| Schlumberger tam mee TH CTT] ETAL ELE a aFOREWORD ‘The study of Petroleum Engineering covers a broad spectrum of geology, physics and applied mathematics spanning the geological processes by which hydrocarbons are formed and accumilated into reservoirs, the properties of reservoir rocks and the behavior of formation oil, water and gases during the process of extraction. ‘This booklet was distilled fram the mass of Literature available on the subject with the objective of providing the incoming engineer with an overall view of the industry and with the fundamentals of reservoir and production that a Schlumberger general field engineer requires. The reservoir and wells are interacting elements of a composite system in which the well provides access to the reservoir and is the means by which measurements (and our revenues) are made. Considerable emphasis is placed on well. perfor ance and testing as these are areas of direct involvement with our Production logging and well completion services. With the advent of computor log processing, field integrated log analysis has ‘become possible and reservoir mapping of reserves is a developing extention of our logging activities into reservoir managenent. ‘The study of fractured reservoirs would nommally be considered beyond the scope of an introductory petroleun engineering course. However, due to the great importance of this unconventional type reservoir to Middle East oil production, Chapter 10, written by Prof. Van Gold Racht of the University of Trodheim, has been included summarizing the subject. We would like to thank Manfred Wittmann and Dr. G. Stewart of EHS Marketing PR for their help in reviewing the draft of this booklet. . Aitken ‘guly 1980CONTENTS Chapter, Page > ow Introduction 1-1 A. Conditions favorable for hydrocarbon reservoir formation 41 B. Oil field units of measurement 1-2 Cc. SI oilfield units 1-3 Geology and hydrocarbon accumulations 21 A. Introduction (geological terminology) 2-1 B. Historical geology 2-2 Cc. Structure of the earth 24 D. Classification of rocks 2-7 E. The origin and habitat of oil 2-11 F. Hydrocarbon reservoirs 2-13 G. Sub-surface mapping 2-16 H. Reservoir temperature and pressure 2-17 3.-__Reservoir Fluid behaviour 341 A. Classification of oil and gas 3-1 B. Phase behaviour in hydrocarbon reservoirs 34 C. Reservoir fluid properties 3411 1) source of fluids data 3411 2) compressibility of gases 3-12 3) conversion factors between surface and downhole volumes: 316 a) gas formation volure factor, Bg 3-17 b) oi1 formation volume factor, Bo 3-19 ©) water formation volume factor, By 3-23 4) fluid density correlations 3-24 5) viscosity correlations 3-26 D. Rock compressibility 3-28 B. Appendix - Fluid Conversion Charts 3-29 Reservoir Rock properties a1 A. Porosity 4-1 B. Permeability 4-3 C. Measurement of permeability 4-6 D. Measurement of porosity 4-8 E, Measurement of capillary pressure (mercury injection) 4-9Well performance A. r Page awd a Surface-tensicn-wettabi lity-capillarity-saturation 54 Surface tension 5-1 Wettebility 5-3 Capillarity 5-4 Repartition of saturation in reservoir rocks 5-6 Irreducible water saturation 5-7 Displacement pressure 5-8 Displacement of oil 5-9 Residual oil 5-11 Relations between permeabilities and fluid saturations 5-13 Relative permeability - Saturation correlations 5-15 Reservoir drive mechanisms 1 Oil reservoirs ot Solution gas drive reservoirs 6-2 Gas cap expansion drive reservoirs 6-3 Water drive reservoirs 6-4 Discussion of recovery efficiency (including gravity 65 drainage) 7-1 Nomenclature and model for ideal cylindrical flow mm Radius of drainage 74 Well pressure drawdown a Productivity index and specific productivity index 75 Fomnation damage 7-6 Fonnation improvement 7-8 Skin factor 7-8 Skin damage in perforated completions 7-9 Inflow production relation - IPR 7-10 Evaluation of a formation treatment with IPR ca Composite IPR of multi-zone completion 7412 Cross flow between zones 7-13 Water cut vs. production rate 7-14 Performance of flowing oil wells 7-15 Simulator - single well model 7-20 Reservoir Estimates 8-1 Volumetric methods a1 Calculation of the reserve 8-2 Uncertainty in reservoir estimates 8-3 Pield integrated log analysis and reservoir mapping services 8-6 4) Normalization of data 8-8 2) Gridding and mapping 89 3) Monitoring fluid interface changes 89 Reservoir estimates - material balance methods 8-10 1) Material balance - gas reservoirs 8-10 2) Generalized material balance - oil reservoirs 8-13Chapter — 9.- Well testing and pressure transient analysis A. The DST (drill stem testing) B. LIT (long term production test)of oil wells C. ‘Test procedures for high capacity gas wells D. RET - The wireline formation tester E, Transient test. techniques and analysis F. Drawdown behavior G. Pressure buildup analysis 4) Homer's method 2) MOH (Miller, Dyes, Hutchinson method) H, Remarks concerning slope and shape of pressure drawdown curves 10.- Fractured reservoirs Introduction A physical description of a fractured reservoir A comparison of conventional and fractured reservoir performance Tdealized model of a fractured reservoir Description of the fracture process Porosity and permeability ae Oe 1) Determination of porosity 2) Penteability determination G. Production mechanisms in the fractured reservoir H, Discussion of displacement mechanisms I. Steady state flow towards the well J. Transient flow 1) Warren and Root method 2) Pollaird method K, Appendix - Mathematical derivation of Warren and Root method A. Nawenclature - Practical oilfield units and synbols B. Conversion factors between Practical oilfield units, Metric S.I. and other measures ©. Miscellaneous oil field conversions D. Physical constants and values ot o-1 9-4 9-6 9-10 ott 9-15 9-18 9-19 9-22 9-24 11-1 11-3 11-12 11-13INTRODUCTION | 1 Conditions favorable for hydrocarbon reservoir formation ‘Three basic requirements must be fulfilled to accumlate oil and gas ina commercially exploitable reservoir. First, the reservoir rock mst possess sufficient void space, called porosity, to contain the oil and gas. Secondly, there must be adequate connectivity, or poceesatliery Of the pore spaces to allow transportation of the fluids over large distances under reasonable gradients of pressure. ‘Third, a sufficient quantity hydrocarbons mst be accumilated into a trap