applied
sciences
Article
Methodological and On-Site Applied Construction Layout Plan
with Batter Boards Stake-Out Methods Comparison: A Case
Study of Romania
Paul Sestras






Citation: Sestras, P. Methodological
and On-Site Applied Construction
Layout Plan with Batter Boards
Stake-Out Methods Comparison: A
Case Study of Romania. Appl. Sci.
2021, 11, 4331. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app11104331
Academic Editors: Mariusz Szóstak,
Marek Sawicki and Jarosław Konior
Received: 21 April 2021
Accepted: 10 May 2021
Published: 11 May 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104331
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 400020 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
psestras@mail.utcluj.ro
Abstract: The layout or stake-out is one of the most important assignments of the surveying engineer,
and it is of vital importance in the building process, as the designed geometries of the structure
ensure the verticality and the correct positioning inside the terrain. The mission of the surveying
engineer involves both legal and technical aspects, and the correct planning of the layout process
must take into consideration aspects regarding the site conditions, instrumentation used, the required
and achievable accuracies, network design and survey methods used. Given the vast applications of
geodesy and topography in different domains and industries, the study incorporates general notions
and technical aspects regarding the workflow in cadastre and construction surveying, guidelines for
an efficient design of site layout plan with on-site applicability, as well as a novel comparison between
four methods of construction lines geometry layout on batter boards. The results of this study aim
to further consolidate the importance of accurate and efficient construction layout projects, with
comprehensive design plans, methods and instrumentation selection, as well as recommendations.
The presented discussions and conclusions are of interest to the geodetic community as well as the
construction industry, and due to the pragmatic and experimental nature of the research, incorporates
technical notes and original results of professional and academic importance.
Keywords: cadastre; land surveyor; construction surveying; building layout; polar coordinates;
stake-out methods; total station
1. Introduction
The efficient layout planning of a construction site is a fundamental task for any project
undertaking, and the survey engineer’s responsibility to guide the builders and conduct
accurate, safe, time- and cost-efficient layout of the designed structure [1–3]. In theory,
any surveyor can attempt a construction survey or precision surveying project. However,
due to the difficulties of the work and the unpredictable site conditions and scenarios, the
practice is much more difficult than would be expected. While the principals involved in
surveying are generally established, the instrumentation used is equally important and
the survey engineer must adapt and be prepared for any situation and task [4,5]. Thus,
this research attempts to give answers to the following notions: the surveyor engineer’s
workflow and each legal and technical stage involved in a construction project, the design
of a comprehensive site layout plan with on-site applicability and a comparison between
four methods of construction lines layout on batter boards.
It is critical for a surveyor to take the time and care, both in the field and when pro-
cessing data, to avoid or minimize errors and conduct precise and efficient surveys, layout
or monitoring projects [5,6]. These applications and tasks integrate the highly sophisti-
cated graphical capabilities of computer-aided design (CAD) platforms, with the geodetic
instrumentations used in the field for observations and data collection. Precision surveyors
working in the field have a large array of instrumentation at their disposition, with a con-
stant flux of innovation [7–9]. There are numerous instrumentations and technologies used
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 2 of 19

in the industry, such as: total stations, optical and digital levels, GNSS (Global Navigation
Satellite System), terrestrial laser scanners, UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) photogram-
metry, airborne or UAV light detection and ranging (LiDAR), and many more geomatics
applications. Each one of the instrumentations and techniques have certain advantages
or disadvantages, that range from cost, to survey coverage, time efficiency, precision, and
learning curve. Although for survey and monitoring projects all of the aforementioned
instrumentation can provide viable solutions, in the case of layout projects and precise
construction surveying, total stations are the best choice. Total stations have pinpoint
accuracy and can yield precise surveying, positioning and observations [10–12]. In spite of
the increasing use of new technologies, total stations remain a fundamental instrument for
different survey projects, including land, cadastre and especially constructions [13].
Due to the many variables that encroach on the physical world and on the construction
sites, surveyors must be extremely cautious with the work management, instrumentation
used, data processing and error mitigations [14–16]. In field applications, precision sur-
veying, layout and monitoring projects are used to provide cost savings, offer guidance
and expertise to builders, verify design assumptions, reduce risks and even to protect
lives [17–19]. Although in theory these are simple and easy benefits to obtain, due to the
practical and somehow unpredictable nature of the profession, in practice these benefits
may be difficult to obtain due to different site conditions, access problems or budgetary
constraints. Thus, the present research serves as a combination of technical notes in the
field of geodesy and topography applied in construction, guidelines for efficient layout
plan design and on-site implementation, and a pragmatic and experimental comparison
for the layout of a construction geometry on batter boards. The results of this study are
of interest to the geodetic community as well as the construction industry, for many sur-
veying engineering and land surveying applications. In addition, they can be instructive
from an educational point of view, as well as beneficial to the private sector, public sector
and academia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Land Surveyor Profession in Romania
Surveying engineers are people who work both in the field taking measurements,
as well as in the office, analyzing the measured data and planning maps, technical plans
and registering legal documents regarding boundaries of existing land parcels. It is often
said that surveyor engineers are the first persons to enter the construction site, and the
last to leave it. This is because the inception of any investment construction project starts
from the legal documents regarding the location, as well as feasibility studies that involve
topographic surveys in order to provide geo-spatial data to the architects, civil engineers
and other design engineers.
In Romania, the profession of survey engineering is called topographer or geodetic en-
gineer. Compared to other countries, in Romania this profession combines the knowledge,
attributions and responsibility of both land surveyors and building surveyors. In essence,
a Romanian topographer or geodetic engineer is the person who consults and works with
the legal aspects of property law, such as boundary surveys and cadastre, as well as the
technical aspects that involve the construction industry, such as guiding the construction
of new structures such as infrastructures or buildings.
In order to practice this profession, a bachelor’s degree is required, as well as a
number of years of experience in order to become an authorized or licensed surveyor, with
one of the four different levels of qualification: C, B, A and D (highest). These levels of
qualification require different years of experience, portfolio of survey works and different
types of examination and interviews. As a license to practice, a category C surveyor can
only work in cadastre and land surveys, categories B and A, beside the previous category
C competencies, can design technical topographical plans, building surveys, layout or
stake-out of reference points and markers for constructions and, lastly category D, which
incorporates the previous competencies, can also create or verify geodetic networks. The
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

of examination and interviews. As a license to practice, a category C surveyor can only

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 work in cadastre and land surveys, categories B and A, beside the previous category 3 of C
19
competencies, can design technical topographical plans, building surveys, layout or stake-
out of reference points and markers for constructions and, lastly category D, which incor-
porates the previous competencies, can also create or verify geodetic networks. The au-
authority
thority thatthat grants
grants these
these licenses
licenses to practice
to practice is theisNational
the National
Agency Agency for Cadastre
for Cadastre and
and Land
Land Registration, a government institution that oversees the property law and cadastre
Registration, a government institution that oversees the property law and cadastre in the in
the country. A typical workflow for a survey engineer is as follows
country. A typical workflow for a survey engineer is as follows (Figure 1): (Figure 1):

Figure
Figure 1.
1. A
A survey
survey engineer’s
engineer’stypical
typical workflow.
workflow.

