Experiment No:1

VERNIER CALLIPER

AIM

To measure the inner diameter and inner height of the given object and hence calculate its
volume

APPARATUS

Vernier calliper and the given object.

DIAGRAM

FORMULA

➢ Least count of the vernier calliper = Value of one main scale division
Total number of divisions on vernier scale

➢ Volume = πr2h

4
PROCEDURE

1. Find out the least count of the Vernier caliper and the zero error by closing the jaws
completely.
2. Determine the internal diameter of the given object by using the upper jaws of Vernier
caliper.
3. Determine the inner height with the help of the strip which is at the end of the main scale.
4. Note fine reading for diameter and find their mean value

OBSERVATIONS

Value of main scale division =

Total number of divisions on vernier scale = ---------

Least count of the vernier caliper = Value of main scale division

Total number of divisions on vernier scale

= cm

Zero error = ----------divisions

Zero correction = ----------divisions

OBSERVATION TABLE

1. Readings for the inner diameter of the given object

S. No MSR (cm) VSR TOTAL MEAN

(divisions) MSR+(VSR*L.C) (cm)
(cm)

5
 2. Readings for the inner height of the given object

S. No MSR (cm) VSR TOTAL = MSR + MEAN

(divisions) (VSR x L.C) (cm)
(cm)

CACULATIONS

Volume of the object = πr2h

= -----------m3

RESULT

1. Inner diameter of the given object = -------------m

2. Inner height of the given object = -------------m
3. Volume of the object = ------------- m3

VIVA VOCE

1. What is a vernier calipers? Why is it so called?

Ans. It is an instrument used to measure small length, ie fractions of a millimeter
Accurately. It was invented by French Mathematician Pierre Vernier. Thus
This instrument is called Callipers.
2. What is meant by least count (LC) of a measuring instrument?
Ans The least count of a measuring instrument is smallest value of physical quantity
Which can be measured by the instrument.
3. What is meant by zero error of Vernier calipers?
Ans On bridging the jaws of Vernier calipers in contact with each other, the zero of the
Vernier scale in some instruments does not coincide with the zero of the main scale.
Such instruments are said to possess a zero error.
6
 4. When is zero error positive and when is it negative?
Ans When Vernier scale zero is right to the zero of main scale, it is positive and when
Vernier scale zero is left to the zero of main scale zero, error is negative.
5. Why is Vernier scale used?
Ans To increase the accuracy of measurement.
6. What is Vernier constant?
Ans The difference between the values of one main scale, division and one vernier scale
Division is called vernier constant.
7. What is principle of vernier scale?
Ans The number of vernier division i.e 10 divisions are exactly equal to 9 main scale
Division. i e., 10 V.S.D, = 9 M. S. D.
8. What is zero error?
Ans If zero of main scale does not coincide with zero of vernier scale when the two jaws of
the vernier calipers touch each other, the instrument is said to have zero errors.
(Shown in fig below).

3rd Div. coinciding

9. What is a zero correction? How is it applied?
Ans Negative of zero error is called zero correction and it is added to the observed or
Calculated value.
10. What is relation between least count and vernier constant?
Ans They are equal for vernier calipers.

7
Experiment No:2

SCREW GAUGE -1

AIM

To measure the diameter of the given wire and thickness of a given sheet using screw gauge.

APPARATUS

Screw gauge, wire, Plane mirror and scale

DIAGRAM

FORMULA

➢ Least count = pitch / number of divisions on the circular scale.

PROCEDURE

1. Calculate the least count by dividing the pitch of the screw by the number of divisions on
the circular scale
2. To find the zero error, completely close the screw gauge till there is one tick of the
instrument then note the reading.
8
 3. Place the wire /the given sheet in between the jaws and find out the main scale reading and
circular scale reading
4. Multiply the CSR by least count and add it to the PSR to get total reading

PRECAUTIONS

1. While taking an observation, the screw must always be turned only in one direction so as to
avoid backlash error
2. The wire must be straight and free from kinks
3. Always rotate the screw by the ratchet and stop as soon as it gives one tick sound only

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Backlash error affects results considerably.

2. The graduation on the scale may not be evenly marked.
3. Circular scale may not be evenly marked.
4. The wire may not be uniform.
5. The screw may have friction.

OBSERVATIONS

Pitch of the screw = -------------------- mm

No. of divisions on the circular scale = ----------- div
Least count = ------------- mm
Zero error = --------------
Zero correction = ----- -----
Length of the wire = -----------cm

1.Reading for diameter of the wire

S. No PSR CSR TOTAL READING =PSR +
(mm) (CORRECTED CSR * L.C)
OBSERVED CORRECTED
mm
(divisions) (divisions)

Mean diameter = ----------- mm

Radius of the wire = --------- mm
9
 2.Reading for thickness of the sheet

SN PSR (mm) CSR TOTAL

READING =PSR +
OBSERVED CORRECTED (CORRECTED
(Divisions) (divisions) CSR x L.C) mm

Thickness of the given sheet = ------mm = ------cm

CALCULATIONS

Radius of wire = ----------------- cm

Thickness of the wire= -----------cm

RESULT

1. Diameter of the given wire = m

2. Thickness of the given sheet = ------mm = ------cm

10
Experiment No:4

SPHEROMETER

AIM
To measure the radius of curvature of a spherical surface (convex mirror) by using a
spherometer.