of impervious cap rock which prevents upward migration of the oil and gas from the source beds, form- ing a petroleum reservoir. HYDROCARBON BEARING Fig. 1-1, Accumilation of oil and gas into a reservoir.1-2 B, Oilfield units of measurement ‘Thus far no industry-wide standardization of units has occured and a mixture of metric mks, cs, SI, and "practical oilfield units" with its API barrels, cubic feet of gas and psi units are used, Tt is expected that all countries will eventually standardize on metric sI* system of measurements, Standardization within the Petroleun industry, with only very minor variations in detail, has been launched in England, Canada and the U.S. Progress is slow however, and the ‘of technical literature available today uses the "practical oilfield units" established by the AMIE (American Institute of Mining and Petroleum Engineering) in 1958. Table 1-1 below compares units and quantities most frequently encountered in oil field practice. Jvoiune, gas Progaction rate, gas cos-oll ratio Pressure ‘Temperature, absolute nine Fomation thickness viscosity ‘Table 1-1 ‘tok tank barrel measured at 60%, 14,65 pata standard cuble foot measured at 60%, 14.65 pata stock tank barrel per day standard cubic feet per day standard cubic fect per stock tank barrel pounds per square finch Agree Rankine Comparison of units used in the oilfield. lo mates measured at fate = 101.35 KPa cubic metre measured at $58, 1 atm bic metre per second cubic netre par second n/m, dimensionless Pa, pascal « nevton per square metre K, Kelvin 8) second im, metre * $.I, is the official abbreviation, in all languages, for the International System of units (le Systéme International d'unités)A brief description of SI oilfield units (Condensed from Technical Review article "Metrification in North America” Vol. 26 No 4) SI is a coherent unit system of units and measures, essentially an up-graded version of mks, and is based on the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela. A list of SI base and supplementary units is given below : Remarks BASE UNITS length meter, or metre U.S. spelling is meter". Canadian and 1SO (International Or- ganization for Standardization) spelling is “metre”. mass, kilogram: This is the only base unit having a prefix. In SI the “kilogram” {s always 2 unit of mass, never @ unit of weight of force. time second The “second” is the base unit, but in practice other time units are allowable, electric eurent ampere ‘thermodynamic temperature | kelvin amount of substance mole luminous intensity candela ‘SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS. lane angle a These angular units are design solid angle steradian with respect tothe base quanti id by 1S0 to be dimensionless, Table 1-2. SI base and supplementary units. Additional units obtained fron base and supplementary units with a conversion factor of unity, are called "derived coherent units" - a list of examples is given in Teble 1-4, Table 1-3 lists prefixes for SI unit symbols used for multiples and sub-mltiples. Note that same SI prefixes, conflict with those used with practical oilfield units. For example, SI, "k" and "M" ("kilo" and "mega") correspond to x 1000 and X 1 000 000, whereas "M" and "MM", or "m" and "nm", have been used in the oil industry to designate "thousands" and millions of volume units of gas.One inconvenience of the SI system is that many common oilfield quantities, pressure, production rate, pemmeshility etc. must be expressed in unfamiliar unit multiples - which are not yet industry-wide standardized. ex alesinabout) as in petal asin terrace Ji’ a(@ as in about) as in megaphone asinkilowatt heck'toe deci’a (a as in about) as in decimal asin cantipede asin military as in microphone ‘nan‘oh (an as inant) peek’oh fem‘toe (fem asin feminine) asin anatomy SI_unit prefixes, For more complete information on use of SI units in well logging, refer to ‘Technical Review Vol. 26, No 4. Unless otherwise noted, practical oilfield units are used in this booklet. Nomenclature and a conversion factor table is given in the appendix, chapter 11.reset pressed Unit Name Terms of Otner_| Base- and Supplementary. Derived SIUnits Unit Symbols ‘absoreed dose of onizing | gray (replaces the rad) mest radiation) acceleration, linear meter per second squared mos-2 actviy (of raionusives) | becquerel replaces the curie) st angular acceleration radian per second squared fads? angular velocity radian per second rages area square meter m2 ‘capacitance (eectical fared m=Po kg taste Ae charge (electrical coulomb SoA conductance electrical! | siemens" replaces the mho| Bogs g8 oA conductivity electrical) | siemens per meter m3 ohn t 58 AE current density ampere per square meter m-? density mass) ‘eiogram per cub meter bg-m-2 electromotive force volt me shges-3+A- ‘energy joulet m2 hg es-2 entiony joule per tevin mee kg e520 Kt field strengn (eectica | veltparmater msiges-3-A-t force newton ms tges- frequency hertz st heat capacity joule per kelvin me rkges-2 eK heat, quantity of Joule m2 hg es-2 iumisance lu m-?-ed> sr inductance hey v mt kg es-2+A-? luminance candela per square meter cde m-? tamicus fx lumen odes imagntic field strength | ampere per meter Aem-t rmagnatis fsx weber mochges-20A-t magnetic fox density tesla iges-2-At magnetic permeaiity henry per meter mekges-2 +A? neuton capture cess section | per meter fie, square meter mt per cubie meter), pecitvty forad per meter m9 igat at RE polenal potential dtterence | vet v meckges-eA-E (eetza) power watt w aeekges3 presse pascal* fa mteiges-? ‘want of etectrey charge) | coulomb c sa radiant fur watt w meskgss-3 fadient intensity watt per steradian Wise mivkges-3esr—t resistance (electica) ohm (cap omega) meciges 9 Ar? resist (electrics) ohm meter or ohmanetor™® — | +m miskges-9+A-2 specie heat eapacty le mess" eK stress pascal” Pa n-tokges-2 thesral conductivity walt per meter kevin Wit.) mekges-3 Kot veloc meter per second nis mes ‘isco, dyeamic pascal second or pasa Pars mteigea-t ‘second viscosity, inematie square meter persecond | m/s mess voltge valt v imps 3A volure cubic meter m ” wave rumber (cytes per meter Un nt work joules | me -kg3-2 sth meter sgt per mea Sets wd eagles est do ae bak tea anna Table 1-4. Examples of SI coherent derived units. —_—1-6 Coherent Si Units Tirvane inte, lsat uantty als meter per