The
Thepreliminary
preliminarywork workconsists
consistsofofconsultancy
consultancyand andevaluation
evaluation of of
thethe
legal situation
legal situationof
of the
the terrain,
terrain, as forasany
forbuilding
any building
permitpermit it is necessary
it is necessary to have atoclear
haveproperty
a clear law, property law,
checking
checkingboundaries
property property boundaries
and assigningand aassigning
cadastralanumber.
cadastralInnumber.
order toIn order to
prepare theprepare
terrain the
for
terrain for investment,
investment, besides the land besides the land
registry data registry
integrity,data
the integrity,
shape of thetheterrain
shape has of the terrain
to be con-
has to be
sidered, considered,
thus thusdocumentation
there is often there is often documentation for land parcel
for land parcel detachments detachments
or mergers. The
or mergers. plan
topographic The istopographic
necessary for planboth
is necessary for both
the technical the technical
documentation fordocumentation
obtaining the
for obtaining
building permit,theasbuilding
well as forpermit, as well
the design as architect
of the for the design of engineer,
and civil the architect and civil
by providing
engineer, by providing a series of complex works and deliverables
a series of complex works and deliverables such as: computer-aided design (CAD) plat- such as: computer-aided
design
form (CAD) platform
surveys, transverse surveys, transverse and
and longitudinal longitudinal
terrain profiles, terrain profiles,of3D
3D modeling themodeling
terrain,
of the terrain,
contour lines and contour lines andthat
other elements other
areelements
the basisthat arearchitecture,
for the the basis forstructure
the architecture,
and de-
structure
sign andWorks
projects. designduring
projects.theWorks during the
construction construction
process processsite
include regular include regular site
topographic as-
topographic assistance, where the surveyor engineer ensures the
sistance, where the surveyor engineer ensures the connection between the design made connection between the
design
by made by the architect/civil
the architect/civil engineer and the engineer and the builder/contractor.
builder/contractor. In order to ensureIn order the to ensure
accuracy
of the site position of the designed structural elements, it is necessary to layout or layout
the accuracy of the site position of the designed structural elements, it is necessary to stake-
or stake-out
out building building
referencereference
points aspoints
well asasconstruction
well as construction
axes and axes and geometry,
geometry, markers markers of
of finish
finishelevations,
floor floor elevations, verifications
verifications of various
of various elements elements and elevations,
and elevations, verticality
verticality studies,studies,
quan-
quantity calculation, monitoring of adjacent buildings and other engineering
tity calculation, monitoring of adjacent buildings and other engineering measurements. measurements.
Works after
Works after completion
completion of of constructions
constructions include:
include: “As-Built”
“As-Built” planplannecessary
necessaryto todetect
detectnon-
non-
conformities between what was built and the project; topographic
conformities between what was built and the project; topographic plans and cadastral plans and cadastral
works in order to connect the new constructions to utilities and registration in property law;
works in order to connect the new constructions to utilities and registration in property
in the case of apartment buildings additional detachment documentations and surveys of
law; in the case of apartment buildings additional detachment documentations and sur-
interior spaces; and, finally, in the case of complex projects, monitoring of the new building
veys of interior spaces; and, finally, in the case of complex projects, monitoring of the new
in order to determine its behavior during the period of construction.
building in order to determine its behavior during the period of construction.
2.2. Site Location and Conditions
In the constant expanding and highly populated Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area, Ro-
mania (Figure 2), the need for qualitative, safe, time and cost-efficient survey engineering
works is imperative. With a general move towards urbanization, the construction industry
is booming, land is becoming an increasingly difficult resource to obtain and the con-
struction market is a desideratum [20,21]. The unprecedented urban sprawl phenomenon
imposed the expansion of the city limits and the transformation of adjacent villages, agri-
cultural terrains or old industrial parks from Cluj-Napoca into suburbs and residential
complexes [22]. Given the current situation, the surveying engineer is a sought-after
 mania (Figure 2), the need for qualitative, safe, time and cost-efficient survey engineering
works is imperative. With a general move towards urbanization, the construction indus-
try is booming, land is becoming an increasingly difficult resource to obtain and the con-
struction market is a desideratum [20,21]. The unprecedented urban sprawl phenomenon
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 imposed the expansion of the city limits and the transformation of adjacent villages,4agri- of 19
cultural terrains or old industrial parks from Cluj-Napoca into suburbs and residential
complexes [22]. Given the current situation, the surveying engineer is a sought-after spe-
cialist who
specialist whocancan
provide multifunctional
provide multifunctional services for investors
services for investorssuchsuch
as legal andand
as legal technical
tech-
consultancy regarding property law, initial field measurements for the
nical consultancy regarding property law, initial field measurements for the construction construction de-
sign, and on-site technical assistance, up to the final stages of the investment
design, and on-site technical assistance, up to the final stages of the investment project. project. Alt-
hough most
Although of of
most thethe
big
bigconstruction
constructioncompanies
companieshave havetheir
their own
own survey engineers, small
survey engineers, small
and medium
and medium firms
firms do
do not
not and
and they
they rely
rely on
on contracts
contracts of
of service
service providers
providers with
with survey
survey
engineering companies or licensed individuals. These issues call for a
engineering companies or licensed individuals. These issues call for a retrospective look retrospective look
at the main technical assistance that survey engineers provide on the construction
at the main technical assistance that survey engineers provide on the construction site (to site (to
stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of
stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures), new structures),
as well
as well as
as guidelines
guidelines for
for efficient
efficient site
site layout
layout plan
plan creation
creation andand the
the use
use ofof on-site
on-site batter
batter
boards marked
boards marked with
with layout
layout lines
lines for
for future
future positioning
positioning of of construction
construction reference
reference points
points byby
the builder/contractor.
the builder/contractor.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Site
Site location.
location.

The
The present
present technical
technical project
project consists
consists of
of the
the construction
construction of of 22 duplex
duplex houses
houses having
having
four
four living units, in a newly developed neighborhood consisting mainly of houses
living units, in a newly developed neighborhood consisting mainly of houses on
on the
the
outskirts
outskirts of Cluj-Napoca (Figure 2). The terrain has an area of 1147 square meters, the
of Cluj-Napoca (Figure 2). The terrain has an area of 1147 square meters, the
designed
designed duplex
duplex houses
houses have
have aa low
low height
height regime
regime specific
specific to
to the
the region,
region, with
with ground
ground floor
floor
and first floor, and each duplex has a double partition wall between the units,
and first floor, and each duplex has a double partition wall between the units, thus having thus having
the
the possibility
possibility toto be
be registered
registered in
in property
propertylawlawas as four
fourdistinct
distincthouses.
houses. Each
Each designed
designed unit
unit
has a usable area of approximately 120 square meters, 2 parking spaces and a garden of
approximately 215 square meters, thus making it a perfect solution for young families.

2.3. Methodological Approach and Instrumentation

The methodological structure pursued to develop the presented study is in accordance
with the general line of technical notes and practices in the field. Thus, in the present
study, the research direction was divided in two main stages of dissemination: that of
evaluating the methodological process of obtaining an efficient site layout plan, with a
retrospective look at the design and field-work practiced notions; the second main stage,
represents the on-site applied designs, together with a novelty comparison between four
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 5 of 19

