Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES, COASTAL AND OCEAN

ENGINEERING (ICWRCOE 2015)

Solar Energy: Review of Potential Green & Clean Energy for

Coastal and Offshore Applications
Vinod Kumara*, R.L.Shrivastavab, S.P.Untawalec
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Hingna Road, Wanadongri, Nagpur 441110, India
b Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Hingna Road, Wanadongri, Nagpur 441110, India
c Datta Meghe Institute of Engineering, Technology & Research, Wardha 442004, India

Abstract

World appetite for energy and mineral resources seems insatiable. The study reveals that the natural reserve of fossil fuels
represent 150 years (coal), 58 years (natural gas) and almost 46 years (oil) of consumption at current rates. The Ocean covers
approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and full of abundant esoteric resources. This blue economy attracting greater interest
for harnessing the ocean wealth. Energy Intensity (EI) for Ocean trades activity e.g. Extraction of Oil & Gas, Shipping, Fisheries,
and Ocean Mining for Excavation of massive Sulphides, Manganese Nodules, Cobalt Crust and Methane Hydrates reviewed.
Most of the offshore energy requirement is for fuel, cooking, maintaining comfort condition, recreation, preservation of
commodity, distillation etc. Use of high grade energy viz. electricity through conversion into low grade energy such as water
heating, distillation, cooling is not advantageous when abundant low grade energy is capable to do so efficiently. Solar PV/T
technology can cater the offshore energy requirement substantially. However Levelized Cost Of Energy (LCOE) of Solar per
kWh is more than that of any other renewable energy, but mobility, portability and feasibility of offshore installations are the key
factors which dominate amongst the renewable energy sources. In the present paper various offshore energy applications are
explored and potential of solar energy to substitute conventional oil and gas fuels for these applications are explained. Marine
pollution on account of use of fossil fuel and its devastating consequences on sea creatures also reviewed.

©©2015
2015TheTheAuthors. Published
Authors. by by
Published Elsevier B.V.B.V.
Elsevier This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015.
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
Keywords: Ocean Solar Energy; Coastal & Offshore Solar PV/T; Ocean Energy Intensity; Marine Pollution.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .

E-mail address: vviinnoodd@rediffmail.com

2214-241X © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.062
474 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480

1. Introduction

Ocean energy is the world’s largest remaining source of untapped renewable energy. It is estimated that 0.1% of
the energy in ocean waves could be capable of supplying the entire world's energy requirements five times over (EU-
OEA, 2014). Ocean is a rich source of fuels, minerals, foods, medicines and also facilitates transportation services.
Oceans trades consist of extraction of oil and gas, mining minerals, sea foods and transportation etc.
Nomenclature

LCOE Levelized Cost Of Energy

PV/T Photovoltaic/Thermal
TWh Tera watt hour
OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
INES International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
FIT Feed-in-Tariff
CSP Concentrated Solar Power
NGL Natural Gas Liquids
Gte Giga Tonne
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
POP Persistent Organic Pollutants
DDT dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane
PCB poly chlorinated biphenyl
IEA, (2014) reported the current world electricity demand equivalent to 17500 TWh. There is a potential to
develop 20000̻80000 TWh of electricity through oceans. Ocean energy sources consists Tidal power, Tidal
(marine) currents, Wave power, Temperature gradients (OTEC), Salinity gradients. Ocean activities are broadly
classified into two categories viz. Onshore and Offshore. Onshore energy requirement can be fulfilled by any
conventional and non conventional techniques. Offshore energy requirement includes operation of oceans energy
harnessing equipments, fisheries, ocean mining, ocean trades, transportation, shipping etc. In order to cater the
offshore energy demands, fuel is required to be carried along. Moreover, during long term offshore stay or
occurrence of unusual incidences, consequence of running out of fuel may become a major challenge to survive. A
stand alone system, capable to generate power for self survival, may prove to be a lifesaving option. The bottlenecks
associated with conventional energy sources, opened door for development of non-conventional energy sources.
Most of the energy demands in marine activities can be met with by low grade energy available abundantly in
natural resources. Use of high grade energy for these activities is indiscreet. Moreover, land fields are possessed and
occupied densely, which imposes a big challenge for installation of new power generation plants. Trapani Kim and
Millar Dean L. (2013a) proposed the offshore photovoltaic (PV) technology for the Maltese islands as a solution for
land scarcity. There is tremendous potential to harness solar energy. Scarcity of habitable land, environmental
concern and protection of ecological balance necessitates deployment of solar power as an alternative to
conventional source of energy. Use of solar energy is gaining more and more popularity due to its cleanliness,
mobility, compact installation, standalone system, domestic & industrial deployment and almost maintenance free
system. Figure-1 shows the estimated renewable energy share of global final energy consumption in 2011 (Ren21
GSR, 2013).