secon. squared wie an tessealants yd is feedetc and gravity work {o express the acceleration due to grav The internationally 3e- cepted valve of aceelera- tion due to gravity fs 9.806 65 m/s? = s2s0 fH, Actual vale wil vary with labtude, dersties af sur ‘unding rocks, and depth, ad (catian a 0 (wittadan an triton) “tiered ‘mute igen esos) Distance Fiow Rate, mass Fiow fate, voluretnié Prono “jute” to tyme with ea" (cable meter ber second) T otu = 1.055 0560) 1 e¥ (aletronvolt 102 1810-29 J 15.0219 a} TPO = 0.188 987 m3] {for sandr condos, ‘ee “tas Volume” and Volume" Tiga orca = Lt Lone we tenoa NEVER sed as unt of force in St Tana fet” Wr Oni conductivity Density “Ceact value $ (siemens) Jas= iar) ne fa thectare) one ene, ha = 10,000 m2 Tame ‘The *hectore" is used for land measure. Tam =Tat=is The “no” is epaced by the “siemens. (Gas Ratio rani. See Relative Density maa (inenson- Tess! a Stara 1 sl anid bio fot per bare = Sieh 1175 st. 2m te cas Ve) Tse standard cab foot 60" Fand 14.65 ps) 2al7 399% 10-7 a Sim (siemens permeten gia ‘iogran er exe sim sim ‘gis gins “Si replaces “mmho{ on induction. log conductivity curves. 1 fom/ (19 = 16.085 hem (ibis “pond mass" 1 gle = 1000 kg/m Th = 03018 1y= O14" Teteral ‘ars time s/o (mirosee- ond per riot. Length (see Deptt are ter, stance ie (logan Tiere ton fortomte)*" Mg Tix 1 Me ineeagram) 1 lb avo, pound mass avoicupois 0.455 892 4g. ue Weight (eee sso Dersiy Table 1-5. Allowable SI units and conversions. Tala citogran per cable mate) Pr om/US. ea {isaee tigi ibm UK. at 3377633 gms21 HYDROCARBON GEOLOGY & | 9 ACCUMULATIONS A. Introduction from "Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering' Study of the nature of the earth's crust and of its ability to accumlate petroleum under pressure constitutes an important background for the engineer in the producing branch of the natural gas industry. Geology treats all phases of the earth's history, including the processes by which reservoirs were created. Man is fortunate that many of the process~ es which produced the earth's crust are still in evidence to permit a reconstruction of methods by which most reservoirs were formed. ‘There are several branches of geology and of related earth sciences. Their nomenclature makes frequent use of such tems as geo - earth, petra ~ rock, lithos ~ stone, and suffixes like log - science or discourse, graphy - description. Physical geology is.a study of the processes affecting the earth's surface, such as action of wind, water, ice, and atmosphere. Historical geology endeavors to trace the events in the history of the earth, including the processes responsible for the earth's crust. The origin of life and the evolution of plant and animal fomns are included. Structural geology treats the methods by which the position and shape of the various members of the earth's crust are determined, and studies forces which have brought about both the surface and subsurface structures. Stratigraphy covers the character, sequence relationship, distribution, and origin of sedimentary rocks. Several branches deal with the recognition of rock according to type and age. The study of rocks to determine their character and constitution is termed Zithology. Paleontology and micropaleontology classify information on life in past geologic ages by studies of fossils and microfossils. Mineralogy, petrography, and petrology deal with the Physical properties, chemical properties, classification, and identific~ ation of minerals or rocks and with their genesis. Sedimentation is the process of depositing solids at the bottam of a fluid, and the term is in frequent use to describe methods of depositing particles of rock from bodies of water. Sedimentary rocks are rocks that have been deposited by this process. Essentially all petroleum is contain- ed in sedimentary rock. Geohydrology, or groundwater geology, combines the principles goverming water movement through porous media and the geology of the earth's crust with respect to the ability of the various strata to conduct water. Geophysics is the application of the principles of physics to problems of the earth, ‘The study of the transmission of shock waves generated either fram natural causes, such as earthquakes, or by explosions of dynamite is an example. These principles are utilized in the seismic method of searching for structures. ‘The reflection of elastic waves at the interface between layers of rock with different physical proper- ties pemmits the mapping of the interface.2-2 Other methods of making physical measurements at the earth's surface to find the nature of its subsurface employ the magnetic field, the gravitational field, and the electrical properties of the earth, principally its electric resistivity. These methods usually depend upon anomalies or irregularities in the earth's crust. Geochemistry is the application of the principles of chemistry to the study of the earth. ‘The search for petroleum by analysing soils for hydrocarbons is considered a geochemical method. The physical chemistry of molten rock and the chemistry of its disintegration and recrystalliz~ ation are included. B, Historical Geology Historical geology reconstructs the successive events in the history of the earth since it was in a molten condition. Geologic time scales have been devised to indicate the periods of time during which various layers of the earth's surface were fonned. The point at which cooling of the earth's surface led to water precipitation marks the beginning of the sedimentary processes in geological time. Figure 2-1 presents the geologic tine scale divided into eras, periods, and epochs. Visualizing the Sion transition which have Period Epoch ago! occured over the approx- imately 4,500 million years of the earth's existance is difficult, for persons who individually live less than 100 years and who collect- ively have a recorded history of 5,000 years, to campreheni. < tesozoic |) When water condensed on the Triasle surface of the earth, the high areas were subjected Persie to rain and the low areas Pennsylvanian were inundated. The power Of wind and water to ex- Paleozoic tract and carry sediment is primarily responsible for the nature of the inmediate surface of the earth's crust. Recent alernary Pleistocene The erosion of mountains the age of the earth makes the length of