APPARATUS
A spherometer, a plane glass plate and spherical surface convex mirror.

DIAGRAM

THEORY
Least Count of screw gauge = pitch
= -------mm
Total number of divisions on the circular scale

Radius of curvature R=

Where l is the mean distance between the legs of spherometer and h is the height of the central
screw above the surface.

PROCEDURE
1. Determine the pitch and the least count of spherometer as explained.
2. Place the spherometer on the plane glass plate so that the three legs rest on it.
3. Now take the spherometer and place it on the convex surface of the mirror. Adjust the
screw in such a way that its tip just touches the spherical surface.
15
 4. Note and record the number of the division on the circular scale which lies in line with
5. the pitch scales. Let it be a
6. Remove the convex mirror from its position and let three legs of the spherometer rest on
the plane glass plate. Turn the screw downward and count the number of complete
rotations(n). Do this till the screw touches the surface of the slab.
7. Note the reading on the circular scale. Let it b
8. Find the number of circular scale divisions.
Repeat the procedure for 3 to 4 times on different positions.
9. Remove the spherometer from the glass plate-convex mirror system and place it on your
fair practical record. Press the knob of the spherometer screw al- little hard so that the
impressions of all the tips of its three legs are obtained as point A, B, C.
10. Join the points and measure the distance between the points and label it as ‘l’.
11. Note the readings in table and do the calculation.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Screw of the spherometer screw should turn smoothly and the legs of the spherometer are
not shaky.
2. The size of the convex mirror and the glass plate should be large enough so that all the three
legs of the spherometer can rest on it simultaneously.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The screw may not have the threads accurately cut & as a result of it, the pitch may not be
constant at different places on the screw.
2. The graduations on the circular and the pitch scale may not be uniform

OBSERVATION:

Pitch p = ------mm

Least count = = --------mm = -------------cm

l= = -------cm

16
 Spherometer readings

With spherical surface

S. No Pitch scale Circular scale Circular scale reading Spherometer reading with
reading division coinciding Z= Y* LC (mm) spherical surface
X (mm) with pitch scale Y H1 = X + Y(mm)

Spherometer readings

Horizontal plane surface

S. No Pitch scale Circular Circular scale Spherometer H = H1-H2

reading scale reading Z’= Y’* reading with (mm)
X’(mm) division LC (mm) plane surface
coinciding H2 = X’ + Z’(mm)
with pitch
scale Y’
(div)

Mean H = ------------mm = …………cm

CALCULATIONS
A
l=

R = l2 + h = -----------cm
6h 2
B C

17
RESULT
The radius of curvature of given spherical surface of the convex mirror = ………. cm
VIVA VOCE

Q 1. What is a spherometer? Why is it called a spherometer?

Ans. It is device based on the principle of a micrometer screw and is generally used to
measure the radius of curvature of the spherical surfaces as well as small thickness.
Q 2. What do you mean by the least count of the spherometer?
Ans. It is the linear distance moved by the screw when the disc is rotated through only
One division. It is determined by dividing the pitch by the number of divisions on the
circular scale.
Q 3. Define pitch of the spherometer?
Ans. It is the linear distance moved by the screw when the disc is moved through one
complete rotation.
Q 4. What is a zero error of a spherometer? When is the zero-error positive or negative?
Ans. Place the spherometer in such a way that the three legs and the central screw touch
the same plane. Now if the zero of the circular scale does not coincide with the zero
the pitch scale, it is said to have zero error.
If the zero of the circular scale remains above zero of the main scale the error is
said to be positive and if it lies below the zero of the main scale, the error is
negative.
Q 5. Is it necessary to determine zero error of a spherometer?
Ans. No. it is not necessary because the difference between initial and final readings
eliminates zero error.
Q 6. Why are there three legs in the spherometer?
Ans. It has three legs firstly for stable equilibrium and secondly to represent a place for
which at least three points are required.
Q 7. What is the curvature and radius of curvature of a plane surface?
Ans. The curvature of a plane surface is zero and radius of curvature is infinity.
Q 8. Can we measure the radius of curvature of Earth by spherometer? Explain your
Answer.
Ans. No. we cannot because it is too large and the surface between the spherometer will be
Practically a plane surface.
Q 9. How can the accuracy of the spherometer be increased?
Ans. The accuracy can be increased by making the least count smaller and that can be
Achieved either by decreasing pitch or by taking a large disc with greater number
Of division on it.
Q 10. Which is more accurate: a vernier calipers, a screw gauge or a spherometer?
Ans. The instrument with the smallest least count will be more accurate, i.e., screw gauge
Or a spherometer.