methods of batter boards stake-out of the construction layout lines, in order to determine
the most qualitative, safe, time and cost-efficient one, as well as highlighting advantages
and disadvantages of each method and the possible instrumentation used.
To better understand the workflow of such a project, a graphical abstract of the
site layout plan process was created (Figure 3). As previously mentioned, the surveyor
engineer’s work starts in the office with evaluating the land registry of the terrain, in
order to determine the required technical and legislative documentation. Once this stage is
complete, an elaborate field measurement is scheduled, with the necessary presence of the
land owners or investors. In this topographic survey, the geodetic engineer can either divide
his workflow in measurements for cadastral purposes, technical purposes, or combine both
of them. Measurements for cadastral purposes are more straightforward, with an emphasis
on the boundaries of the property, checking for inadvertences between the measured
area and the one in the documents, and accessibility to the terrain. The measurement for
technical purposes is much more complex, and requires the data acquisition necessary to
create topographic plans for the building permit, as well as deliverables to the architect,
civil engineer and other design engineers. It is the survey engineer’s duty to accurately and
in great detail represent the terrain surface, in order to develop an investment project. The
required deliverables differ depending on the type of project, but the most common ones
are the following: a CAD platform complete survey of the study area, with the cadastre
contours layer; a 3D model of the terrain and contour lines, achieved also in CAD software;
transversal or longitudinal profiles, which are necessary especially for infrastructure. Based
on these deliverables, together with a clear property law of the terrain and the topographic
plan signed and sealed from the Office of Cadastre and Land Registration, the architect and
civil engineer can apply for the Building Permit at the local Department of City Planning.
This operation can take up to 6 months, depending on the complexity of the project and
the urbanistic regulation in the proposed area. Once the Building Permit is obtained, and
the owners or investors have also contracted a team of builders, the need for the survey
engineer is again required. The survey engineer must obtain from the design team the
site/location plan, which details the geometry and location of the designed building inside
the terrain, as well as dimensions between the layout lines or building axes, and distances
from the boundary limits to the construction. Even though the initial survey may have
been undertaken within a geodetic datum and dimensions, the design team, especially the
architects, work in millimeter units and different design softwares, thus the site/location
plan received must be converted into the correct coordinate system (in the current case,
Stereographic 1970). This process is undertaken in the preferred software of the survey
engineer (customarily AutoCAD), and involves the correct cadastral contour and the
functions of scale, move and rotate. The desideratum is the creation of the Site Layout
Plan, a comprehensive design that highlights the layout of the proposed construction
inside the terrain, together with the coordinates and the stake-out elements of the building
reference points (usually axes intersections). The stake-out elements consist of horizontal
angles and distances from known geodetic points or control points, together with the
instrumentation and layout method used in order to mark the position of the designed
building. These horizontal angles and distances can be calculated from the Cartesian
coordinates of the control/geodetical points and the designed points of the building, and
can be done manually or by spreadsheet software. Total stations have the processing
capabilities of instantly calculating these values, but it is recommended to also have them
calculated and displayed on the final site layout plan.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 the building, and can be done manually or by spreadsheet software. Total stations6 haveof 19
the processing capabilities of instantly calculating these values, but it is recommended to
also have them calculated and displayed on the final site layout plan.

Figure3.
Figure 3. Graphical
Graphical abstract
abstract of
of the
the site
site layout
layoutplan
planprocess.
process.

In
In terms
terms ofof used
used instrumentation,
instrumentation, the the total
total station
station and
and GNSS
GNSS systems
systems arearethe
themost
most
used by the survey engineer. GNSS systems are the perfect choice for
used by the survey engineer. GNSS systems are the perfect choice for topographical topographical surveys
sur-
where the field
veys where theconditions are optimal
field conditions (sufficient
are optimal satellite satellite
(sufficient availability, network network
availability, RTK services,
RTK
open fieldopen
services, etc.).field
In etc.).
recentIndecades, GNSS systems
recent decades, have been
GNSS systems have used
been to
usedobtain geodetic
to obtain geo-
networks or control points, for precise measurements, accurate monitoring
detic networks or control points, for precise measurements, accurate monitoring processes processes or
construction stake-outs. In the case of classical methods of determining
or construction stake-outs. In the case of classical methods of determining new geodetic new geodetic
points,
points, by means of
by means ofresection
resectionorortraverse
traversenetworks,
networks, a current
a current deficiency
deficiency is the
is the lacklack of
of reli-
reliable control points or geodetic points, almost completely destroyed in
able control points or geodetic points, almost completely destroyed in the past decades. the past decades.
The total station is often considered the right hand of the survey engineer, and offers
The total station is often considered the right hand of the survey engineer, and offers pin-
pinpoint accuracy and can yield precise observations, as well as efficient and reliable layout
point accuracy and can yield precise observations, as well as efficient and reliable layout
of reference points. The instruments used in this case study were: Leica Viva GS08 Global
of reference points. The instruments used in this case study were: Leica Viva GS08 Global
Navigation Satellite System used in real-time kinematics (RTK) mode for obtaining the
Navigation Satellite System used in real-time kinematics (RTK) mode for obtaining the
control points (St1 and St2) with a horizontal precision between 0.014 m and 0.020 m
control points (St1 and St2) with a horizontal precision between 0.014 m and 0.020 m en-
ensured by online RTK corrections provided by the Romanian Position Determination
sured by online RTK corrections provided by the Romanian Position Determination Sys-
System (ROMPOS) and the connection to a national permanent GNSS reference station; the
tem (ROMPOS) and the connection to a national permanent GNSS reference station; the
total station used was a Leica TS02plus, which has a very good measurement accuracy of
total station used was a Leica TS02plus, which has a very good measurement accuracy of
angles of 3” and distances of ±2 mm + 2 ppm.
angles of 3″ and distances of ±2 mm + 2 ppm.
2.4. Layout of a Project Point and Accuracy Evaluation
Construction layout or stake-out is one of the most important missions of the surveying
engineer, with the purpose of ensuring the designed geometries of the engineering structure,
by satisfying the required accuracies from the project [2,22–25]. Although modern GNSS
systems have the capability of point stake-out with an accuracy of ≈2 cm in the right
 2.4. Layout of a Project Point and Accuracy Evaluation
Construction layout or stake-out is one of the most important missions of the survey-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 7 of 19
ing engineer, with the purpose of ensuring the designed geometries of the engineering
structure, by satisfying the required accuracies from the project [2,22–25]. Although mod-
ern GNSS systems have the capability of point stake-out with an accuracy of ≈2 cm in the
right conditions,
conditions, construction
construction surveyssurveys and layouts
and layouts are made
are made usingusing
totaltotal stations.
stations. The The prin-
principle
ciple
behindbehind
a totalastation
total station
stake-out stake-out is the
is the polar polar coordinates
coordinates method,
method, which which
consist consist of
of calculating
calculating and determining
and determining the position the
of aposition
horizontal of angle
a horizontal angle and
and a distance froma distance from
a set of two a set
control
of two control
points pointspoints).
(or geodetic (or geodetic
The twopoints). The points
control two control points
are used forare used for instrument
instrument stationing
stationing and orientation
and orientation (or bearing), (orandbearing), and all calculations
all calculations regarding the regarding
layout ofthethelayout of the
construction
construction are made in accordance to the established layout network.
are made in accordance to the established layout network. It was opted for the GNSS It was opted for
the GNSS technology
technology for theofcreation
for the creation the layoutof the layoutbecause
network, network, ofbecause of the the
the efficiency, efficiency,
lower costthe
lower cost the
price, and price, andtime
short the to
short time to
perform theperform the measurements.
measurements. In the case ofInclassical
the case methods
of classicalof
methods
determiningof determining
new geodetic new geodetic
points, points,ofby
by means means of
resection orresection or traversethe
traverse networks, networks,
current
the current
great greatisdeficiency
deficiency the lack ofisreliable
the lackcontrol
of reliable control
points points or
or geodetic geodetic
points, almostpoints, almost
completely
destroyed indestroyed
completely the past decades [13].
in the past decades [13].
The layout elements (horizontal angle and a distance) are calculated using the known
coordinates of the layout network and the designed coordinates of the construction,
coordinates construction, as
follows (example for layout point H7; Figure 4):

=∆YSt1
ΔYSt1−St2 Y −YSt1Y
tg θSt1−St2 −St2 ⇒ θ St2 −
= atan YSt2 , St1 , (1)
tgθSt1−St2 = ∆XΔXSt1−St2 ⇒ θSt1 −St2 = atanXSt2 −XSt1
St1−St2 (1)
St1−St2 X St2 − X St1
ΔYSt1−H7 YH7 −YSt1
tg θSt1−H7 =∆YSt1 −H7⇒ θSt1−H7 = atan YH7 ,− YSt1 (2)
tgθSt1− = ΔX ⇒ θ St1−H7 = atan
XH7 −XSt1 , (2)
H7 ∆XSt1
St1−H7
−H7 XH7 − XSt1
g g
ωH7 (400
ωH7==(400 −− θSt1−St2
θSt1 ) +θSt1
−St2 ) + θSt1−H7
−H7 , , (3)
q
2 2
D−H7 == √
DSt1 ∆XΔX2++∆Y ΔY2,, (4)
(4)
St1−H7

Figure 4. Polar
Figure 4. Polar coordinates
coordinates for
for layout point H7
layout point H7 and
and the
the topographic
topographic quadrants
quadrants for
for the
the calculus.
calculus.