and the filling of seas go the Precambrian time far exceed that ‘on continuously. The mount~ of later eras, ains would all be worn down and the seas all full of sediment if it were not for the changes in elevation (uplifts and submergences) of areas on the earth's surface. Fig. 2-1. Geological time scale.2-3 Geologists have mapped the earth to show the present outcrops of sedimentary rock as well as the positions of the seas during geologic periods. ‘The pre- Cambrian Eras cover the time span from the formation of the earth up to approximately 500 million years ago, ‘The rocks formed during these eras are of three characters. (1) Igneous: Products of solidification of molten material (2) Metamorphic: Rock that changed its character by solution, heat, and pressure (3) Sedimentary: Composed of the detritus of previous rock Common examples of igneous rock are granite, which has solidified slowly within the earth's crust, and lava, which solidifies rapidly on the surface. Schist and gneiss were formed by metamorphic processes that occur with heat, Pressure and time, Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone, dolonite, and shale. ‘The Cambrian period is the first in which the sediments show evidence of life Such as marine fossiles. Oil and gas are produced from deposits ranging in age from early Cambrian through the Pliocene epoch of the Tertiary, a span of 500 million years,24 c. Stucture of the earth The internal structure of the earth is revealed by analysis of earthquake waves as they are reflected and refracted by concentric layers of material with differing density and rigidity. ‘The core, extending to a radius of 2200 miles from the center of the earth, is composed of nickel-iron with an average density of 10.7 g/cc. ‘The inner core is solid while the outer core is liquid. Ss the core is an 1800 mile thick mantel, largely composed of iron silicates whose density, averaging 4.0 gm/cc, varies with depth. mantel is plastic except for the outer 400 miles or so which is solid. ‘The crust or lithosphere, composed of the more common variety of rocks, varies in thickness from about 25 miles under the continents to 7 miles beneath the ocean basins. The crust. is of insignificant thickness when compared to the core and mantel. It omsists oft (a (b) Fig.2-2. Cross section the earth From Mears, ‘the Changing Earth A basaltic layer overlying and floating on the mantel. It is rich in lime, iron and magnesia with a density of 2.9g/cc. A second lighter granitic layer, rich in silica and alkalies of 2.7g/cc density, resting on the basaltic layer and forming the continents. BO PWwe 60 Velocity ————e {mites per second Compl tom L. Keopott and ‘ther sources, Fig.2-3. Detail structure of crust fran earthquake wave analysis From Mears, ‘he Changing Earth eee2-5 THICKENING. & FOLDING Driven by density differences due to unequal heating, convection currents circulate in the plastic mantel. Uplifting magma breaks through the crystal layer forcing a rift into which the upwelling material solidifies as it surfaces, becaming a mid-ocean ridge. As new material is continuously added at the rift, the crust spreads, and the continental land masses are rafted apart. Compressicnal forces caused by lateral plate movements cause thickening and folding of the crust until faulting occurs, and one plate overrides the other, driving it back into the mantel where it is remelted. It is now generally accepted that this mechanism caused the break up of the continents from a single land mass 200 million years ago, Fig. 2-5. Break-up of the Continents - From Scientific AmericanGRANITE DEPOSITIC Fig. 2-6. Erosion of mountains/transport/deposition of sediments Mechanical forces act to break dom gniess and granite fran boulders to cobbles, Pebbles, gravel, and smaller particles.Chemical weathering transforms feldspars into clays, releasing quartz grains which become sand. The great abundance of quartz sand is due to the fact that quartz grains are extremely durable. Sands are also composed of feldspar and carbonate particles - the limy coral reef sand shown below is one such form, Limy coral - reef sand Grains of quartz beach sand Fig. 2-7. Sand particles ~ From Kuenen-Scientific American2-7 Classification of rocks Rocks are classified into three groups : 1) Igneous _xocks comprise 95% of the earth's crust. They originate from the Solidification of molten material emanating from below the earth's surface. Fig. 2- Tgneous rock formation - From Mears, The Changing Earth Volcanic igneous rocks are often glassy in texture as rapid cooling of magma does not allow time for the formation of crystals. Plutonic igneous rocks are formed in slower cooling intrusive magmas Which allows the time needed for the atoms to arrange thenselves into a crystaline grain structure. Almost (95%) of granitic rocks are plutonic (CRYSTALINE texture.) The size of the grains is controlled by the cooling rate, the largest grains corresponding to slowest cooling rates. Granite is made up of three principal materials in roughly equal proportions : quartz (Si02), sodium feldspar (Na Al Si30g) and potassium feldspar (K Al Si30g). 2) Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are fomed from the materials of older up-lifted fomnations which have been broken down by erosion and transported by wind and water to lower elevations, where they are deposited.2-8 The grain size of quartz sand is determined during the crystallization process by the rate of magma cooling into grenite. The grains are rounded off to same extent by rolling before the wind and polished during transport by running off in streams and rivers to the point of deposition. Consolidation of sands, silts, pebbles, and clays by the pressure of many thousands of feet of overlying sediments, and cementation by precipitates fram percolating waters act to convert these materials into sandstones, siltstones, and conglonerates. Sedimentary rocks may be classified into two groups, clastic (the rocks of etrital origin previously mentioned) and nonclastic. Sediments which are of biochemical or chemical precipitate origin are non- clastic. CLASTIC ROCKS - FORMED FROM DEBRIS OF OLDER ROCKS ROCK TYPE PARTICLE DIAMETER CONGLOMERATE PEBBLES - 2 TO 64 m SANDSTONE SAND = .06 TO 2 mm SILTSTONE SILT - .003 TO .06 mm SHALE CLAY LESS THAN .003 mm NONCLASTIC - MOSTLY OF CHEMICAL OR BIOCHEMICAL ORIGIN ROCK TYPE COMPOSITION LIMESTONE CALCITE - CaCO, DOLOMITE DOLOMITE - CaMg(CO3)2 SALT HALITE - NaCl GYPSUM GYPSUM = CaS04.2H90 CHERT SILICA - Sig COAL CHIEFLY CARBON Sedimentary rock classification3) 2-9 Carbonate rocks ‘The carbonates, limestone, dolomite and chalk camprise about 20% of all sedimentary rocks. Limestone, composed mainly of the mineral calcite (Ca003) may be concentrated by an accumilation of the shells and skeletons of marine animals or by direct. precipitation from mineral saturated waters. In either case the carbonate ions were dissolved from older formations by passing waters. Precipitated accumlations occur in lake bottoms and in shallow seas where mineral-laden waters are cooled, decreasing the solubility. Fine. calcite exystals form and fall to bottan where the beds are compacted by the weight of overlaying sediments, and with time crystal growth may continue, foming dense consolidated rocks. Dolomite is the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. When dolimitization (the conversion fran limestone by replacement of calcium by magnesium) occurs, a shrinkage of the matrix is observed. Matrix porosities and permeabilities of carbonate rocks are typically low. While formation of pits, vugs, channels and other cavities add to the storage capacity, most prolific hydrocarbon bearing carbonates are highly fractured. Chalk is a soft form of Limestone which has high porosity and low permeability. Calcareous sandstones are formed by wave action, breaking coral or shell into sand-sized particles which are subsequently re-cemented. Many rocks are a mixture of sand and carbonates. Evaporites The evaporites include rock salt, anhydrite, and gypsum, all of which are Precipitated by the evaporation of water. Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks, the third genetic group of rocks, are formed fran other sedimentary deposits by alteration under great heat’ and/or pressure. - marble, is metamorphized Limestone - hornfeld, is converted fron shale or tuff - gniess, with a texture ad composition similar to granite but is metamorphic- ally consolidated. Oil and gas are not usually found in igneous or metamorphic rocks as both are SO non-porous that hydrocarbons can not accumulate or be extracted fran them. The few exceptions are where oil and gas have seeped fram near-by sedimentary formations through cracks or fractures into them.2-10 Hardness. Speciie Gravity MINERAL, Chemical Composition He? 86-267 ‘quartz Sion COMMON CRYSTALS: Color (> th Pure clean, colorless Impure pink, purple Diack ae CLEAVAGE fragments @z Crystals in electra! ‘nd slctronie work aio quarte Optical anaes & prams Window glee H=6 spa=2528 FELOSPAR, GROUP Sedhum: Poussiom- Gletum Aluminum ‘sates cf i Light colored: white pink, ory, eream a) Two directions Glazes and Fl tnamel for carom H=2225 Sp.G+2.703 Mica ‘Complex: Potstium ‘Aluminum, ren, Stagnesion sietes ee (Gear, whith brown, back, purple a Paral, excotent (One cretion Inelecrcal and electronic equipment Heatproof windows, H=56 spG= 7034 HORNBLENDE. (AMPHIBOLE GROUP) ‘Complex: Potastum Magresion, Alumina Sodium sites, Iron O@ Dark: geen to black Crystal faces &... Fragments Two di = Some Mibous members ‘of amphibole group (ed es abet H=56 $6~3236 IGITE ai (PYROXENE GROUP) Generally like homblende Crystal ees Cleavage v0 H#3 SpG=272 ‘CALCITE cxC0g cuay GROUF, complex: Aluminum Sileates combined ‘with water # @¢ Optical Piss {transparent crystals Range finders ‘Mieroxcopes Fig. 2-10, summary chart of general properties of same of the commonest xock-forming minerals - From Mears, The Changing Earth.(MINERAL calcio Dolomite uarte ‘mesione Dolomite Sandstone Shale Waite Anite Gypwm | CaSO, 24,0 Tone NoCOy “NaHCO, + 20 ‘Syvie xa Comalite | KCI+ MgCl 4H, Longteinite | KaS0x 2MgSO, Polyhalte. | K,S0x*+ MgSO, 2Ca80, +20 Kainite | MeSO4*KcI+3H.0 ‘Solr [conse] Semon toa li ig Aastracte Coat ‘Appa! Limestone Prosi fom a Newon Lg. ober inin 0, Fig. 2-11. Petrophysical properties of common sedimentary materials LL The origin and_habitat of oil Many hypotheses conceming the origin of oi1 (and/or gas) have been advanced over the years. Currently, the most favored one is that oil is formed fran Phytoplankton (tiny floating plants) and to a lesser degree from Algae and Foraminifera. ‘hese die, fall to the bottoms of seas and lakes, and fom cozes rich in organic material. They are most abundant in near-shore areas, where rivers carry off nutrients from the land masses. ‘these areas are also the regions of greatest sedimentation. T£ such oozes are overlain by fine sediments and are at such a depth that anaerobic bacteria can live in them, these bacteria busily remove oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur fron the oozes, leaving them richer in hydrogen and carbon. It is important that the mother oozes are at a depth in the water below zero oxygen level; otherwise not only the source material but the petroleum itself is destroyed by oxidation, As deposition of sediments progresses, depending upon water velocities, the fine sediments will be overlain by coarser ones, which, in tum are overlain by fines, etc. Eventually the oil is squeezed from the oozes into the porous reservoir materials.2-12 Until about 20 years ago it was camonly believed that the source materials had to be de- posited in a marine enviroment (seas, oceans). But lake sediments can be just as promis- PLANT. & ANIMAL PLANKTON ing as sea-floor dedinents, FE FROW RIVER bg provided the depths are right. Many oil fields in various parts of the world are producing from ancient lake beds. Most of world's larger oil AG) PLANT & ANIMAL reservoirs are found on the GROWTH ON SEA continental shelves of ancient a] seas, however. Eee Fig. 2-12, Sources of organic material - From Clark - Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs. SILT & MUD SEA RETREATING. Fig. 2-13. Offlap process - beds formed by retreating sea or land emerging. (regression) GRAVEL CLOSE TO SHORE SAND SILT & MUD Fig. 2-14, Onlap process-beds formed by advancing sea or submerging shoreline. (transgression) ————_—————2-13 FE. Hydrocarbon reservoirs Petroleum deposits will be found only in those areas where geological conditions combine to form and trap them, Hydrocarbons, being less dense than water, migrate upward from