points on the railways and the deterioration of the railways. Because
of this trains need good suspension system so that vibration does not reach directly
passengers or the goods transported.
The suspension model of trains is more complex than cars. The reason for this is
the bogies that are responsible for providing movement and carrying the vehicle. There
are 2 bogies in a wagon of the train and one bogie has 4 wheels in total [32] [33]. The half
vehicle model of the train can be expressed in 6 equations to cover the four wheels of the

29
two bogies.

Figure 3.19: Train vehicle and bogie structure [27]

3.3.1. Passive suspension for half railway model

The passive suspension designed for the half-rail vehicle can be seen in the Figure
3.20 . This model contains four wheels of two bogies carrying the train wagon. Thus,
vertical movements and pitch movements of the vehicle can be observed and analyzed
[30].

TABLE 3. Body motions of the railway vehicle

Body motions of the railway vehicle is shown in detail in the Table 3.

30
 Figure 3.20: Passive suspension for half railway model

The equations that express the model mathematically are as follows:

For;

𝑥1 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑡1
𝑥2 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑡2

𝑥3 = 𝑧𝑡11 − 𝑧𝑤1 (3.3.1.1)

𝑥4 = 𝑧𝑡12 − 𝑧𝑤2

𝑥5 = 𝑧𝑡21 − 𝑧𝑤3

𝑥6 = 𝑧𝑡22 − 𝑧𝑤4

The displacement of the body, front bogie and rear bogie for ilgilib, θt1, θt2 are shown
in equations 3.3.1.2.;

𝑧1 = 𝑧 + 𝑙𝑏 𝜃𝑏
𝑧2 = 𝑧 − 𝑙𝑏 𝜃𝑏

𝑧𝑡11 = 𝑧𝑡1 + 𝑙𝜔 𝜃𝑡1 (3.3.1.2)

𝑧𝑡12 = 𝑧𝑡1 − 𝑙𝜔 𝜃𝑡1

31
𝑧𝑡21 = 𝑧𝑡2 + 𝑙𝜔 𝜃𝑡2

𝑧𝑡22 = 𝑧𝑡2 − 𝑙𝜔 𝜃𝑡2

For body;

= (3.3.1.3)

= (3.3.1.4)

For front bogie;

(3.3.1.5)

(3.3.1.6)

For rear bogie;

= (3.3.1.7)

(3.3.1.8)

Equations obtained from the model are systemized with the help of blocks in
simulink environment. As in previous studies, road inputs are given as band limited white
noise. The effect of these road inputs changes with small delays.
Assume that, the effect for Zw1 comes at time=t, then:

Zw1 -> at time= t

Zw2 -> at time= t + 0.05 sec
Zw3 -> at time= t + 0.35 sec
Zw4 -> at time= t + 0.40 sec

32
 TABLE 4. The vehicle system parameters for the 6 DOF model [28]

After entering the vehicle parameters shown in Table 4 into MATLAB, the
suspension system was made ready for simulation.

Figure 3.21: Simulink diagram of passive suspension for half railway model

3.3.2. Semi active suspension for half railway model

A semi-active suspension was designed with the help of the skyhook control
algorithm [31], which is a better option for trains than passive suspensions. As with other
semi-active designs mentioned in the thesis, it is possible to use MR or ER dampers for
trains. The new system created by integrating the Csky damper into the passive system is
in Figure 3.22 .

33
 Figure 3.22: Semi-active suspension for half railway model

With the addition of skyhook dampers to the model, the mathematical expression
of the new model has changed. Skyhook damper properties and new mathematical
expression are as follows:

𝛼=0.5; 𝑐𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 60000 𝑁𝑠/𝑚

For body;

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦

𝑚𝑏 𝑧̈ = −𝑘𝑠 𝑥1 −𝑐𝑠 𝑥̇ 1 −𝑘𝑠 𝑥2 −𝑐𝑠 𝑥̇ 2 − . (𝑧̇1 − 𝑧̇𝑡1 ) − (𝑧̇2 − 𝑧̇𝑡2 ) − 2
2 2
(1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
. 𝑧̇ 1 − 2
. 𝑧̇ 2 (3.3.2.1)

