GAUSS DIVERGENCE THEOREM,

STOKES’ THEOREM, and GREEN’S

THEOREM
Dr. Priti Mishra

1 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM OF GAUSS

The divergence theorem of Gauss states that if V is the volume bounded by
a closed surface S and A is a vector function of position with continuous
derivatives, then
˚ ¨ ‹
∇.AdV = A.n̂dS = A.dS (1)
V S S

where n̂ is the positive (outward drawn) normal to S.

Gauss diveregnce theorem can also be stated as following:
The surface integral of the normal component of a vector A taken over
a closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of A taken over
the volume enclosed by the surface.
Proof: Let S be a closed surface which is such that any line parallel to

Figure 1:

the coordinate axes cuts S in at most two points. Assume the equations of

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the lower and upper portions, S1 and S2 , to be z = f1 (x, y) and z = f2 (x, y)
respectively. Denote the projection of the surface on the xy plane by R.
Consider
˚ ˚
∂A3 ∂A3
dV = dzdydx
V ∂z V ∂z
¨ ˆ f2 (x,y)
" #
∂A3
= dz dydx
R z=f1 (x,y) ∂z
¨
= A3 (x, y, z)|fz=f
2
1
dydx
¨ R

= [A3 (x, y, f2 ) − A3 (x, y, f1 )] dydx (2)

R
For the upper portion S2 , dydx = cos γ2 dS2 = k.n2 dS2 since the normal n2
to S2 makes an acute angle γ2 with k.

For the lower portion S1 , dydx = − cos γ1 dS2 = k.n1 dS1 since the nor-
mal n1 to S1 makes an obtuse angle γ1 with k.
Then
¨ ¨
A3 (x, y, f2 )dydx = A3 k.n2 dS2
R S2
¨ ¨
A3 (x, y, f1 )dydx = − A3 k.n1 dS1
R S1

and
¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
A3 (x, y, f2 )dydx − A3 (x, y, f1 )dydx = A3 k.n2 dS2 + A3 k.n1 dS1
R R S2 S1
¨
= A3 k.ndS (3)
S

so from equations (2) and (3)

˚ ¨
∂A3
dV = A3 k.ndS (4)
V ∂z S
Similarly, by projecting S on the other coordinate planes,
˚ ¨
∂A1
dV = A1 i.ndS (5)
∂x
˚V ¨S
∂A2
dV = A2 j.ndS (6)
V ∂y S

Adding equations (4), (5) and (6),

˚   ¨
∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3
+ + dV = (A1 i + A2 j + A3 k) .ndS (7)
V ∂x ∂y ∂z S

Or

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 ˚ ¨ ‹
∇.AdV = A.n̂dS = A.dS (8)
V S S

Proved.

1.1 Physical demonstration of the divergence theorem

Let A = velocity v at any point of a moving fluid. From Figure (2 a) below:

Volume of fluid crossing dS in ∆tseconds

= volume contained in cylinder of base dS and slant heightv∆t
= (v∆t).ndS = v.ndS∆t

Then, volume per second of fluid crossing dS = v.dS Prom Figure (2 b)

Figure 2:

above:
Total volume per second of fluid emerging from closed surface S

˜
= S v.ndS

And we know that ∇.vdV is the volume per second of fluid emerging from
a volume element dV. Then
Total volume per second of fluid emerging from all volume elements in S

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 ˝
= V ∇.vdV
Thus ¨ ˚
v.ndS = ∇.vdV (9)
S V

2 STOKES’ THEOREM
Stokes’ theorem states that if S is an open, two-sided surface bounded by a
closed, nonintersecting curve C (simple closed curve) then if A has contin-
uous derivatives
˛ ¨ ¨
A.dr = (∇ × A) .n̂dS = (∇ × A) .dS (10)
C S S

where C is traversed in the positive direction. The direction of C is called

positive if an observer, walking on the boundary of S in this direction, with
his head pointing in the direction of the positive normal to S, has the surface
on his left.
In other words Stokes’ theorem may be stated as following:
The line integral of the tangential component of a vector A taken around a
simple closed curve C is equal to the surface integral of the normal compo-
nent of the curl of A taken over any surface S having C as its boundary.
Proof: Let S be a surface which is such that its projections on the xy,

Figure 3:

yz and xz planes are regions bounded by simple closed curves, as indicated

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in the adjoining figure. Assume S to have representation z = f (x, y) or
x = g(y, z) or y = h(x, z), where f, g, h are single-valued, continuous and
differentiable functions. We must show that
¨ ¨
(∇ × A) .dS = [∇ × (A1 i + A2 j + A3 k)] .ndS
S ˛ S

= A.dr (11)
C

where Cis the boundary

˜ of S.
Consider first S [∇ × A1 i] .ndS.