the source beds until they escape at surface, or an impervious barrier is encountered. Oil and gas accumilates in partially sealed structures by expelling water from the porous rock. That part of the trap which contains hydrocarbons is called the reservoi Generally water underlies the hydrocarbons in a trap. An aquifer is a water bearing formation which is hydraulically connected to the reservoir. Both oil and gas are formed together in varying proportions in the source beds and a gas cap is often found above the oil in the reservoir. Traps do at times act to segregate oil and gas which were formed together so that. they accumulate in different reservoirs. ‘The principal classifications of petroleu-reservoir-fomming traps are as follows : Se epg cae Danes and Anticlines Fig. 2-15. Dane structure. Oil and gas Dawes and Anticlines are formed mages Wee pec ounce, eae by uplifting and folding of the until trapped by the imperme- strata. When viewed fram above the dome is circular in shape, whereas the anticline is an elongated fold. Fig. 2-16. Oi1 and gas accumlation in an anticline.Salt Domes and Plug Structures ‘This commonly occurring geological structure is caused by the intrus- ion fran below of a salt mass, volcanic material, or serpentine. In pushing up or piercing through the overlying strata the intrusion may cause the formation of numerous traps in which petroleum may accumulate. Fig. 2-17. Hydrocarbon accumilation associated with a piercement salt dare. Structure Associated with Faulting Reservoirs may be formed along the fault plane where the shearing action has caused an impermeable bed to block the migration of oil and gas through a permeable bed. 2-18, Trap formed by a fault. Structure with Unconformity This type of structure can be perwexsie eos formed where more recent beds cover older, inclined formations that have been planed off by erosion. A reservoir may be formed where oil and gas is trapped by an imperme- able overlying layer. Fig. 2-19. Oil and gas trapped under an unconformity. nyLenticular Reservoirs Oil and gas may accumulate in pockets of porous permeable beds, or traps formed by pinch outs of the porous beds, within an impermeable bed. Lens-type reservoirs are formed an irregular coastline or by filling in an ancient river bed or delta. Similar productive zones occur in various porous sections in thick impermeable limestone beds. Pinch-outs may occur near the edge of a basin where the sand progressively "shales out" as the edge of the basin is 2-15 Fig. 2-20. Upper bourris of the reservoir formed by change in permeability of a sand.2-16 G._Sub-surface mapping A Structural map is a sub-surface contour map made by connecting points of equal elevations. In the example below, contours are from seismic data and_corre: to the top of the cap rock. ‘An isopacheous map shows the contours of the inner surface of the cap rock with equal thicknesses of pay. Generally thé zero is taken ae the oil) water contact. Logs and seismic maps may be used to prepare early isopach maps, with increasing dependence on log data as the field is developed. | CONTOUR_MAP ON CAPROCK - fro sehsnic sums DEPTHS SUB SEA se20 3990 4000 4010 4020 4030 OTL-WATER cowTAcr NET THICKNESS OF PAY - ABOVE OTL/WATER CONTACT (FRO LOGS, SUPPLENENTED aY SEISMIC CONTOUR AND DDIPHETER ENFORATION) Fig. 2-21, Sub-surface mapping,217 H. Reservoir Temperature and Pressure~ Normal Pressures Hydrocarbon accumilations occur in partially sealed structures where the upward migration of oil and gas from the source beds is blocked by an impemeable barrier. As hydrocarbon accumulates, formation water is expelled from the porous reservoir rock. LOCAL PRESSURE GRADIENT 433.10 .5 PSI/FT (éRESH WATER 493 PSI/FT) fe aT OF WELL (GRADIENT IN GAS COLUMN sp. ar gas X.433 psi/ft GRADIENT IN OTL COLUMN ‘sp. gr. O11 X 633 psi/tt, GGRADTENT IN AQUIFER Fig. 2-22. "Nommal" pressure distribution from surface through a reservoir structure. Unless subsequent tectonic movements completely seal the reservoir, the underlying waters are contiguous and pressures in the aquifer will approximate to same local or regional hydrostatic gradient. ‘That is in a water colum, the pressure at any depth is approximated by : P= hay where:h, is the depth Gy is the pressure gradient.2-18 Although ground waters are saline, temperatures increasing with depth tend to reduce the water density and a camon "nonmal" value of G, is .433 psi/ft (.1 kg/cn?/m), which is approximately a fresh water gradient. Gradients within the range .43 to .5 psi/ft are considered normal. Pressure at the top of a hydrocarbon bearing structure, higher than the hydrostatic gradient extrapolated frm the hydrocarbon/water contact, is expected because of the lower density of hydrocarbon compared with water. Even in thick gas bearing zones this situation does not lead to dangerously abnormal pressures. 2.- Abnormal Pressures Under certain depositional conditions, or because of earth movements which close the reservoir structure, fluid pressures may depart substantially from the nomal range. Abnomal pressures can occur when some part of the overburden load is trans- mitted to the formation fluids. Abnormal pressures corresponding to gradients of .8 psi/ft to .9 psi/ft and approaching the geostatic gradient (generally taken as approximately equivalent to 1.0 psi/ft)may occasionally be encountered and can be considered dangerously high. 3.- Reservoir Temperature Reservoir temperatures will conform to the regional or local geothermal gradient, a normal value being 1.60 F/100 ft. Because of the large thermal capacity of the rock matrix which comprises in the order of 80% of the bulk reservoir volume and the very large area for heat transfer, conditions within the reservoir may be considered isothermal in most cases. ‘TEMPERATURE (CENTIGRADE) maya SO / Bore 1. 109. 