In order to ensure an accurate and efficient layout of the construction points, a ret-
In order to ensure an accurate and efficient layout of the construction points, a retro-
rospective of the measurement errors, required accuracy and the construction tolerances
spective of the measurement errors, required accuracy and the construction tolerances
must be taken into account [2,21,22]. The type of building and the building technology
must be taken into account [2,21,22]. The type of building and the building technology are
are also important aspects, as the components and structural elements used to construct
also important aspects, as the components and structural elements used to construct
buildings are often fabricated, assembled or built on site, often by hand, in conditions
buildings are often fabricated, assembled or built on site, often by hand, in conditions that
that may be less than ideal. Errorless measurements are impossible, thus it is mandatory
may be less than ideal. Errorless measurements are impossible, thus it is mandatory to
to satisfy the recommended accuracies through the “achieved point standard deviation”
satisfy
which isthe recommended
defined accuracies
by the product of thethrough the “achieved
errors derived pointpoint
from known standard deviation”
coordinates and
which is defined by the product of the errors derived from known point coordinates
the layout measurements. In order to assure the required accuracy, the achieved accuracy and
the layout measurements. In order to assure the required accuracy, the achieved accuracy
must be smaller than the required one. Based on the type of construction and the charac-
teristics of the engineering structure, the required point standard deviation (±µP ) should
be: µP = ±(1–2) cm for the majority of layout construction projects that use a monobloc
structure with build on site structural elements (reinforced concrete); µP = ±(2–5) mm for
prefabricated and assembled structural elements; µP = ±(1–2) mm for precise machine
guidance and complex structures [2,26,27]. It is the surveying engineer’s mission to identify
the required accuracy and plan the layout process in accordance. The achieved accuracy
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 8 of 19

if the resultant of error affecting the measurements of the layout elements, expressed as
achieved point standard deviation (±σP ), and must satisfy the required accuracy:

|σ P | ≤ |µ P |, (5)

The errors concerning the measurements are classified into three major groups: in-
strumental errors, personal errors and atmospheric errors [28–30]. Given the present case
study, the length of the observations are short and the measurements are made in optimal
conditions, as well as through the expertise of the surveying engineers. Thus, personal and
atmospheric errors can be considered insignificant and not taken into consideration. The
major instrumental errors can be eliminated or significantly reduced by additional checks
and calibrations. Given the fact that the measurements are carried out with a new model of
the total station with good specifications, it is possible to satisfy the required accuracies of
the layout project by using angle and distance reading with only one face of the instrument.
By combining the expertise of the survey engineers, the correct checks and calibrations
of the instrument, and by using angle readings that not exceed ±(5–10)cc with layout
distances of ±(2–3) mm, the achieved point standard deviation can easily be between
σP = ±(5–10) mm, more than enough considering the required point standard deviation
(±µP ) for the type of construction and building technology of the present case study.

2.5. Designing the Site Layout Plan and Calculating the Stake-Out Elements
The planning of the layout process is one of the most important tasks for the survey
engineer. This layout ensures the horizontal and vertical geometries of the engineering
structure, and takes into account the instrumentation and the required accuracies pre-
viously mentioned. The established site layout plan is compiled using the cumulative
cadastral information, land survey, building permit and design plans of the construction.
A comprehensive design must highlight the layout of the proposed construction inside
the terrain, as well as the inclusion of the coordinates and the calculated layout elements
of the building reference points. The stake-out elements consist of horizontal angles and
distances from known geodetic points or control points and, although total stations are
capable of coordinate geometry calculation (COGO functions), the site layout plan should
incorporate these values in order to carry out the on-site project regardless of the instru-
mentation. This is because many construction companies or construction survey engineers
use electronic theodolites such as the Leica Builder series, which are reliable instrumen-
tations that measure angles and distances, but do not have the processing power and the
functions of coordinate geometry calculation. Thus, a comprehensive site layout plan
(Figure 5) should include all the information necessary to layout the designed structure
(the extracted coordinates of each construction layout point and the stake-out horizontal
angle and distance from the station points).
In order to obtain an automation of the calculations of horizontal angles and distances,
a spreadsheet type software can be used. The measured (geodetic network/control points)
and the designed coordinates (construction layout points/axes intersections) are extracted
from the CAD platform and exported in the spreadsheet. The calculus is similar to that
presented in Section 2.4, with the following formulas used:

θ = ATAN(∆Y/∆X) * 200/PI() + IF(∆X < 0,200, IF(∆Y < 0,400)), (6)

ω = (θA − θB ) + IF((θA − θB ) < 0,400), (7)

D = SQRT(∆X2 + ∆Y2 ), (8)
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 9 of 19

D = SQRT(ΔX2 + ΔY2), (8)

Figure 5.
Figure Site layout
5. Site layout plan.
plan.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 10 of 19
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2.6. Batter
2.6. Batter Boards
Boards Importance
Importance and
and Layout
Layout Lines
Lines Marking
Marking Methods
Methods
Batter boards
Batter boards are
are temporary
temporary wooden
wooden frameworks
frameworks constructed
constructed and
and displayed
displayed around
around
the in-site layout, used to suspend the layout strings for a foundation or a structural element
the in-site layout, used to suspend the layout strings for a foundation or a structural ele-
from the ground floor. Their placement is crucial for building with the correct designed
ment from the ground floor. Their placement is crucial for building with the correct de-
geometries. Batter boards consist of two vertical wood poles and a horizontal crosspiece
signed geometries. Batter boards consist of two vertical wood poles and a horizontal cross-
screwed to the verticals (Figure 6). The height of the boards must be over the height of
piece screwed to the verticals (Figure 6). The height of the boards must be over the height
the finish floor elevation, and if possible, all horizontal crosspieces must have the same
of the finish floor elevation, and if possible, all horizontal crosspieces must have the same
elevation. Batter boards are commonly set beyond the corners of a planned foundation,
elevation. Batter boards are commonly set beyond the corners of a planned foundation,
but they can also be continuous and cover the whole perimeter of the construction [1,4].
but they can also be continuous and cover the whole perimeter of the construction [1,4].
These batter boards are then used in order to layout or stake-out on them the axes of the
These batter boards are then used in order to layout or stake-out on them the axes of the
construction, and by intersecting construction twine between two axes to indicate the
construction, and by intersecting construction twine between two axes to indicate the pre-
precise location of a construction layout point.
cise location of a construction layout point.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Examples
Examples of
of batter
batter boards
boards (top); the present
(top); the present in-site
in-site conditions
conditions (bottom).
(bottom).

Batter boards
Batter boards areare very
very popular
popular for
for small
small toto medium
medium scale
scale construction
construction sites. Survey
sites. Survey
engineers commonly use them in order to layout the construction axes, in order for
engineers commonly use them in order to layout the construction axes, in order for the
the
builder to further determine construction layout point without the help of instrumentation
builder to further determine construction layout point without the help of instrumenta-
or survey expertise. This practice can be applied for smaller scale construction sites,
tion or survey expertise. This practice can be applied for smaller scale construction sites,
because the intersection of construction twine in order to determine a layout point can
because the intersection of construction twine in order to determine a layout point can be
be achieved for the foundation and the structural elements on the ground floor (columns,
achieved for the foundation and the structural elements on the ground floor (columns,
beams, load-bearing walls). This is because the elevation of the batter boards is usually
beams, load-bearing walls). This is because the elevation of the batter boards is usually at
at one meter above ground level, and it would be impossible to use them on an upper
one meter above ground level, and it would be impossible to use them on an upper floor.
floor. Due to the high demand of construction survey and layout, the batter boards holding
Due to the high demand of construction survey and layout, the batter boards holding lay-
layout lines is a very popular solution [1,24].
out lines is a very popular solution [1,24].
There are several methods of axes layout on these wood structures, depending on
There are several methods of axes layout on these wood structures, depending on the
the instrumentation used and the calculus capability of the user and apparatus. Thus, the
instrumentation used and the calculus capability of the user and apparatus. Thus, the pre-
present case study contains a novelty comparison between four methods of batter boards
sent case study
stake-out of the contains a novelty
construction layoutcomparison between
lines, in order four methods
to determine of batter
the most boards
efficient way
stake-out of the construction layout lines, in order to determine the most
possible, as well as a comprehensive evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages efficient way
of
possible,
each methodas well
andasthe
a comprehensive evaluation used.
possible instrumentation of the advantages and disadvantages
The four methods consist of: the of
each method and the possible instrumentation used. The four methods consist
classical optical method using a theodolite; the survey of the batter boards with manual of: the clas-
sical opticalof
calculation method usingintersection
coordinate a theodolite; the survey
between of theplank
the wood batterand
boards with manualaxes;
the construction cal-
culation
the surveyof coordinate
of the batter intersection
boards withbetween the wood plank and
CAD implementation andthe construction
extraction axes; the
of coordinate
survey of the batter boards with CAD implementation and extraction of coordinate
intersection between the wood plank and the construction axes; reference line or layout inter-
line
section between the wood plank and the construction axes; reference line or layout line
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 11 of 19