Since  
 î ĵ k̂ 
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂A1 ∂A1
∇ × (A1 i) =  ∂x ∂y ∂z  = ∂z j − ∂y k,
A 0 0
1
 
∂A1 ∂A1
[∇ × A1 i] .ndS = n.j − n.k dS (12)
∂z ∂y
If z = f (x, y) is taken as the equation of S, then the position vector to any
∂r
point of S is r = xi + yj + zk = xi + yj + f (x, y)k so that ∂y = j + ∂f
∂y k. But
∂r
∂y is a vector tangent to S and thus perpendicular to n, so that

∂r ∂z
n. = n.j + n.k = 0 (13)
∂y ∂y
Or
∂z
n.j = − n.k (14)
∂y
Substituting equation (14) into equation (12), we obtain
   
∂A1 ∂A1 ∂A1 ∂z ∂A1
n.j − n.k dS = − n.k − n.k dS (15)
∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂y

Or  
∂A1 ∂z ∂A1
[∇ × A1 i] .ndS = − + n.kdS (16)
∂z ∂y ∂y
∂A1 ∂z ∂A1 ∂F
Now on S,1 (x, y, z) = A1 (x, y, f (x, y)) = F (x, y); hence ∂z ∂y + ∂y = ∂y
and equation (16) becomes

∂F ∂F
[∇ × A1 i] .ndS = − n.kdS = − dxdy (17)
∂y ∂y
Then ¨ ¨
∂F
[∇ × A1 i] .ndS = − dxdy (18)
S R ∂y

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where R is the projection of S¸ on the xy plane. By Green’s theorem for the
plane the last integral equals Γ F dx where Γ is the boundary of R. Since at
each point (x, y) of Γ the value of F is the same as the value of A1 at each
point (x, y, z) of C, and since dx is the same for both curves, we must have
˛ ˛
F dx = A1 dx (19)
Γ C

or ¨ ˛
[∇ × A1 i] .ndS = A1 dx (20)
S C
Similarly, by projections on the other coordinate planes,
¨ ˛
[∇ × A1 i] .ndS = A1 dx (21)
¨S ˛C
[∇ × A2 j] .ndS = A2 dy (22)
¨S ˛C
[∇ × A3 k] .ndS = A3 dz (23)
S C

Thus by addition,

¨ ˛
[∇ × A] .ndS = A.dr (24)
S C

Proved.
The theorem is also valid for surfaces S which may not satisfy the re-
strictions imposed above. For assume that S can be subdivided into surfaces
S1 , S2 , .....Sk with boundaries C1 , C2 , .....Ck which do satisfy the restrictions.
Then Stokes’ theorem holds for each such surface. Adding these surface inte-
grals, the total surface integral over S is obtained. Adding the corresponding
line integrals over C1 , C2 , .....Ck , the line integral over is obtained.

3 GREEN’S THEOREM IN THE PLANE

If R is a closed region of the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve
C and if M and N are continuous functions of x and y having continuous
derivatives in R, then
˛ ¨  
∂N ∂M
(M dx + N dy) = − dxdy (25)
C R ∂x ∂y

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where C is traversed in the positive (counterclockwise)
¸ direction. Unless
otherwise stated we shall always assume to mean that the integral is de-
scribed in the positive sense.

Green’s theorem in the plane is a special case of Stokes’ theorem. Also,

it is of interest to notice that Gauss’ divergence theorem is a generaliza-
tion of Green’s theorem in the plane where the (plane) region R and its
closed boundary (curve) C are replaced by a (space) region V and its closed
boundary (surface) S. For this reason the divergence theorem is often called
Green’s theorem in space.

Green’s theorem in the plane also holds for regions bounded by a finite
number of simple closed curves which do not intersect.

Proof: Let the equations of the curves AEB and AFB (see Fig. 4) be

Figure 4:

y = Y1 (x) and y = Y2 (x) respectively. If R is the region bounded by C, we

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have
¨ ˆ x=b
"ˆ
y=Y2 (x)
#
∂M ∂M
dxdy = dy dx
R ∂y x=a y=Y1 (x) ∂y
ˆ x=b
y=Y (x)
= M (x, y)|y=Y21 (x) dx
x=a
ˆ b
= [M (x, Y2 ) − M (x, Y1 )] dx
a
ˆ b ˆ a ˛
= − M (x, Y1 )dx − M (x, Y2 )dx = − M dx(26)
a b C

Then ˛ ¨
∂M
M dx = − dxdy (27)
C R ∂y
Similarly let the equations of curves EAF and EBF be x = X1 (y) and
x = X2 (y) respectively. Then
¨ ˆ x=f "ˆ x=X2 (y) #
∂N ∂N
dxdy = dx dy
R ∂x y=e x=X1 (y) ∂x
ˆ y=f
x=X (y)
= N (x, y)|x=X21 (y) dy
y=e
ˆ f
= [N (X2 , y) − N (X1 , y)] dy
e
ˆ e ˆ f ˛
= N (X1 , y)dy + N (X2 , y)dy = N dy (28)
f e C

Then ˛ ¨
∂N
N dy = dxdy (29)
C R ∂x
Adding equations (27) and (29)

˛ ¨  
∂N ∂M
M dx + N dy = − dxdy. (30)
C R ∂x ∂y

Proved.