18
Experiment No:6

SIMPLE PENDULUM-2

AIM:

To study the effect of change in (i) mass of the bob and (ii) the size of the bob on time period of
a simple pendulum.

APPARATUS

Clamp and stand arrangement, a split cork (along the length through the middle) wooden block,
metallic blocks of different shapes and mass, meter scale, stop watch.

FORMULA USED

The time period T of a simple pendulum for small angular amplitudes is given by

T= 2π√l/g
Where l is the length of the pendulum, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

PREREQUISITES

Simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of
an inextensible and massless string. A practical simple pendulum has a heavy brass bob
suspended with the help of a thin strong cotton thread.

23
 Effective length of a simple pendulum is the distance between point of a suspension and
center of a gravity of the metallic bob. It is denoted by L, where L= l+h+r, where l – length
of the thread, h- length of the hook, and r- radius of the metallic bob.
PROCEDURE: -
1. Take two objects of different masses say wooden block and metallic block.
2. Fix the effective length of simple pendulum at 60 cm.
3. Find the time period of oscillation for wooden block and metallic bob for the length of
60cm.
4. Draw the mass time-period graph.
5. Take two objects of different shapes.
6. Find the diameter of these two objects of different shapes using Vernier caliper.
7. Find the time-period of oscillation of these objects for a fixed length of 60cm.
8. Plot the diameter-time period graph.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Use an accurate stopwatch having small least count.
2. Start counting oscillations by saying zero and be cautions in starting and stopping the
watch at proper positions of the bottle.
3. The oscillation should be small amplitude (not more than 4cm)
4. The bob should be displaced gently so that it may oscillate in a straight line. It should not
make any conical or spin motion.
5. The experiment should be performed at a place free from air currents, etc. Switch off the
fans while taking observations.
6. The iron stand with long rod and heavy base should be used.
7. Lower face of the split cork should remain plane. The slot should be kept exactly at right
angle to the plane of oscillations.
8. The effective length of the pendulum should be taken from the lower face of the cork to
the center of the bob.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. It is very difficult to obtain an ideal simple pendulum or perfect experimental set. up I e ,
massless inextensible perfectly rigid point of suspension and accurately known effective
length.
2. Personal error cannot be avoided in the starting and stopping of the stop clock/watch.
3. Effect of air currents be eliminated completely.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of the meter scale = ……………….cm

Least count of stopwatch =…………. s

24
 1. TABLE TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN MASS ON THE TIME
PERIOD OF PENDULUM.

S. No Object Effective Mass (g) Time for 10 Time taken

Length (cm) oscillations T = t/10(s)

1 Metallic bob 1 60

2 Metallic bob 2 60

2. TABLE TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN SIZE ON THE TIME

PERIOD OF PENDULUM

S. No Object Diameter of Effective Length Time for 10 Time taken

the object (cm) oscillations T = t/10(s)
(cm)

1 Big bob 60

2 Small bob 60

PLOT THE GRAPH

(i) T versus m, taking time period along y- axis against their corresponding
value of mass m of the suspended mass m at x- axis.
(ii) In both the cases the graph obtained is parallel to x- axis.

RESULT

From the graph it is evident that there is no appreciable change in the time period with the
change in:
(i) mass of the bob (ii) size of the bob.

25
 VIVA VOCE

Q1. What is a simple pendulum?

Ans. A simple pendulum is defined as a heavy point mass suspended by a
weightless inextensible and perfectly flexible string. Galileo discovered it
Q2. Can we have a perfect simple pendulum as a defined?
Ans. No. because it is impossible to have a weightless inextensible and
Perfectly flexible string.
Q3. What is the length of a pendulum?
Ans. It is the total length from the point of suspension to the center of gravity
Of the bob.
Q4. What is the time period?
Ans. It is the time taken by a body to complete one oscillation or rotation.
Q5. Define simple harmonic motion?
Ans. It is the periodic motion in which acceleration is proportional to the
displacement and is always directed towards the man position.
Q6. Define Amplitude?
Ans. It is the maximum displacement of the bob on either side of its mean
Position.
Q7. Why should we use a heavy bob and why should the bob the smaller in Size?
Ans. If bob is heavy then the restoring force which brings the bob back to its
Mean position is large enough to overcome the resistance due to air and
Bigger size will cause more resistance due to air.
Q8. Why should the amplitude be small?
Ans. Because while deriving the formula for the time period we assume that
Sin 0= 0 which can be true only when the amplitude is small.
Q9. What is the difference between gravity and acceleration?
Ans. The force with which the body is attracted towards the center of the
Earth is generally called gravity while acceleration produced in an
Object due to earth’s gravity is called acceleration due to gravity.
Q10. How does ‘g’ vary with height, depth or due to rotation of the earth
About its axis?
Ans. It decreases with height with depth and due to rotational motion of the
Earth.