function of the total station. These four methods will be further presented and evaluated
in the next chapter, with a dissemination of the results, discussion and concluding re-
function of the total station. These four methods will be further presented and evaluated in
marks.
the next chapter, with a dissemination of the results, discussion and concluding remarks.
3. Results
3. Results
3.1.
3.1. On-Site
On-Site Design
Design Points
Points Layout
Layout
The on-site layout
The on-site layout of the of theconstruction
constructiondesign design points
points waswas carried
carried outout
usingusing the geo-
the geodetic
detic network established in the vicinity; respectively, control
network established in the vicinity; respectively, control points St1 and St2. Each were points St1 and St2. Each
were
used used as a station
as a station pointpoint
for theforinstrument,
the instrument, and the andother
the other oneorientation
one for for orientation (bearing).
(bearing). The
The stake-out
stake-out process
process can becanmade
be made
usingusing the special
the special COGO COGO functions
functions of theoftotal
the station,
total station,
or in
or
theincase
theofcase of electrical
electrical theodolites,
theodolites, basic measurements
basic measurements of horizontal
of horizontal angles and angles and dis-
distances are
tances are required. Total stations have built-in programs,
required. Total stations have built-in programs, usually named “Stake-out” or “Layout”, usually named ”Stake-out” or
”Layout”, where you can select from the internal memory
where you can select from the internal memory or manually enter the coordinate [1,4]. or manually enter the coordi-
nate
With [1,4]. With the
the internal internal processing
processing power, they power,
instantly theydisplay
instantly thedisplay
values the values
of the of the
horizontal
horizontal
angles at whichanglesthe at user
which hastheto user
rotate hasthetoinstrument
rotate the instrument on the axis
on the horizontal horizontal
in orderaxis in
to be
order
on thetoright
be ondirection,
the right direction, and the of
and the distance distance
the pointof theonpoint on the established
the established direction. direction.
Based
Based on repeated
on repeated measurements
measurements of angles of and
angles and distances,
distances, and a good andcoordination
a good coordination
between the be-
tween
surveythe surveyand
engineer engineer and the
the technical technical
assistant assistant
wielding the wielding the correct
reflector, the reflector, the correct
positioning of
the design points
positioning are marked
of the design points onarethemarked
ground. onInthethe case ofIn
ground. electrical
the casetheodolites
of electricalsuch theod-as
the Leica
olites suchBuilder series,Builder
as the Leica the process
series,isthesimilar,
process with the exception
is similar, with theof exception
manually of inserting
manu-
the value
ally of Hz
inserting 0g (horizontal
the=value of Hz = 0gangle) in theangle)
(horizontal direction of the
in the secondofcontrol
direction the second pointcontrol
(used
for orientation/bearing),
point with furtherwith
(used for orientation/bearing), manualfurther positioning based on the
manual positioning calculated
based on the layout
calcu-
element
lated present
layout elementin the tables in
present of the tables
site layout
of theplan.site layout plan.
In the next
next figure
figure (Figure 7) it can be observed observed the general general workflow of a construction
layout
layout point (e.g., A6) marked on-site, by following the steps previously
previously mentioned.
mentioned. By
careful rotation of the instrument on the horizontal axis, in order to not exceed±±(5–10)
careful rotation of the instrument on the horizontal axis, in order to not exceed (5–10)cc cc,,

and with
and with layout distancesofof±(2–3)
layoutdistances ±(2–3)mm, mm, thethe achieved
achieved point standard
point standarddeviation
deviation is relatively
is rela-
low, and
tively low,more than than
and more enough for this
enough typetype
for this of project.
of project. TheThe same
samesteps
stepsarearetaken
taken for
for all
all
the important layout points, which the builder requests to
the important layout points, which the builder requests to be marked on site (usually the be marked on site (usually
the construction
construction corners).
corners). For a visualization
For a better better visualization of the siteof the
and site and the
the layout of layout of the
the construc-
constructions inside the terrain, a georeferenced orthophoto
tions inside the terrain, a georeferenced orthophoto was made using a UAV system (Fig- was made using a UAV system
(Figure
ure 8). Because
8). Because further further earthworks
earthworks for the forfoundation
the foundation will bewill be established,
established, wooden wooden
stakes
stakes and topographic nails used to signal the layout points
and topographic nails used to signal the layout points will be destroyed or removed from will be destroyed or removed
fromThus,
site. site. Thus, the batter
the batter boards boards
are used are used
in order in order
for the forsurvey
the survey engineer
engineer to display
to display the
the con-
construction layout lines that will help the builder redetermine
struction layout lines that will help the builder redetermine the position of the design the position of the design
points and
points and the
the construction
construction geometry.
geometry.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. General
General workflow
workflow of
of aa construction layout point
construction layout point marked
marked on-site.
on-site.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 12 of 19
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Figure
Figure 8.
8. Layout
Layout site
site with
with an
an unmanned
unmanned aerial
aerial vehicle
vehicle (UAV) orthophoto layer.
(UAV) orthophoto layer.