2000. oborhenual Gasten LOSS a) islam 47100 beetn (FEET) DEPTH (ETERS) 14900} 16900 19000} at oe aah “ss 80" | 100 190, 7 3 ze TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) 3. Estimation of formation temperature.FLUID BEHAVIOR A. Classification of of] and gas RESERVOIR | 9 What are oil and gas ? - Petroleum consists predominently of paraffin series Satan) hydrocarbons together with lesser quantities of cyclic lenes (Cy H2n) and aromatics (Cy Han-6) mixed together in varying ‘The chart below classifies reservoir hydrocarbons into categories giving typical ranges for composition, gravity, and GOR. ‘There are no definate demarkations between the categories, which often vary in definition according to local usage. In general oils contain a higher fraction of heavy molecules, while at the other end of the scale, methane and other light molecules predominate in gases. GOR RANGE API GRAVITY TYPICAL COMPOSITION Cr C2 C3 Cy C5 Ce 1) DRY GAS e0(no liquid) +9 .05 03.01.01 .01 2) WET GAS 18/100 MCF 50° - 70° 3) CONDENSATE 5 TO TOOMCF/B 50° - 70° 75.08 .04 .03 .02 .08 4) VOLATILE OIL 3000 CF/B 40° - 50° .6-.65 .08 .05 .08 5) BLACK OIL OR 100-2500 cF/B 30° - 40% 44.04 04 03.02.43 DISSOLVED GAS SYSTEMS 6) HEAVY OIL 20° - 25° +02 02 .02 .75 7) TAR & BITUMEN - 90 Fig. 3-1._Classification and composition of reservoir hydrocarbons Classification of oil Crude oil chemistry is quite complex and a typical crude may contain several thousand different compounds belonging to 18 different hydrocarbon series. A complete chemical analysis of crude oils, in terms of compounds present, is a difficult, if not impossible task and, less complete types of analyses (e.g. by the amounts of lumped elements present) are often not useful for determining its physical characteristics. Difficulty in classifying oils by the chemical composition of their constit- vents has led to widespread use of simpler, less technical classifications. One classification widely used distinguishes between "paraffin base" and “asphalt-base" oils. In the fomer, the paraffins predaminate, and such an oil, when cooled to low temperatures, yields an appreciable amount of light- colored wax that is not readily attacked by acids or dissolved by ether, chloroform, carbon bisulfide.32 Asphaltic oils after slow distillation yield a lustrous, solid residue, usually Jet black in color, which exhibits conchoidal fracture and which dissolves in the previously mentioned solvents. The distinction between paraffin-base and asphalt-base oils serves only as a broad classification. Most asphaltic oils contain traces of solid paraffins, and most paraffin oils will produce some asphaltic residue. Some oils, said to be of "mixed base", respond to the two tests above in equal degree. Often times the only classification made on crude oils is by its specific grav ity, a procedure which has the advantage of being easy to measure using a float ‘type hydrometer. API gravity is an expanded inverse scale given by the relation : Classification of gases Natural gas typically consists of .¢ to .8 methane with the remainder made up primarily of the heavier gaseous hydrocarbons C2, C3, C4 and C5. Exception~ ally natural gases have been found to contain as little as 78 methane.* Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and helium when present in small amounts are considered as impurities. However, when present in sufficiently large quantities, HS and He may be exploited comercially. Ng and C02 do not contribute to the heat valve of the gas and if present in large amounts, the gas may not bum. (02 and HS with water are corrosive and cause embrittlement of ferrous material, while the latter is a highly poisonous gas. Chemical analysis of gases and volatile hydrocarbons, up to Cs or Cg, is relatively easy and inexpensive to perform by low-temperature fractional distillation, mass spectroscopy or chromatography. The results are reported in mole fraction which may be multiplied by the corresponding molecular weight to find the composition by weight. Classification of natural gas by specific gravity, which is the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of an equal volime of air at the same tenp- erature, is invariably available as it is easily measured at the well site with a simple balance. * Titusville, Pa.Ledve Gas Cop D3) Alberta Devonian 5,000 353 ‘West Cameron, Bik 149] Lovisiana (Gulf) ‘Miocene sand. 7150 rogen, Carbon dioxide, CO, Helium, He ‘Methane, CH Ethane, Cy Hy Propane, Cs He lnobutane, Ce. Hye n-Butane, Isopentan n-Pontano, Cs Hi Hexanes, Ce Hie Heptane-+ Table 3-1. Composition of Natural Gases. Field State or provines Reservor: Depth, ft. Prossure psia Temperature, °F 7.8) 072 72.88 997 5.09 072 176 0.99 0.46 0.30 96.65 2.08 47 0.08 0.09 0.02 100.00, Paloma | Oklahoma City, Wilcox California | Oklahoma rom Hondbook of Notre Gar Englonring (Reta) MeOrew Hi 700.00, ‘Mole percentage: Nitrogen, Na Carbon dioxide, COs ‘Methane, CH, Ethane, Co He Propane, Cs Hy Isobutane, CaHre From Hondbosk of Noletel Gat Englnering (ea), McOrew Hil Table 3-2. Analysis of Reservoir Oils Containing Dissolved Gases.4 B, Phase behaviour of hydrocarbon fluids Hydrocarbon accumilations are invariably associated with formation waters that exist in the hydrocarbon zone as interstitial water, and as aquifers which lend energy to the production process. Commonly, two or three different fluid phases* exist together in the reservoir. Any analysis of reservoir behaviour depends on the P-V-T (pressuxe, volume, temperature) relationships for the co-existing fluids. Tt is customary to represent the phase behaviour of hydrocarbon reservoir fluids on the P-T plane showing the limits over which the fluid exists as a single phase and the proportions of oil and gas in equilibrium over the two phase P-T range. 1) Phase behaviour of a s: it_system ‘Single-component* hydrocarbons are not found in nature; however it is beneficial to observe the bahaviour of a pure hydrocarbon substance under varying pressure and temperature to gain insight into more complex hydro- carbon systems under similar conditions. As an example of the behaviour of a pure hydrocarbon substance as temperature and pressure are varied, the, PVT cell shown at the upper left of Fig. 3-2 is charged with ethane at 60° and 1000 psia. Under these conditions, ethane is in the liquid state. TE the cell volume is increased while holding the temperature constant at 60°F throughout, it will be found that the pressure falls rapidly until the first bubble of gas appears. This is called the bubble point. Further increase of cyl: ‘volume does not reduce the pressure provided temperat- ure is held at 60°F, although heat mist be added to the system to maintain a constant temperature. ‘The gas volume increases at this constant pressure until the point is reached where all