1.1 Solar Energy

The sun constitutes of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields. The energy is generated by nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium. The surface temperature attained by sun is 5762 K (Kreith F, Kreider JF, 1978). The
sun’s total energy output is 3.8 x 10²º MW, a small quantum of which, 1.7 X 1014 kW of the total emitted radiation is
intercepted by earth. Nevertheless, world energy demand for one year is only 30 min of solar radiation falling on
earth. Entire solar radiation emitted by sun is not reached on earth due to atmospheric absorption, diffraction and
scattering. Thus, a solar constant is defined by the solar irradiance that the sun deposits per unit area, that is directly
 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480 475

exposed to sunlight and perpendicular to it

is 1.368 kW/m² (Kalogirou S.A, 2004).
Solar energy harnessing system is broadly
classified into two categories viz. Solar
thermal and Solar Photo Voltaic (PV).
Thermal system captures the solar energy
and utilizes it for thermal applications like
space heating and cooling, water heating,
desalination etc., whereas PV system
converts the sunlight directly into
electricity without intervening engine.
Ghaffour Noreddine et al., (2014)
presented a Renewable energy-driven
integrated desalination system. Since Solar Figure – 1 Estimated renewable energy share of global final energy consumption, 2011
(Ren21 GSR, 2013)
PV generates high grade energy, it is not
recommended to degrade it into low grade energy utility such as heating of water, desalination, distillation etc.
Tech-Socio-Commercial suitability of Oceans environment for solar energy harnessing includes –
x Cooling by air and seawater promotes higher PV conversion efficiency (Skoplaki E and Palyvos JA., 2009).
x Abundant water for cleaning of the panel.
x The modular and scalable system from microwatt to megawatt.
x Reduces water evaporation and growth of algae by shading the water.
x Buoyancy may be utilized in best way with a supporting a simple structure design.
x Environment friendly.
x Availability of abundant space close to energy demand.
Limitations
x Salty water corrosion and scaling.
x A strong design of floating platforms required to ensure durability against typhoons.
x Diversion of marine ecosystem and livelihood of creatures.
x At present no policy is available worldwide to encourage the deployment.

1.1.1 Solar Thermal Collectors

Solar thermal collector is the heart of the system, which captures the solar heat and transfers it to circulating
media. Commercially available solar collectors are shown in Figure–2 (a) to (f). Ayden Hakan et al., (2014)
envisaged the solar preheating and superheating added OTEC system. Yamada Noboru et al., (2009) simulated the
solar boosted OTEC system using 5000 m² flat plate collector and efficiency increased by 1.5 times. Most of the
onboard thermal energy demands consists water heating for bathing and cleaning, space heating & cooling, cooking,
preservation of foods and commodities, fisheries etc. State of the art solar collectors are capable enough to meet the
requirement efficiently.

Figure – 2 (a) Flat Plate Collector: An black
(Vinod Kumar, absorber plate is connected to a
2013) series of riser tubes, which absorb
the solar energy and transfer it to
the circulating fluid. Gain upto
80°C.
(b) Evacuated Tube: Two concentric tubes, inner
tube is coated with excellent selective absorber
coating and outer tube is highly transparent. The
passage between tubes is evacuated and ends are
fused. The sunlight passes through the outer glass
tube and absorbed by the inside tubes.
(c) Linear Fresnel Reflector: modified
form of a parabolic trough which split up
into long rows of flat/curve mirrors.
Concentrated flux is absorbed by
downward-facing fixed receiver
476 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480

Figure – 2 (d) Central Receiver: plurality of (e) Parabolic Dish: point focusing solar (f) Parabolic Trough: inside curved
(Vinod heliostats placed on ground concentrate concentrator equipped with full point reflectors in parabolic trough shape
Kumar, 2013) the solar radiation on a central receiver dual axis solar tracker. A small Stirling equipped with single axis tracking. A
placed atop a fixed tower machine or a turbine is placed at focus linear absorber is placed at focal line to
point to absorb the concentrated heat. absorb the energy.
1.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic
The biggest advantage of Solar PV system is its size, which enables it to generate microwatts to megawatts. Its
construction is rugged, simple and almost maintenance free. State of the art PV module conversion efficiency is in
the range of 15-20% commercially, but in the early 1960s and 1970s, the energy generated by PV devices during its
lifetime was less than that required for its manufacturing. Now payback period of 2-4 years and panel lifetime over
30 years has been achieved. Trapani Kim et al., (2013b) studied Novel offshore application of photovoltaics in
comparison to conventional marine renewable energy technologies and competitive performance observed.