Results and
3.2. Results and Discussions Regarding the Batter Boards Layout Methods
3.2.1. Classical Method with
3.2.1. Classical Method with Theodolite
Theodolite Instrument
Instrument
The classical
The classical method
method of ofbatter
batterboards
boardslayout
layoutisisbased
basedononthe initial
the initialconstruction
constructionlayout
lay-
points on the ground. These points must be marked accordingly,
out points on the ground. These points must be marked accordingly, with wood stakes with wood stakes and
topographic
and topographicnails,nails,
usingusing
stake-out methods
stake-out and calculus
methods as previously
and calculus mentioned.
as previously After
mentioned.
After the construction layout points on the ground is complete, the survey engineer leave
the construction layout points on the ground is complete, the survey engineer must must
the station point and move the theodolite on one of the points marked
leave the station point and move the theodolite on one of the points marked on the on the ground. After
positioning
ground. Afterand centeringand
positioning thecentering
instrument theon the newly
instrument onmarked
the newlyconstruction point, the
marked construction
user must target with the moveable telescope another of the construction layout points
point, the user must target with the moveable telescope another of the construction layout
marked on the ground, but it is mandatory for the point to be on the same construction axes
points marked on the ground, but it is mandatory for the point to be on the same con-
(geometry line). It is recommended to insert on the instrument menu the horizontal angle
struction axes (geometry line). It is recommended to insert on the instrument menu the
value at “0” (Hz = 0g ), in order to notice any displacements or instrumental movements
horizontal angle value at “0” (Hz = 0g), in order to notice any displacements or instrumen-
at the next stages. By lifting the theodolite telescope, the survey engineer must target the
tal movements at the next stages. By lifting the theodolite telescope, the survey engineer
batter board in front of him, and guide the technical assistant with the reflector left and right
must target the batter board in front of him, and guide the technical assistant with the
on the respective wood plank until they determine a position collinear with their direction,
reflector left and right on the respective wood plank until they determine a position col-
and mark it accordingly. Then, the telescope is tilted 200g until it faces the opposite gbatter
linear with their direction, and mark it accordingly. Then, the telescopeg is tilted 200 until
board; it must be checked if the angular reading remains approx. Hz = 0 ; and the guidance
it faces the opposite batter board; it must be checked if the angular reading remains ap-
process between the engineer and assistant is repeated in order to determine and mark
prox. Hz = 0g; and the guidance process between the engineer and assistant is repeated in
the collinear point on the respective batter board. After that construction line is laid
order
out, theto determine
team can rotate and mark the collinearinpoint
the instrument orderon tothe respective
create a rightbatter
angle board.
(at 100After that
g or 300 g,
construction line is laid out, the team can rotate the instrument in
depending on the position) and target another construction layout point on the ground. order to create a right
angle (at 100isg or
The process 300g, depending
repeated, thus each on nextthe position)on
stationing and target another
a construction construction
layout point can layout
assure
point on the ground. The process is repeated, thus each next
the marking on the batter boards of two construction lines (axes). The presented stationing on a construction
figure
layout
(Figurepoint can assure
9) illustrates the the markingworkflow,
established on the batter
withboards of two
stationing on construction lines (axes).
point A6, targeting point
The
A3 inpresented
order to lay figure
out(Figure 9) illustrates
on the batter boardsthe established
construction workflow,
line A–A, andwith thenstationing
rotating theon
point A6, targeting point A3 in order to lay out on the batter
instrument and targeting point I6 in order to lay out construction line 6–6. boards construction line A–
A, and then rotating the instrument and targeting point I6 in order to lay out construction
line 6-6.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 13 of 19
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Figure
Figure 9.
9. Typical workflow for
Typical workflow for theodolite
theodolite method
method construction
construction line
line layout.
layout.

The advantages
advantages of of this
this method
method areare that
that itit can be performed
performed with with any
any optical
optical instru-
instru-
ment
ment related
relatedto tothe
thetheodolite,
theodolite,thatthatincludes
includes any type
any of classical
type theodolite,
of classical electrical
theodolite, the-
electrical
odolite
theodoliteandandtotaltotal
stations. Also, Also,
stations. because it is anitoptical
because is an and mechanically
optical applied method,
and mechanically applied
method,
the chancestheof chances
error areof error are low (considering
low (considering that thelayout
that the ground ground layout
points points
were were
correctly
correctly determined).
determined). Another advantage
Another advantage is the factis that
the fact
the that the position
position of the construction
of the construction layout
layout on
points points on the ground
the ground are verified
are verified when targeting
when targeting pointspoints at aangle
at a right right angle (obtaining
(obtaining read-
readings of 100 g and 300 g ). The disadvantages of this method are numerous, because it
ings of 100 and 300 ). The disadvantages of this method are numerous, because it has a
g g

has aefficiency
low low efficiency in terms
in terms of time.of Also,
time. due
Also,todue to the
the fact fact
that that
it is it is necessary
necessary to station
to station on
on points
points the
inside inside the construction
construction site, are
site, which which are usually
usually on rough on terrain
rough terrain
or in theorexcavation
in the excavation
for the
for the foundations,
foundations, there are there are dangers
dangers and inconveniences.
and inconveniences.

3.2.2. Survey
3.2.2. Survey of
of the
the Batter
Batter Boards
Boards and
and Manual
Manual Calculation
Calculation
This method
This method isis based
based on
on the
the survey
survey of
of the
the batter
batter boards, in order
boards, in order toto determine
determine the
the
coordinates of each side. This survey can be undertaken using a total station or an electronic
coordinates of each side. This survey can be undertaken using a total station or an elec-
theodolite with electronic distance measurement (EDM), and the survey can be carried out
tronic theodolite with electronic distance measurement (EDM), and the survey can be car-
from one of the control points on site. The principle is to measure and obtain the coordinates
ried out from one of the control points on site. The principle is to measure and obtain the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 14 of 19
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of the wood plank at the middle of each side, in order to obtain a line or direction for
coordinates
each batter boardof the (Figure
wood plank 10). Theat the middleconsists
calculus of eachofside, in order to
determining theobtain a line of
coordinate or the
di-
rection for
coordinates each batter
of the wood
intersection between board (Figure
plank at the line
the construction 10). The
middle(axes)calculus
of and
eachthe consists
side, of determining
lineinrepresenting
order to obtain the coordi-
a line board.
the batter or di-
nate
This of
canthe
rection for intersection
beeach between
batterinboard
obtained a number the
(Figure construction
10). The ways,
of different line
calculusthe(axes)
consists
easiestand ofthe
being line representing
determining
to use the coordi-
an intersection the
batter
nate ofboard. This
the intersection
of orientations can be obtained
between
(bearings). The the inconstruction
a number
orientations ofline
different
(bearings) (axes) ways,
willandbe the theline
easiest
calculated being on
representing
based to use
the
an intersection
batter
designedboard. of
coordinates orientations
This can(construction
be obtained in(bearings).a number
layout The orientations
points)ofand different (bearings)
ways, the
the measured will be
easiest being
coordinates calculated
(eachtoside
use
based
of the
an on
wood the plank).
intersection designed Forcoordinates
example,
of orientations (construction
in the case
(bearings). layout points)
Theoforientations
construction and
line A–A
(bearings) the and
measured
will the coordi-
measured
be calculated
nates
batter(each
based board
on theside of the wood
of points
designed 10–11,plank).
coordinates the two Forbearings
example,
(construction in the
will
layout case
be calculated
points)of construction
andasthe θA3–A6 line
measuredandA–Aθ10–11and
coordi-as
the
natesmeasured
previously
(each side batter
mentioned board of
in Section
of the wood points
plank). 2.4. 10–11,
For We the
consider
example, twointhebearings
the newcase pointwill be calculated
201 as theline
of construction as θ
intersection
A–A andA3–A6

and
the θ10-11 as
between
measuredthepreviously
two
batter mentioned
bearings,
board and in subchapter
in order
of points to determine
10–11, 2.4. We
the two consider willthe
its coordinates,
bearings benew
the point 201
bearing
calculated as as
betweenthe
θA3–A6
intersection
point 10 and between
point 201the
is two
needed, bearings,
which and
is in
the order
same to
as determine
the bearing
and θ10-11 as previously mentioned in subchapter 2.4. We consider the new point 201 as10–11 its
of coordinates,
the batter the
board bear-
θ the
ing between
(point
intersection point 10the
201 isbetween
collinear and
on point
line
two 201 Also,
10–11).
bearings, isand
needed,
the which
bearing
in order is the same
between
to determine point asA3
theandbearing
its coordinates, theof
point 201the
is
bear-
batter
needed,
ing board
betweenwhich θ (point
is the
point
10–11 10same 201
and as is
point collinear
the 201
bearing on line 10–11).
of the construction
is needed, Also,
which is theline the
same bearing
A3–A6, between
as thecalculated point
bearing offrom the
A3
theand
batter pointθ201
designed
board 10–11is(point
needed,
coordinates which
(Figure
201 is the
11).
is collinear Thus,same theascoordinates
on line the bearing
10–11). Also, ofthe
of thebearing
point construction
201 can linepoint
be obtained
between A3–
A6,
using
A3 calculated
and the from
formulas:
point 201 the designed
is needed, whichcoordinates
is the same (Figure 11). Thus,
as the bearing of thetheconstruction
coordinates line of point
A3–
201 can be obtained using the formulas:
A6, calculated from the designed coordinates (Figure 11). Thus, the coordinates of point
Y10 − YA3 − X10 tgθ10−201 + XA3 tgθA3−201
201 can be obtainedXusing 201 =the formulas:
, , (9)
Y −YA3 −X10 tg θ10−201 +XA3 tg θA3−201
X201 = 10 tgθ (9)
tg−
10 201 −−tg
θ10−201 tgθθA3 −201
A3−201
Y −Y −X tg θ +X tg θ
X201 = 10 A3 10 10−201 A3 A3−201 , (9)
tg θ10−201 −tg θA3−201
Y201 = Y
Y201 = A3 + X
YA3 +((X201 −− XX A3 ))tgθ
tg θA3 − 201 ,, (10)
(10)
201 A3 A3−201
Y201 = YA3 + (X201 − XA3 ) tg θA3−201 , (10)

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Batter
Batter boards
boards survey.
survey.
Figure 10. Batter boards survey.