26
Experiment No:7

SPRING CONSTANT

AIM

To find the spring constant of a helical spring from the load extension graph.

APPARATUS
A helical spring, meter scale, clamp stand, lightweight pointer, weighing pan and weight box

DIAGRAM

THEORY
A spring is an elastic body. When it is deformed due to application of force, it develops some
restoring force, which can be expressed as,
F = -kl. …………………… (1)
Where F = restoring force
K = spring constant
L = linear extension or compression

27
If a helical spring is vertically suspended, it would develop linear extension [l] upon loading
with some mass [m]. With in elastic limit of the spring, the restoring force would remain equal to
the deforming force. Therefore,

F = -mg ……………… (2)

From (1) and (2)

-kl = -mg

l = [1/k]mg …………………. (3)

This equation represents a straight line between extension on Y axis and load, mg on X axis.
slope of this straight line is [1/k] and intercept is zero.

PROCEDURE

1. Take a pointer and the weighing pan to a beam balance and find their masses together.
Let it be denoted by m0.
2. Vertically suspend the given spring from rod of the clamp. Attach the pointer as well.
3. Attach the weighing pan to free end of the suspended spring. Let the spring come to rest,
now take the pointer reading
4. Start loading the pan and note the readings of the extension corresponding to every value
of load added. Unload the spring and note the readings.
5. Taking extension on Y axis and load on the spring on X-axis, plot a graph. Determine the
slope, S and hence find the spring constant k = 1/S

OBSERVATIONS

S. No Mass loaded Position of the pointer [cm] Extension for a load of. -----
[gm] Loading Unloading Mean gm

GRAPH

X –co-ordinate – load on the spring = W

Y- co-ordinate – extension of the spring = l

28
CALCULATIONS
Slope of the straight-line portion of the graph, S = [L2-L1]
[W2-W1]
=CB/AC
S = …………………………. Cm /dyne

spring constant k = 1/S = ……………………. dyne/cm

RESULT

The given spring has a spring constant

K = ……………………… dyne /cm = ………………N/m

VIVA VOCE

Q1. What is elasticity?

Ans. The property of a body by virtue of which it regains its original shape
Or size when the deforming force is removed, is known as elasticity.
Q2. What are: (i) Elastic bodies, and (ii) Plastic bodies?
Ans. Bodies which regain their original shape and size after the removal of
Deforming forces are called perfectly elastic bodies and those which do
Not attain their original shape and size after the removal of deforming
Forces are called plastic bodies.
Q3. What is spring constant?
Ans. Restoring force per unit extension of the spring is known as spring
Constant or force constant.
Q4. What is the SI unit of force constant?
Ans. Nm-1.
Q5. What kind of motion is executed by a loaded spring?
Ans. Simple harmonic motion.
Q6. How can we prove that the motion of a body is S.H.M.?
Ans. If the acceleration of the body is directly proportional to its displacement
From mean position with a negative sign, then the motion of the body
Will be S.H.M. that is if a x-y.
Q7. If two springs are identical in all aspects expects the diameter of wire,
Which one of the two will have higher value of force constant?
Ans. One. Which is made of bigger diameter wire.
Q8. Name the three-elastic constant?
Ans. Young’s modulus, Bulk Modulus, and Modulus of rigidity.
Q9. What is the restoring force?
Ans. The force which always tries to bring the oscillating body to its mean
Position is called restoring force. It is always directed towards mean
Position and is proportional to the displacement of body from mean
Position.
Q10. On what factors value of ‘k’ depend?
Ans. ON nature of spring, i e., dimension, material used.
29
Experiment No:8

SURFACE TENSION 1

AIM
To find the surface tension of water by capillary rise method

APPARATUS
A capillary tube of uniform bore, capillary tube holder fitted with fine threading screw type
needle, adjustable height stand, suitable Petri dish, traveling microscope and a clamp stand.

Inner diameter

THEORY
The surface tension of a liquid showing ascent or descent in a capillary tube is given by
S = rhρg /2
h= ascent or descent of a liquid in the capillary tube
r= radius of the capillary tube
ρ=density of the liquid
30
g= acceleration due to gravity
PROCEDURE
1. Take a clear glass petri dish. Place it on the stand. Clamp the capillary tube holder above
the dish such a way that the lower ends not touching the base of the dish
2. Place the traveling microscope in front of the dish stand, adjust the heights
3. Carefully pour water in petri dish to fill it up to the brim. Lower the screw needle so that
its tip starts touching the water level
4. Take readings of water level of petri dish as indicated by the tip of the needle and of the
column in the capillary
5. Take out the capillary tube from the stand and clamp it horizontally. Now find the inner
diameter of the tube.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The capillary tube should have a uniform bore
2. If the capillary tube has some deposits in it then it should be cleaned with mild acidic
solution
3. The capillary tube should be fixed in a vertical position
4. The tip of the screw needle should just touch the water surface.