2. Major breakthrough in Japan after Fukushima Daiichi catastrophe

March 11th, 2011 in Japan, a major earthquake occurred, and consequently a 15-metre tsunami disabled the power
supply and cooling of three reactors of Fukushima Daiichi. All three cores melted completely in the first three days.
The accident was rated 7 on the INES scale, severe radioactive releases observed in days 4 to 6. Four reactors of
capacity 2719 MWe net were written off due to damage in the accident (WNA, 2014). In order to ensure early
restoration of electricity and life on track, the Japanese Government opted to rely on the renewables by
implementing Feed-in-Tariff (FIT) programme. Under FIT the local company is required to purchase the renewable
power generated at a price fixed by the government for a period of 20 years. By the end of 2012, 7,000 MW PV
based solar plants installed and set a target of installing 5,300 MW in 2013. A long term plan to set PV based solar
plant of 28 GW by 2020 and 53 GW by 2030 are also framed so that 10% of domestic primary energy requirement
can be supplied through solar energy (power-technology, 2014). The major solar projects under construction in
Japan are a 200 MW solar plant at Tomakomai, Toshiba's 100 MW power plant in Minami Soma, Fukushima
Prefecture, a 77 MW photovoltaic power plant in Tahara City on the Atsumi Peninsula.

Figure - 3 Kagoshima Nanatsujima mega offshore solar power plant (power-technology, 2014) Figure - 4 Fractional Distillation
 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480 477

2.1 Kagoshima Nanatsujima mega solar power plant

A 70 MW Kagoshima Nanatsujima mega solar power plant is Japan's largest offshore utility-scale solar power
plant. It comprises 290,000 multi-crystalline type PV cells, equipped with 140 inverters, Opticool cooling system
The mega solar plant constructed within a record time of 14 months in November 2013 with an annual power
generation capacity of 78,800 MWh. It is estimated that the electricity generated would supply approximately 22,000
average households demand and contributes in reduction of 25,000t of CO2 per year (power-technology, 2014).

3. Ocean Energy Resources

3.1 Oil
Oil is the world’s largest primary energy source and estimates current global oil reserves around 1,650 billion
barrels. Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon compounds found in the subsurface rock. It has taken
millions of years to transform the dead plant and algae material to settle on the bottom as a thick layer of organic
material. Subsequently in the effect of heat and pressure on this sedimentation transformed it into crude oil. The
natural crude oil extracted by deep drilling is not very useful in its natural raw state. Figure – 4 showing fractional
distillation of crude oil. Heating in fraction distillation required is in the range of 20ºC to 400ºC. State of the art
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technologies are capable to generate temperature upto 3000ºC and the technology
can be deployed efficiently and economically for fraction distillation of crude oil.

3.2 Natural Gas

Generation of Natural gas is biogenic as similar as to crude oil. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons and constitutes
mainly of methane (CH4). Methane is a colorless, odorless and non-toxic gas which is lighter than air. Natural gas
recovered cannot be used readily. In order to improve the quality of the gas, processing and refining is required.

3.3 Ocean Hydropower

Global share of Hydropower in electricity production is 15% and plants are populated throughout the world. As
far as offshore hydropower is concerned, tidal and wave technology is dominated. A Tidal power project of 254 MW
in South Korea and a small Wave Energy plant of 300 kW in Spain were added in 2011. After this addition, the
commercial ocean energy capacity remained at about 527 MW by the end of 2012 dominating tidal power. (REN21
GSR, 2013). Marine-Wave and Marine-Tidal energy resources are having highest Global Levelized Cost Of Energy
LCOE in 2013 (WEC, 2013) as major cost contributes for installation, production and distribution.