Figure 11. Construction lines and batter boards intersection.

Figure 11. Construction
Figure 11. Construction lines
lines and
and batter boards intersection.
batter boards intersection.
The advantages of this method are that it can be performed with older models of total
stations
Thethat do not have
advantages of thisspecial
method functions (e.g.,
are that it can reference line/layout
be performed line)models
with older or with
of total
total
stations that do not have special functions (e.g., reference line/layout line) or with total
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 15 of 19

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The advantages of this method are that it can be performed with older models of
total stations
stations wherethat dofunctions
these not have are
special functions
blocked and it (e.g., reference
is necessary to line/layout line) or with
purchase additional soft-
total stations where these functions are blocked and it is necessary to
ware packages. It is an engineering alternative to the classical method, the actualpurchase additional
layout
software
on packages.
the batter boardItisiseasy
an engineering alternative
and accessible to the
to anyone, asclassical method,
it is a regular the actual
stake-out layout
based on
on the batter board is easy and accessible to anyone, as it is a regular
the polar coordinates method (horizontal angle and distance). The disadvantages of this stake-out based
on the polar
method coordinates
are again numerous,method (horizontal
because angle
it has a low and distance).
efficiency in termsThe disadvantages
of time. Also, numer-of
this method are again numerous, because it has a low efficiency in terms of time. Also,
ous errors can occur when measuring the wood planks and manually calculating these
numerous errors can occur when measuring the wood planks and manually calculating
intersecting coordinates. Another disadvantage is the need for qualitative batter boards,
these intersecting coordinates. Another disadvantage is the need for qualitative batter
because if the wood planks are bent and the survey is at each side, the resulting intersec-
boards, because if the wood planks are bent and the survey is at each side, the resulting
tion of coordinates will be outside the wood section.
intersection of coordinates will be outside the wood section.
3.2.3.
3.2.3. Survey
Survey of of the
the Batter
Batter Boards
Boards and
and Computer-Aided
Computer-Aided Design Design (CAD)
(CAD) Implementation
Implementation
This
This method
method is is based
based on on the
the same
same methodology
methodology and and principle
principle asas the
the previous
previous one,one,
with
with the survey of the batter boards, in order to determine the coordinates of
the survey of the batter boards, in order to determine the coordinates of each
each side.
side.
The difference isisthat
The difference thatinstead
insteadofofaamanual
manualcalculus
calculusofof the
the intersecting
intersecting coordinate,
coordinate, thethe sur-
survey
vey data is exported inside CAD software, the same one used
data is exported inside CAD software, the same one used for establishing the site layoutfor establishing the site
layout
plan, andplan,
theand theboards
batter batter are
boards are represented
represented as polylines.
as polylines. Using the Using the geometry
geometry functions, func-
the
tions, the construction
construction line (axes) line (axes) isuntil
is extended extended until they
they intersect theintersect the new
new polyline polyline
(batter (batter
board), and
board), and the intersecting
the intersecting coordinate coordinate
is extractedisand
extracted
inserted andininserted
the totalinstation
the total station12).
(Figure (Figure
The
12). The advantages of this method are that it can be performed with
advantages of this method are that it can be performed with older models of total stations older models of total
stations
that do notthathave
do not havefunctions
special special functions (e.g., reference
(e.g., reference line/layout line/layout line) total
line) or with or with total
stations
stations
where thesewhere these functions
functions are blocked
are blocked and it and it is necessary
is necessary to purchase
to purchase additional
additional soft-
software
ware packages.
packages. Also,Also, the actual
the actual layout
layout on on
thethe batter
batter board
board is iseasy
easyand
andaccessible
accessible to to anyone,
as it is a regular stake-out based on the the polar
polar coordinates
coordinates method method (horizontal
(horizontal angle and
distance). The disadvantages of this method are numerous, because it has a low efficiency
in terms of time. Also, numerous errors can occur when measuring the wood planks and
the insert-export in CAD software, as well as the need to bring a laptop laptop on-site.
on-site. Another
disadvantage is the need for qualitative batter boards, because if the wood planks are bent
and the survey is at each side, the resulting intersection of coordinates will be outside the
wood section.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Intersection coordinate extraction.
Intersection coordinate extraction.

3.2.4. Reference Line Function

This method is the most popular current choice for on-site layout in a construction construction
survey. ItItisisaaspecial
survey. specialfunction
functionor or
program
program inside the total
inside station,
the total and itand
station, is commonly called
it is commonly
reference
called line or line
reference layout line (depending
or layout on the total
line (depending on thestation
total brand). This function
station brand). creates
This function
a reference
creates line between
a reference two oftwo
line between the of
characteristic pointspoints
the characteristic of theofconstruction
the construction(measured
(meas-
or designed), and all future measurements are displayed with respect
ured or designed), and all future measurements are displayed with respect to this line. to this line. The
displayed values are ∆L (line) and ∆O (offset), in regards to a newly observed
The displayed values are ΔL (line) and ΔO (offset), in regards to a newly observed (meas- (measured)
point. point.
ured) These These
valuesvalues
represent the length/distance
represent (∆L) from
the length/distance (ΔL)the
fromfirst
thereference point to
first reference the
point
observed (measured) one, and the offset (∆O) of the observed (measured)
to the observed (measured) one, and the offset (ΔO) of the observed (measured) point point from the
reference
from line (displacement
the reference from collinearity).
line (displacement These values
from collinearity). Theseserve vitalserve
values applications in the
vital applica-
tions in the field that simplify most of the layout applications, and provide invaluable
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2021,
2021,11,
11,4331
x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of
of 19
19

assistance
field to the survey
that simplify most ofengineer.
the layoutByapplications,
knowing these andvalues,
provideit invaluable
is very accessible
assistanceto lay out
to the
points at different lengths from each other or from a certain position, or lay
survey engineer. By knowing these values, it is very accessible to lay out points at different out points
collinear
lengths to aeach
from certain direction
other or fromora certain
at certain designed
position, offsets.
or lay In the collinear
out points case of batter boards
to a certain
layout, the
direction methodology
or at is tooffsets.
certain designed create aInreference
the case ofline represented
batter by a the
boards layout, construction
methodology line
is(axes), andawith
to create repeated
reference line measurements
represented byto locate a collinear
a construction point on
line (axes), andthe batter
with board
repeated
with the valuetooflocate
measurements ΔO =a0.000 m. The
collinear pointvalues
on theΔL and board
batter ΔO are calculated
with of ∆O
from
the value the=designed
0.000 m.
The values ∆L and ∆O are calculated from the designed and measured coordinates,
and measured coordinates, and are based on trigonometry, as presented in Figure 13and
and
thebased
are following formulas: as presented in Figure 13 and the following formulas:
on trigonometry,

ωP0ω=P′ θ=A3θ−A3−P′ − θA3−A6 ,

P0 − θA3−A6 ,
(11)
(11)

∆OΔO
=D= DA3−P′ ⋅ sin ω , ,
A3−P0 · sin ωP0P′
(12)
(12)
∆LΔL
=D =A3 −P0 · cos
DA3−P′ ωω
⋅ cos , ,
P0 P′ (13)
(13)

Figure13.
Figure 13.Reference
Referenceline
linemethod
methodapplied
appliedon
onfield
field(left)
(left)and
andgeneral
generalconcept
concept(right).
(right).