OBSERVATIONS

Value of main scale division= cm

Total number of divisions on vernier scale= div
Least count= cm

Height of the water column in the capillary tube (h)

S.NO Microscope reading at Height Mean height

Tip of the needle p (cm) The meniscus of water q (cm) p-q (cm) (cm)

MSR VSR TOTAL MSR VSR TOTAL

(cm) (div) MSR+ (VSRXL.C) (cm) (div) MSR+ (VSRXL.C)
cm
(cm)

31
Internal Diameter of the capillary tube

Horizontal Diameter(cm) Vertical diameter(cm) Diameter Mean

S. NO (cm) Diameter
(cm)
MSR VSR TOTAL MSR VSR TOTAL
(cm) (div) MSR+ (VSRXL.C) (cm) (div) MSR+ (VSRXL.C) A-B =
(cm) (cm)
A= E=
E-F =
B= F=

1. Mean diameter = --------------- cm

2. Radius r = cm = m
3. Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m 3

4. Acceleration due to gravity g = m/s2

Result: -

Surface tension of the water S= rhρg/2 = N/m

VIVA VOCE

Q1. What do you mean by surface tension?

Ans. The surface of very liquid behaves as an elastic stretched membrane
always trying to contract, his tension or pull in the surface of a liquid
is called Surface Tension and it is measured as force acting per unit
length normally on an imaginary line drawn on liquid surface.
Q2. What is surface energy?
Ans. The work done in enlarging the surface of a liquid by unit amount
under isothermal conditions is called surface energy.
Q3. Are surface tension and surface energy related to each other?
Ans. Yes, they are numerically equal to each other.
Q4. What is the unit and dimension of surface tension?
Ans. Unit = Nm-1 and dimensions [M1 L0 T-2]
Q5. What is the force of cohesion and of adhesion?
Ans. Force acting between atoms or molecules of same substance is called
force of cohesion. Force acting between atoms of different substance is
called force of adhesion.

32
Experiment No:10

SONOMETER 2

AIM
To find the unknown frequency of the tuning fork using sonometer.

APPARATUS
A sonometer, tuning forks, rubber pad and a paper rider.

FORMULA

The frequency of fundamental mode of vibration of a vibrating string is inversely proportional to

its length.

For a constant tension on the string.

ν  1/1
i. e νl is a constant

ν1 = νl / l1
ν is the unknown frequency and l1 is resonant length.
1

PROCEDURE

1. Cut v- shaped rider and place it at the middle point on the wire between the wedges.
2. Vibrate the tuning fork and touch the lower end of its handle with sonometer board. The
wire vibrates due to resonance and paper rider falls.
3. Note the length of the wire and record it.
4. Repeat the experiment with the other tuning forks by adjusting the length of the wire
between the two wedges till the paper rider falls.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The sonometer wire should have a uniform cross section.

2. The vibrating tuning fork must be placed very gently on sonometer
3. Avoid air currents which may help the rider to fly off the string.
4. Riders should be made of thin paper sheets.

36
SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The sonometer wire may not have a uniform cross section.

2. Riders may be too thick.

OBSERVATIONS

SN FREQUENCE OF RESONANCE LENGTH νl

TUNING FORK(ν) OF WIRE (l)
(Hz) (cm)
1.
2.

CALCULATIONS

ν1 = ν l / l1

RESULT

Frequency of given tuning fork = Hz

VIVA VOCE

Q1. How is sound produced?

Ans. Sound is produced due to vibration of a body.
Q2. Can sound travel in vacuum?
Ans. Sound can not travel in vacuum. A material medium is necessary for its
Propagation.
Q3. What is the nature of sound waves?
Ans. They are elastic and longitudinal waves.
Q4. What is a wave motion?
Ans. It is the periodical disturbance of the particles of the medium which
Causes transfer of energy from one place of medium to other without
Transfer of particles of medium between the two points.
Q5. Define simple harmonic motion?
Ans. A kind of oscillating motion for which acceleration of the particle is
always proportional to its displacement from mean position and
is always directed towards the mean position.
37
Q6. What is an amplitude?
Ans. The maximum displacement of the vibrating particle on either
Side of its mean position is called its amplitude.
Q7. What are the types of Wave Motion?
Ans. (i) Transverse wave motion, (2) Longitudinal wave motion.
Q8. What is the transverse wave?
Ans. It is a wave in which is the particle of the medium vibrate along a
Direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
Wave.
Q9. What is the longitudinal wave?
Ans. A wave in which the individual particles of the medium vibrate
back and forth along the direction of propagation of the wave is
called a longitudinal wave moon.
Q10. Define wavelength.
Ans. The distance between two nearest particles of medium vibrating in
the same phase is called wavelength.

38
Experiment No:11

COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY
AIM:
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring the
terminal velocity of a given spherical body.