3.4 Wind power

Power of wind is utilized as prime mover in electricity generation, domestic utility, small scale industries, in farm
houses, flourmills etc. since ancient time. Pinson P. et al., (2013) presented the scope of offshore wind power and
discussed the dynamic properties of wind and its effects on power generation. While selecting a site for installation
of a wind power system, a crucial term Capacity ratio is defined as the ratio of Average output over a given period
to maximum output. For excellent site location, its value is 45% or more and typically it is 20%-35%. Offshore wind
turbines are more efficient due to availability of stronger and more consistent sea breezes. Esteban M. Dolores et al.,
(2011) discussed and compared the offshore wind with the other renewable and conventional energy system. Wind
velocity increases on going away from the shore, but it also imposes difficulty in construction of structures and
foundations as well as offshore grid connections. Floating foundations have resolved the issue to some extent. For
capturing maximum power of the high wind speeds and altitude; higher hub heights and larger rotor diameters are
recommended. Annual growth of around 25% recorded over the past decade. In 2012 global share of wind power in
power generation was 2.3%, by record addition of 44 GW accounted to 282 GW in the year.

3.5 Wave and Tidal Energy

The ocean wave and tides are generated due to gravitational forces amongst the sun, earth and moon. Although
enormous energy is available in ocean waves, but slow motion waves and least concentrated energy are the
associated limitations. Large wave heights are integrated with longer wavelength and also long energy bursts time.
Natural waves are having irregular shape, size and frequency, smoothening within operating limits of the plant is
required before tapping the energy.
478 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480

3.5.1 Wave Energy

Waves are oscillating, irregular and low frequency energy source, it has to be converted into 60 Hz frequency
before connecting to electric utility grid. The wave power at Deep Ocean is 3 to 8 times stronger than that
experienced at coastal sites. Construction of strong foundation and structure in offshore is a big challenge; floating
structures and completely submerged at seabed structures are provided in such type of installations. The wave power
calculated by Holmager Morten (2010) as –
P = k.H²T ~ 0.5 H²T
where P = Power (in kW/m), k = constant, H = wave height (crest to trough) in meters, and , T = wave period
(crest to crest) in seconds. According to the formula, wave of 15 m high with 15 s wave period carry about 1700 kW
of power across each meter of wavefront. Normal value of P is about 50 kW/m; much less than above power.

3.5.2 Tidal Energy

Energy associated with moving water mass of tides is used to generate electricity. During high tide, the barrage
traps water inside a basin causing difference in pressure head outside and inside of the basin. This pressure
difference is used to drive turbine generators. The Carbon Trust reported that the LCOE for Wave Energy is in the
range of £380-480/MWh, whereas for Tidal energy it is in the range of £290-330/MWh (assumption 20 year
lifetime, 15% discount rate and the first 10 MW of similar devices have already been installed) (EOE, 2013).

3.6 Marine minerals

Oceans are the rich source for not only fuels and foods, but many more ores and minerals are also being extracted
from the seas for decades. Potential exploration of these minerals is still in its initial phase or limited to pilot
projects. Marine minerals includes:

3.6.1 Methane hydrates

Newly discovered Methane hydrates shown in Figure 5 (a), (b) & (c) being discussed as a potential future energy
source. Research reveals that immense amount of methane is available in it. It is categorized in a group of substances

3000

2000

1000

0
Hydrate Gas Oil Coal

Figure – 5 Methane Hydrate (WOR, 2010)

(a). Ice-like block with a honeycomb (b). Clathrates of Methane Hydrate (c). Carbon stored in methane hydrate and others fossil fuels
structure.
called clathrates: a crystal-like cage structure having a molecule enclosed by another type of molecules. If the cage-
forming molecule is water, it is known as Hydrate and if gas molecule is enclosed inside the water cage, it is known
as Gas hydrate, in this case methane hydrate. On seabed, low temperature and high water pressures conditions are
the best suitable environment for its formation.
Continental slopes are having vast amounts of methane hydrate in the order of 1000 to 5000 Gte, buried in
sediment deposits. This contains about 100 to 500 times more carbon emission caused due to burning of
conventional fossil fuels (WOR, 2010). Some drawbacks are also associated with the methane hydrate. Methane is
itself a greenhouse gas; and it does not escape as methane and got transformed into CO 2 which results into global
warming and acidification. Moreover it also consumes dissolved oxygen during transformation into CO2.
 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480 479

3.6.2 Manganese nodules

Manganese nodules are lumps of minerals, composed mainly of manganese, iron, silicates and hydroxides. They
grow around a crystalline nucleus with extremely slow rate about 1-3 mm/million years. It covered huge areas of the
deep sea with masses of up to 75 kg/m². It originated in the pore waters of the underlying sediments or chemically
precipitated from seawater (WOR, 2010).