Themain
The mainadvantage
advantage ofofthis
thismethod
methodisisthetheefficiency
efficiencyin
interms
termsofofexecution
executiontime.
time.ItItisis
themost
the mostpopular
popularlayout
layoutmethod
methodandandcan
canbe
beusedusedononany
anyconstruction
constructionsite
siteand
andunder
underanyany
conditions. In
conditions. In terms
terms of
of disadvantages,
disadvantages, this
this method
method requires
requires aanewer
newermodel
modeltotal
totalstation
station
or to
or tobuy
buycertain
certainsoftware
softwarepackages.
packages. Also,
Also, ititrequires
requiresaabetter
betterexperience
experienceandandteamwork
teamwork
between the
between thesurvey
surveyengineer
engineerandandassistant,
assistant,as aswell
wellasasaabetter
betterorientation
orientationin
inspace
spacethan
thanaa
normal
normalpolar
polarcoordinate
coordinatestake-out.
stake-out.

4.
4. Discussion
Discussion
For
Forthe
thecomparison
comparisonbetween
betweenthe thelayout
layoutlines
linesmethods,
methods,aatrial-and-error
trial-and-errormethod
methodwas was
implemented
implemented in the field in order to analyze the different geometries obtained.Because
in the field in order to analyze the different geometries obtained. Because
some
someofofthethemethods
methodscan bebe
can considered
considered old-fashioned
old-fashionedwith lowlow
with efficiency, the precision
efficiency, and
the precision
time were compared regarding the stake-out of four construction lines (axes),
and time were compared regarding the stake-out of four construction lines (axes), respec- respectively
eight
tivelymarkings on batter
eight markings onboards. Each method
batter boards. Each yielded
methodfeasible
yieldedresults,
feasibleresulting
results, in collinear
resulting in
markings on the batter boards, with very few and small deviations (as shown
collinear markings on the batter boards, with very few and small deviations (as shown in in the last
picture
the lastofpicture
Figureof14). The second
Figure 14). Theand thirdand
second methods both produce
third methods both the same coordinate
produce the same coor-for
stake-out and the topographic nail representing this method is the middle one;
dinate for stake-out and the topographic nail representing this method is the middle one; the interior
one was marked using the classical method and the exterior one was determined using
the interior one was marked using the classical method and the exterior one was deter-
reference line function. In terms of time efficiency, the methods were timed, achieving rou-
mined using reference line function. In terms of time efficiency, the methods were timed,
tinely predictable results: the batter boards survey with manual calculation of coordinates
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 17 of 19

achieving routinely predictable results: the batter boards survey with manual calculation
of coordinates took longest, with roughly 2 h of work; the batter boards survey with CAD
took longest, withasroughly
implementation well as2 the
h ofclassical
work; thetheodolite
batter boards survey
method with
took CAD implementation
approximately 1 h; the
as well as the classical theodolite method took approximately 1 h; the reference
reference line method was the most efficient and easy to put into practice, with line
15method
min of
was the most efficient and easy to put into practice, with 15 min of implementation.
implementation.

Figure 14. Construction

Figure 14. Construction twine
twine and
and batter
batter boards
boards markings used for
markings used for layout
layout points positioning; obtained
points positioning; obtained markings
markings of
of the
the 44
methods of batter board stake-out (right).
methods of batter board stake-out (right).

The
The desideratum
desideratumwas wastotomark markreliable
reliablepoints
points onon each
eachbatter board,
batter in order
board, for the
in order for
builders
the buildersto further position
to further construction
position construction layout points
layout without
points withoutinstrumentation
instrumentation andandex-
pertise.
expertise. AsAsshown
shownin inFigure
Figure 14,14,this
thisisisobtained
obtainedusing
usingconstruction
constructiontwine
twine byby stretching
stretching it
between the points
points (nails)
(nails)on onthe
thewoodwoodplanks,
planks,and anda mechanical
a mechanical projection
projection with
with a plum-
a plummet
met onground
on the the ground
fromfrom the twine
the twine intersection.
intersection. Although
Although not as not as precise
precise as a layout
as a layout with with a
a total
total station,
station, this established
this established methodmethod is viable
is viable for smaller
for smaller to medium-scale
to medium-scale projects,
projects, and and
can
ensure
can a required
ensure point
a required standard
point standard deviation
deviation of µofP μ=P ±
= (1–2)
±(1–2)cm.cm.These
These layout
layout points are
used by the the builders
buildersforforguidance
guidanceregarding
regarding thethe
excavation
excavation area, foundation
area, foundationandandstructural
struc-
elements
tural positioning,
elements and assures
positioning, and assuresthe verticality of theoferected
the verticality building.
the erected building.
In future, building
building information
informationmodelling
modelling(BIM) (BIM)will also
will have
also havea significant impact
a significant impacton
thethe
on work workof surveyor
of surveyorengineers,
engineers,as it asis currently regarded
it is currently as a major
regarded paradigm
as a major shift inshift
paradigm the
construction
in industry,
the construction especially
industry, for civilfor
especially engineers and architects
civil engineers [31]. Traditional
and architects building
[31]. Traditional
design models depend to a large extent on two-dimensional
building design models depend to a large extent on two-dimensional technical drawings,technical drawings, and a
BIM aplatform
and expands
BIM platform the three
expands theprimary spatial spatial
three primary dimensions (width,(width,
dimensions height and depth),
height and
integrating
depth), multiplemultiple
integrating advantages due to their
advantages due economic benefits benefits
to their economic in designinand construction
design and con-
phases [32,33].
struction phasesFuture
[32,33].perspectives include the
Future perspectives establishment
include and integration
the establishment of the site
and integration of
layout plan with the BIM design in order to achieve sustainable
the site layout plan with the BIM design in order to achieve sustainable and productive and productive practice
regarding
practice the construction
regarding industry.industry.
the construction
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The efficient layout planning of buildings in a construction site is a fundamental task
The efficient layout planning of buildings in a construction site is a fundamental task
for undertaking any project. In an attempt to enhance the general practice of layout plan-
for undertaking any project. In an attempt to enhance the general practice of layout plan-
ning of construction sites, the paper presents a retrospective for the surveyor engineer’s
ning of construction sites, the paper presents a retrospective for the surveyor engineer’s
role in the construction industry, a design for a comprehensive site layout plan with on-site
role in the construction industry, a design for a comprehensive site layout plan with on-
applicability and introduces a novel comparison between four methods of construction
site applicability and introduces a novel comparison between four methods of construc-
lines layout on batter boards. The presented general knowledge further cements the impor-
tion lines layout on batter boards. The presented general knowledge further cements the
tance of geodetic specialists in the field, and the designed layout plan serves as guidelines
importance of geodetic
for existing and specialistsasinwell
future engineers, theasfield, and theindesigned
researchers the field.layout
In this plan serves
context, as
safety
guidelines for existing and future engineers, as well as researchers in the
and freedom from hazard concerns are key factors for a productive construction survey and field. In this
context, safety and
layout project. The freedom
comparisonfrom hazard concerns
highlights the viable are key factors for of
implementation a productive
each of the con-
four
struction survey and layout project. The comparison highlights the viable implementation
methods of batter board construction lines layout, especially in regard to the instrumenta-
of each
tion usedof and
the four methods
the on-site of batterwith
conditions, boardtheconstruction
undisputed lines layout, especially
recommendation of the in regard
reference
to the instrumentation used and the on-site conditions, with the undisputed
line method due to its overall efficiency and accuracy. Given the current development recommen-
dation of the reference
and expanding line method
implementations of due
BIMtothatits also
overall efficiency
impact and of
the work accuracy.
surveyors,Given the
future
current development and expanding implementations of BIM that also impact
investigations will be made in order to integrate the site layout plan inside the platform. the work
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4331 18 of 19

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank the Academic Editor and anonymous reviewers
for their helpful and valuable comments and suggestions.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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