APPARATUS
A tall cylinder about one meter high, rubber cork, a small glass tube, lead balls of different
sizes, stopwatch, gummed paper, meter rod, thermometer and glycerin.
DIAGRAM

THEORY

According to Stoke's law, when a sphere of radius r is allowed to fall freely in a liquid of
viscosity n, it acquired a uniform terminal velocity v, which is given by the relation,
F=6π r η ν
39
Where F is the viscous force acting on the sphere. In the steady state, F is equal to the net
downward force i.e.

F= weight of the sphere-buoyant force on the surface i.e, weight of the volume of the liquid
displaced by the sphere.
Therefore, F= 4/3 * π r3 (ρ-σ) g

where ρ is the density of the material of the sphere, σ is the density of the liquid, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Hence

6πγην = 4/3*πr3 (ρ-σ) g

ν= 2r2 (-)g
9

Stoke's law holds good only (i) if the size of the sphere is greater than the space between the
molecules of the liquid and (ii) if the liquid is of infinite extent (iii) the velocity should be less
than the critical velocity.

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of the lead ball by using the screw gauge.
2. Dip the ball in small quantity of glycerin and drop it in the glass jar containing glycerin.
As soon as the ball passes down the first mark, start the stopwatch and stop it when it
reaches the second mark.
3. Calculate the velocity of the sphere. Repeat the experiment for different sizes of lead
balls.
4. From the above formula coefficient of viscosity () can be calculated.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The lead shots should be small. Their diameters should be measured by a screw gauge.
2. The lead shots should be dropped gently.
3. The falling lead shots should not touch the walls of the glass tubes.
4. The liquid should be highly viscous.
5. The temperature of the liquid should be noted as the viscosity of the liquid changes
appreciably with change of temperature.
6. Lead is soft material. Care should be taken while measuring, its diameter that it is not
compressed by the screw gauge.

OBSERVATIONS

Least count of stop clock = --------------s

40
Least count of reading on jar = -----------cm
Least count of screw gauge = -------------cm
Density of steel (p) = 7.7 x 103kg / m3
Density of liquid (σ) = 1.3 x103kg / m3

Table for terminal velocity

S.no Distance between Time taken by steel shot to travel the Velocity ‘v’
paper marks (cm) distance (sec) (cm /s)
t1 t2 mean t = (t1 + t2) / 2

Table for radius of steel balls

S.no Diameter of steel ball Mean d Mean radius

d = PSR + (CSR X LC) mm d= mm r = mm

CALCULATIONS

Put the observed values of v, r, σ and g in

 = .

RESULT:

The coefficient of viscosity of liquid at temperature -----------0C = ----------Decca poise

41
 VIVA VOCE

Q. 1. What do you mean by viscosity?

Ans. The property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its
different layers are known as viscosity.
Q. 2. Is there any effect of temperature on the coefficient of viscosity of liquids?
Ans. The coefficient of viscosity decreases with rise in temperature.
Q. 3. What is the effect of pressure on coefficient of viscosity?
Ans. The coefficient of viscosity increases with rise of pressure.
Q. 4. What is meant by coefficient of viscosity?
Ans. The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the viscous force acting per unit area between
two adjacent layers moving with unit velocity gradient.

Q. 5. Does the flow of a liquid depend only on its viscosity?

Ans. For velocities well below the critical velocity, the rate of flow is governed by the viscosity
and is independent of density. For higher velocities, however, it depends to a far greater
extent on the density than on the viscosity.
Q. 6. On what factors does the rate of flow of a liquid through a capillary tube depend?
Ans. It depends upon (i) pressure difference p, (ii) radius of capillary tube ‘r’, (iii) length of
capillary tube ‘l’, and viscosity of the liquid.
Q. 7. What is Stoke’s law and what are its limitations?
Ans. According to Stoke’s law, for a body of radius a, moving through a fluid of viscosity h with
a velocity v, the viscous drag is given by
F=6π r η ν

This law holds for an infinite extent of a viscous fluid. In general, in experiments this
condition is not satisfied due to finite dimensions of the container. In that case the following
two corrections are applied to the terminal velocity.

Q.8. What is value of coefficient of viscosity of air?

Ans. The value of coefficient of viscosity of air at 20º C is 18.1 × 10 -5poise.

42
 ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY-1


To make a paper scale of given least count: (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 0.5 cm.

APPARATUS
Thick ivory/drawing sheet; white paper sheet; pencil; sharpener; eraser; metre scale (ruler); fine
tipped black ink or gel pen.

PROCEDURE

(A) Paper scale of least count 0.2 cm

1. Fold a white paper sheet in the middle along lengthwise.

2. Mark in the upper half along the length a line PQ 15 cm long by a sharp pencil
(Fig. A).
3. Take P as zero-mark points on PQ at a distance of 1.0 cm and write as 0,1, 2,
……up to 15.
4. Mark the vertical lines to line PQ at the position of each mark 0, 1, 2,……up to 15.