4 Ocean Pollution
Rivers are the main carrier of pollutants from various sources and eventually disposed of it into the oceans.
Nations with the largest populations and the highest proportions of population living in low-lying coastal areas are
depicted in Table-1. Agricultural nutrients comprise phosphate and nitrogen compounds which could not be
absorbed by the plants during its lifecycle are conveyed to the oceans. This unwanted concentration of nutrients
results into massive proliferation of algae and subsequently dislocation of ecosystem. Untreated wastewater, rain
washes, emissions of fossil fuel combustion also increases the concentration of Nitrogen and phosphate compounds.
Table – 1 Nations with the largest populations and the highest proportions of population living in low-lying coastal areas (WOR, 2010).

Top ten nations classified by population in Top ten nations classified by proportion of
low-lying coastal regions population in low-lying coastal areas
S.N. Nation Population % of population S.N. Nation Population % of population
in low-lying in low-lying in low-lying in low-lying
coastal regions (10³) coastal regions coastal regions (10³) coastal regions
1. China 127,038 10% 1. Maldives 291 100%
2. India 63,341 6% 2. Bahamas 267 88%
3. Bangladesh 53,111 39% 3. Bahrain 501 78%
4. Indonesia 41,807 20% 4. Suriname 325 78%
5. Vietnam 41,439 53% 5. Netherlands 9590 60%
6. Japan 30,827 24% 6. Macao 264 59%
7. Egypt 24,411 36% 7. Guyana 419 55%
8. USA 23,279 8% 8. Vietnam 41,439 53%
9. Thailand 15,689 25% 9. Djibouti 250 40%
10. Philippines 15,122 20% 10. Bangladesh 53,111 39%
Countries with fewer than 100,000 inhabitants are not included. Also excluded are 15 small island states with a total of 423,000 inhabitants.

4.1 Organic pollutants

According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), approximately 100,000
different chemical substances are available in the market which may be categorized as pollutants. In addition to this,
Persistent organic pollutants (POP) are also problematical. POPs stored in fatty organs of the livestock and generate
toxic effects. They can disrupt the endocrine system, weaken the immune system and may cause cancer or genetic
diseases. They include pesticides such as DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins which are unwanted by-
products generated during manufacturing and combustion processes. Being highly stable, it is very difficult to be
degraded and eventually accumulated in the environment
for long period. WOR (2010) analyzed the CO2 emissions
from transport sector, highest CO2 emission is associated
with air freight whereas least with shipping.

4.2 Litter
The coastal regions after any storm is strewn with
garbage, like fish boxes, plastic bottles, flip-flops, light
bulbs, scraps of fishing net and timber etc. As per report of
NASA in 1997 around 6.4 million tonnes of litter disposed
of into the oceans each year (WOR, 2010). Degradation
process of many of the litter such as plastic bottles and
nylon fishing etc. takes centuries.
Figure - 6 Sources of Marine Oil Pollution
480 Vinod Kumar et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 473 – 480

4.3 Oil pollution of marine habitats

Oil spill of on oceans affects the marine habitat and ecosystem adversely. Primary source identified includes
leakages during oil extraction, illegal cleaning of tank at sea, emissions of oil burning which first absorbed in
atmosphere and subsequently discharged into the sea, or discharges transported through rivers into the sea. Figure - 6
is showing the sources of entry of oils into the sea. Better control system, identification of marine protected areas,
use of double hull tankers are the measures adopted to curb marine oil pollution. Torrey Canyon tanker disaster in
1967 in which around 115,000 tonnes of crude oil were spilled on a reef off in the southern English coast taught
many lessons.

5 Conclusions
Oceans have ample resources to serve the mankind. No energy harnessing technology is free of environmental
dislocation. Study reveals that sea level has risen by around 125 metres since end of the last ice age due to melting of
glaciers and thermal expansion of water. Present day of civilization are largely dependent on the Oil and natural gas
and more than 1/3rd quantity is produced in offshore worldwide. Its prices are increasing and reserves are dwindling,
Policy should be framed and implemented strictly for preservation of marine ecosystem, before exploration of
marine resources. Not only technical potential, but sustainable potential should also be considered while designing
an oceans engineering. The sensitive and vulnerable marine regions should be identified and to be marked as
protected zones. Oceans respond extremely slowly to change in atmosphere. Its ecosystem is being dislocated from
centuries, when severe repercussion would start appearing, restoration will also take centuries.