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 𝛼𝐶
𝐼𝑏 𝜃̈𝑏 = −𝑙𝑏 𝑘𝑠 𝑥1 − 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑠 𝑥̇ 1 + 𝑙𝑏 𝑘𝑠 𝑥2 +𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑠 𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑙𝑏 . (𝑧̇1 − 𝑧̇𝑡1 ) +𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑘𝑦 (𝑧̇2 − 𝑧̇𝑡2 ) −
2 2
(1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦 (1−𝛼)𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
. 𝑧̇ 1 . 𝑙𝑏 − 2
. 𝑧̇ 2 . 𝑙𝑏 (3.3.2.2)
2

For front bogie;

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑚𝑡 𝑧̈𝑡1 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑥1 +𝑐𝑠 𝑥̇ 1 −𝑘𝑝 𝑥3 −𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 3 −𝑘𝑝 𝑥4 −𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 4 + . (𝑧̇1 − 𝑧̇𝑡1 ) (3.3.2.3)
2

𝐼𝑡 𝜃̈𝑡1 = −𝑙𝜔 𝑘𝑝 𝑥3 −𝑙𝜔 𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 3 + 𝑙𝜔 𝑘𝑝 𝑥4 + 𝑙𝜔 𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 4 (3.3.2.4)

34
For rear bogie;

𝛼𝐶𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑚𝑡 𝑧̈ 𝑡2 =𝑘𝑠 𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑠 𝑥̇ 2 −𝑘𝑝 𝑥5 −𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 5 − 𝑘𝑝 𝑥6 −𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 6 + (𝑧̇2 − 𝑧̇𝑡2 ) (3.3.2.5)
2

𝐼𝑡 𝜃̈𝑡2 = −𝑙𝜔 𝑘𝑝 𝑥5 −𝑙𝜔 𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 5 +𝑙𝜔 𝑘𝑝 𝑥6 +𝑙𝜔 𝑐𝑃 𝑥̇ 6 (3.3.2.6)

The new model was transferred to the simulink environment and the semi-active
suspension system was analyzed.

Figure 3.23: Simulink diagram of semi-active suspension for half railway model

After the analysis of the semi-active system is completed, the semi-active system
is compared with the passive system [34]. Various improvements made by the semi-active
system are presented here.

35
Figure 3.24: 6 DOF half-railway model carbody heave acceleration;
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

Figure 3.25: 6 DOF half-railway model carbody pitch acceleration;

(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

36
Figure 3.26: Front bogie secondary suspension deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model;
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

Figure 3.27: Rear bogie secondary suspension deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model;
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

37
 Figure 3.28: First wheel tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model;
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

As seen in this example, it is understood that the semi-active system does not
provide improvement compared to the passive system. This is because even semi-active
systems have a limit.

Figure 3.29: Second wheel tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model;

(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

38
 Figure 3.30: Third tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model;
(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

Figure 3.31: Fourth wheel tire deflection of 6 DOF half-railway model;

(–):the semi-active suspension;(-.-):the passive suspension.

39
4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

The objective of this study was to design a semi-active suspension for the
vehicles in order to improve the ride comfort and road holding. The semi-active
suspension system concept was applied and analyzed to the 2 dof quarter car model, 4
dof half car model and 6 dof half railway model. The performance improvements of
these models, which are developed in accordance with the working principles of the
Skyhook controller, were compared with the passive systems. This study, which
eliminates the energy and cost problems of active systems and plays a role in the
development of semi-active systems, is different and important in terms of creating
models for both cars and railway vehicles. The factors that directly or indirectly affect
the design of suspension systems are described in detail in the thesis. Modeling steps
and how to simulate the models in MATLAB / SIMULINK environment are mentioned.
Besides, in order to see the energy distribution of the suspension models and to
understand the frequency ranges of the improvements, the examinations were made with
the help of bode diagrams in the frequency domain. Briefly, with the development of
electro-mechanical components, the evolution of suspension systems has been studied,
and the semi-active suspension design, which is the most optimal option for today in
line with the positive and negative aspects of changes in suspension systems, has been
developed for cars and railway systems.

In future works, by comparing the performance of the active systems and the
semi-active systems, it can be seen how the active systems with cost and energy
problems provide a better performance compared to the semi-active systems. By
examining other semi-active suspension system theories as well as the Skyhook control
theory, the most suitable control method for vehicles can be determined by comparing
semi-active suspension systems with different control principles.

40
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