46
 5. Draw another sharp line RS which is parallel to PQ at a distance of 8 mm.
6. Draw another line XY parallel to PQ at a distance of about 25 mm. And complete
the rectangle ABXY.
7. Now divide each 1.0 cm interval into five equal divisions on PQ by marking points
at every interval of 2 mm. Mark these points up to 15 cm mark.
8. Now draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on each of the
point which is separated by 2 mm.
9. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.
10. Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen, and write 1, 2,……15 at each
cm mark.
11. Cut the rectangular scale by a sharp paper cutter and paste it on a thick ivory sheet
and cut the sheet along the boundary of the rectangle with the help of scissors.
12. Paper scale of least count 0.2 mm and of the range of 15 cm is ready.

(B) Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm

1. Repeat steps 1 to 6 as in part A of the above activity.

2. Divide each 1.0 cm interval into two equal divisions on PQ by marking points at
every interval of 5 mm and mark these points up to 15 cm mark (Fig. B).
3. Draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on each of the point
which is separated by 5 mm.
4. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.
5. Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen and write 1, 2…….15 at each
cm mark.
6. Repeat the step 11 as in part A of the Activity 1.
7. Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm and of the range of 15 cm is ready.

RESULT

1. The scales of the least count 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm have been made.

ACTIVITY-2

AIM:
To determine the mass of a given body using a meter scale by principle of moments.

APPARATUS:
A meter scale, a known mass, an unknown mass, wedge, a thread.

47
THEORY:

Principle of moments: When the meter scale is balanced with the message suspended on
either side of the meter scale, then the moment of the mass on left side is equal to the to the
moment of the mass on right side.
If M1 is the known mass and d1 is its distance from the balance position,
i e, wedge, M2 is the known mass and d2 is its distance from the balance position.

Moment of mass, M2 = Moment of mass. M1

M2 d2 = M1 d1
M2 = M1d1/ d2

PROCEDURE:

1. Take a uniform scale AB with centimeter marks on it. Place it on a

a. Sharp edged wooden wedge and balance it to be perfectly horizontal.
2. Take known mass comparable with the unknown mass.
3. Suspend the known mass at one side of meter scale using a light cotton thread and note
down its position, and the unknown mass at the other side of the meter scale and note
down its position.

Determining the mass of a body by using a known standard mass and meter scale
(a) Balance this scale on the wedge
(b) Note the position of the wedge
(c) Repeat the procedure by changing the position of the known mass.
(d) Take at least four readings.

48
PRECAUTION:
(i) The mass to, be measured should not bend the meter scale while balancing.
(ii) wedge should be sharp.
(iii) There should not be much difference between the known and unknown masses.
(iv) Half meter scale should be used to perform the experiment for better results.

OBSERVATION:

Position of the centre of gravity of the uniform meter scale at point C = ………cm

S.no Position of Distance Known Position Distance Unknown

unknown CP = d2 mass w1(g) of known CQ = d1 mass of
mass ‘p’ (cm) mass Q (cm) the given
(cm) (cm) body(g)

Verification by physical Balance:

The unknown mass of the given body as obtained by physical balance = …...g

RESULT:
Mass of the given body using a meter scale is found to be = …... g

ACTIVITY-3

SURFACE TENSION 2

AIM:
To study the effect of detergent on surface tension by observing capillary rise.

APPARATUS AND METERIALS

A capillary tube, few beakers, few dishes, adjustable table, a clamp stand, a glass plate, a
travelling microscope, a thermometer a needle, a rubber band and few detergents
49
THEORY
When we add detergent to water the cohesive force between water molecules is greatly reduced.
Hence surface tension of water is also reduced.

When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid the capillary rise of the liquid in a capillary tube is
given by h = ,where S is surface tension, r is the radius of capillary tube and ρ is the density
of liquid.
Also,
h = (constant) S i.e., h ∞ S

Hence, capillary rise is directly proportional to the surface tension.

If rise of water and rise of detergent solution is observed through a capillary tube, it will be
observed that rise will be less in case of detergent solution. If quantity of detergent in the
solution is increased the rise of detergent solution in the capillary tube will be still lesser.

DIAGRAM

Inner diameter

PROCEDURE

1 Arrange the experimental set up as discussed for EXP 8.

2 Use one clean and dry capillary tube for this experiment.
3 Keep pure water in an open dish with flat bottom. Lower the screw needle so as to make
its tip just touching water surface.
4 Note the reading water column in the capillary tube. This will be capillary rise in case of
pure water.
5 Remove dish containing pure water and keep the other dish containing detergent solution.
6 Again, note the reading of the level of detergent solution in capillary tube. This will be
capillary rise in case of detergent solution.
50
PRECAUTIONS
1. The capillary tube should have a uniform bore
2. If the capillary tube has some deposits in it then it should be cleaned with mild acidic
solution
3. The capillary tube should be fixed in a vertical position
4. The tip of the screw needle should just touch the water surface
5. The capillary tube should be thoroughly cleaned and rinsed in distilled water before
dipping into a fresh detergent solution.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of the travelling microscope = …... cm