References
European Commission 2014, Research & Innovation – Ocean Energy [Online] available from: http://ec.europa.eu [accessed on Oct 24, 2014]
International Energy Agency 2014 ‘Energy technology initiatives – Ocean’ [Online] available from: http://www.iea.org [accessed on Oct 24, 2014].
Trapani Kim and Millar Dean L. 2013a Proposing offshore photovoltaic PV technology to the energy mix of the Maltese islands, ‘Energy
Conversion and Management’ Volume 67, March 2013, Pages 18–26
Renewables 2013 ‘Global Status Report’, [Online] available from: http://www.ren21.net [accessed on July 22, 2013].
Kreith F., Kreider J.F. 1978, ‘Principles of Solar Engineering’, New York, McGraw-Hill.
Kalogirou S.A. 2004, Solar thermal collectors and applications ‘Progress in Energy and Combustion Science’ 30 2004 231–295.
Ghaffour Noreddine, Bundschuh Jochen, Mahmoudi Hacene and Goosen Mattheus F.A. 2014, Renewable energy-driven desalination technologies:
A comprehensive review on challenges and potential applications of integrated systems, ‘Desalination’ Available online 24 Oct 2014.
Skoplaki E, Palyvos JA. On the temperature dependent of photovoltaic module electrical performance: a review of effective/power correlations. Sol
Energy 2009;83:614–24.
Aydin Hakan, Lee Ho-Saeng, Kim Hyeon-Ju, Shin Seung Kyoon and Park Keunhan 2014, Off-design performance analysis of a closed-cycle ocean
thermal energy conversion system with solar thermal preheating and superheating ‘Renewable Energy’ Volume 72, Dec 2014, Pages 154–163.
Yamada Noboru, Hoshi Akira and Ikegami Yasuyuki 2009 Performance simulation of solar-boosted ocean thermal energy conversion plant,
‘Renewable Energy’ Volume 34, Issue 7, July 2009, Pages 1752–1758.
Vinod Kumar, Shrivastava R.L. and Untawale S.P., Solar Heating for Industrial Process Heat: Step Towards Eco-friendly and Sustainable
Technology, International Conference on Industrial Engineering IIIE, Surat, 20-22 Nov’2013.
World Energy Council 2013 World Energy Resources - 2013 Survey, [Online] available from: http://www.worldenergy.org [accessed on Oct 14, ‘14]
World Nuclear Association 2014 ‘Fukushima Accident’ [Online] available from: http://www.world-nuclear.org/ [accessed on Oct 14, 2014]
Trapani Kim, Millar Dean L., Smith Helen C.M. 2013b, Novel offshore application of photovoltaics in comparison to conventional marine
renewable energy technologies, ‘Renewable Energy’ Volume 50, February 2013, Pages 879–888.
Power Technology 2014, Kagoshima Nanatsujima Mega Solar Power Plant, Japan, [Online] available from: http://www.power-technology.com/
[accessed on Oct 14, 2014]
World Nuclear Association - WNA, 2014 [Online] available from: http://www.world-nuclear.org/ [accessed on Oct 14, 2014]
Holmager Morten 2010 Offshore Book - An introduction to the off shore industry, Offshore Center Danmark, [Online] available from:
www.offshorecenter.dk/ [accessed on Oct 14, 2014]
Pinson P., Giebel G and Clausen N.E. 2013, Renewable Energy Resources – Onshore/Offshore Wind Energy, ‘Reference Module in Earth Systems
and Environmental Sciences’ 2013, Pages 53–64 Volume 3: Vulnerability of Energy to Climate.
Esteban M. Dolores, Diez J. Javier, , López Jose S. and Negro Vicente 2011 Why offshore wind energy?, ‘Renewable Energy’ Volume 36, Issue 2,
February 2011, Pages 444–450
European Ocean Energy 2013, ‘INDUSTRY VISION PAPER 2013’ [Online] available from: www.oceanenergy-europe.eu [accessed on Oct14, 2014]
Menicou Michalis and Vassiliou Vassos (2010), Prospective energy needs in Mediterranean offshore aquaculture: Renewable and sustainable energy
solutions, ‘Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews’ Volume 14, Issue 9, December 2010, Pages 3084–3091