Table for capillary rise

1. Height of the water column in the capillary tube (h)

S. No Microscope reading at Height Mean

Tip of the needle p (cm) The meniscus of water q (cm) p-q (cm) height
(cm)

MSR VSR TOTAL (cm) MSR TOTAL (cm)

(cm) (div) MSR+ (VSRxL.C) (cm) VSR MSR+ (VSRXL.C)
(cm)
(cm) (div)

2. Height of the detergent column in the capillary tube (h)

S. No Microscope reading at Height Mean height

Tip of the needle p (cm) The meniscus of water q (cm) p-q (cm) (cm)

MSR VSR TOTAL MSR VSR TOTAL

(cm) (div) MSR+ (cm) (div) MSR+ (VSRXL.C)
(cm)
(VSRxL.C) (cm)

51
RESULT

The presence of detergent in pure water reduces capillary rise and hence, reduces its surface
tension.

ACTIVITY-4

AIM
To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square of
amplitude and time.

APPARATUS
A pendulum bob, a split cork, thread, meter scale, a clamp stand, stopwatch, and chalk piece.

THEORY
If a body executes S.H.M., the force F acting on the body is always directly proportional to the
displacement x, i.e.,

where k is a constant called force constant (spring constant). Negative sign represents the
direction of F toward the mean position.

DIAGRAM
52
When the bob of simple pendulum oscillates, its amplitude decreases and hence its energy also
decreases. The energy dissipates due to the damping force (such as air resistance etc.)
experienced by the bob of the pendulum.

PROCEDURE

1. Determine mass m of the bob with the help of physical balance.

2. Take a cotton thread of about 150 cm long, tie the bob to one end of the thread and
pass the other end of the thread through the split cork so that the effective length of
the pendulum is 130 cm, (effective length of the pendulum is equal to radius of the
bob + length of the hook of the bob-pendulum + length of the thread) as shown in
diagram. Tight the two half cork pieces between the clamps.
3. Now put the stand on the table in such a manner so that the bob is about 1 to 2 cm
above the ground.
4. Put a meter scale just below the bob so that a full-scale division lies below the
center of the bob’.
5. Take the bob along the meter scale 5 cm away from the rest position (mean
position) of the bob and release it. The bob starts vibrating about the mean position
O and you will observe that its amplitude decreases as the time passes.
6. Take the bob to its mean position O (stop position). Find out the least count of the
stopwatch.
7. Again, take the bob along the meter scale 5 cm away from the rest position O and
release it so that it vibrates in the same vertical plane.
8. Watch the moment of the bob, when it comes to the extreme right position, start the
stopwatch and note the position of the bob on the meter scale and record this time
as zero.
9. Keep your eye on the movement of the bob continuously and observe the
amplitude of the bob and record time simultaneously after every alternate

53
 oscillation, i.e., 0,2,4, 6………. oscillations till the amplitude decays to about 1 cm.
and take 5 observations.
10. Record all the observations in the table.
11. Plot a graph between amplitude square, i.e., A02 and time (t), taking along X-axis and A02
along F-axis.

OBSERVATIONS

RESULT
The graph plotted between square of the amplitude and time is shown below. The graph shows
the dissipation of energy of simple pendulum with time.

ACTIVITY-5

AIM
To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped meter scale loaded at (i) its end
(ii) in the middle.
54
APPARATUS
A uniform straight wooden meter rod (scale). Two G clamp, pointer pin, thread, slotted weights
of 50 g each, wax, vertical scale, clamp stand.

THEORY

PROCEDURE
(i) When meter scale is loaded at its end:
1. Clamp the meter scale firmly with G clamp at its one edge on the corner of table such that
meter scale remains straight in horizontal plane.
2. The pointer pin or needle should be attached at free end of meter scale with wax.

55
3.Fix the scale on a stand vertically to take the reading.

4.Note the initial reading on vertical scale corresponding to the tip of the pointer when no
weights are suspended.
5. Suspend the weights in steps at free end of meter scale with the help of a strong thread and
note the corresponding readings on the vertical scale.
6.After taking 5-6 reading, start unloading the weights one by one and again note the reading on
scale.
(ii) When meter scale is loaded in the middle:
7. Locate the C.G. of meter scale by suspending it with a thread.
8. Now, place the meter scale symmetrically on two knife edges them about 85 cm apart and
check that meter scale is perfectly horizontal.
9. A pointer is attached at the mid-point of the scale with the help of wax or adhesive tape to take
the reading.
10. Repeat the steps 3 to 6 and record the observation in the table.

OBSERVATIONS

Table for load and depression when meter rod is loaded in the middle.

Table for load and depression when meter rod is loaded at its one end.

56
GRAPH
Plot a graph between load and depression by taking load on X-axis and depression on Y-
axis for both of cases. In both the cases, graphs come to be a straight line as shown
below

RESULT
The graph between load and depression are straight lines, which gives that depression is
directly proportion to the load.

57