of the liquid is vaporized. This is called the dew point. ‘The ethane gas expands with further increase of cylinder volume at 60°F as pressure decreases hyperbolically. A series of similar expansions can be performed at various constant ‘temperatures from which the three-dimensional chart of Fig. 3-3 can be constructed. ‘The locus of bubble points obtained at various temperatures projected on the pressure-temperature plane is a line, called the vapor pressure curve. At pressures above the vapor pressure curve ethane exists in the liquid phase, and beneath it in the gaseous phase. ‘The vapor pressure curve for single-component systems terminates at the critical point. As the critical point is approached the properties of the gas and liquid phases approach each other, and they became identical at the critical point. Figure 3+3 shows a three-dimensional diagram of ethane illustrating the ranges of temperature and pressure it may exist as single phase gas or liquid and as a two phase mixture in equilibrium. ‘This same information is also conveyed on the PT plane as shown to the left, Note that in this diagran of a single-camponent system the bubble point and dew point lines coincide and is called the vapor pressure curve. ‘The vapor pressure curve teminates at the critical point. 1 y eild since belny deflonty for out punpieen, ms a pyatoally Attinct ant eoparibe past of the mnt ofl, ge, OF ata, copra say pie cio tarrntrm, metre ne aera, A Sr me 8 ne ha ne Tes niga wien; ter vapor, oF so ey ‘tdan gun weigh fa close oor covoiatiog wth Sta Lgl form, i 3Fig. 2. Fig. 3-3. 35 PVT CELL PV DIAGRAM oll liquid Liquid stote-ropid change of Pressure with small volume change ‘ore present. =- Dew point Pressure remoins constant va while both gos and liquid Phase behaviour of a single-component hydrocarbon ‘Three-dimensional diagram of single-camponent system.+6 Fig. 3-4 shows the densities of the Liguid and vapor that co-exist in the ‘two-phase region between bubble point line and dew point line. Points A and B respectively represent the densities of liguid and vapor at temperature Ty. As temperature increases liquid density decreases and vapor density increases, until they became identical at the critical point. Tt has been found that the average density of the liquid and vapor Di+Dy results in a straight —z—~ line plot. Fig. 34. Typical diagram of densities vs temperature in two-phase region (Fram Burcik) ee _ 2) Phase behaviour of multi-component systems Consider the phase behaviour of a 50:50 mixture of two pure hydrocarbon camponents on the P-T plane shown in figure 3-5. ‘The vapor pressure and bubble point lines do not coincide but form an envelope enclosing a broad range of temperatures and pressure at which ‘two phases (gas and oil) exist in equilibriun, ‘The dew and bubble point curves meet at the critical point, which is defined as that temperature and pressure at which liquid and vapor (gas) Phases have identical intensive properties-density, specific volume etc. Fluid above the bubble point is in the liguid state and fluid below the dew point line is gas : in the space enveloped between the two lines,liquid and gas are in equilibrium. ‘Temperature > Fig. 3-5. Vapor pressure curves for two pure components and phase diagram for a 50:50 mixture of the same components. (Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs.) ee _3-7 PVT CELL all liquid Fig. 3-6. Phase diagram of low shrinkage oil. a) Phase diagram of a low shrinkage reservoir fluid The shape of the two-phase envelope and its position on the P-T diagram is determined by the chemical camposition and amount of each constituent present. Each reservoir fluid has a unique phase diagram. Figure 3-6 is a phase diagram typical of a low shrinkage reservoir fluid. Fluid at reservoir temperature and pressure at point A' exists as under- saturated liquid. If a sample of this fluid is expanded in a PvP cell at reservoir temperature Tr, fran A', the bubble point pressure will be reached at A. This is approximately the path that fluids follow in moving horizontally through the reservoir to the well bore. A continued expansion at Tr, yields increasing percentage of gas and decreasing percentage of oil in the PVT cell until at point B there remains 758 oil. The path from A to the pressure and temperature the separator is operated at is shown by a dashed line and indicates the fractions of gas and oil recovered at separator conditions.+8 A further reduction in pressure between the separator and stock tank conditions results in some loss of gas at the tank vent and a corresponding reduction in oil volute - see figure 3-7. 50510 90s gorhering line Fig. 3-7. Operation of separator on well producing crude oil with dissolved natural gas.3-9 b) Phase diagram of retrograde condensate reservoir fluid ° ‘The phase diagram 3-8 typifies the behaviour of a retrograde reservoir. Fluid at point A' is above critical temperature and is therefore classified as gas. On reduction of pressure at constant temperature from point A', the dew point line is crossed at A and liquid begins to condense fram the reservoir gas. If the pressure and temperature are reduced fram A along the dashed Line Path to separator condition, the diagram shows that 25% of liquid is ecovered at this point. On further reduction of pressure to atmospheric pressure only about 2% of liquid remains. ‘The recovered liquid is termed "condensate" or "distillate" which is simply oil, generally light in color and low in specific gravity. iz s é eStock tank Tate Tr Temperature——__"_ Fig. 3-8. Phase diagram of retrograde condensate gas. Phase diagram of a dry gas reservoir fluid The phase diagram given in Fig. 3-9, on the pressure-temperature plane, typifies the behaviour of a dry gas reservoir. If the pressure and tenp- erature are reduced from the original reservoir conditions at point A to standard stock tank conditions (60°F and 14.7 psia)} there is no liquid recovery and the reservoir fluid remains completely in the gaseous phase during the process. * psia = pounds per square inch absolute310 A oe Original 2 reservoir | | | | conditions: Pressure Gas Temperature ———=—> 349. Phase diagram of dry gas. (Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs.) 4) Phase dis of a wet gas reservoir fluid Fluid that exists above its critical temperature as gas in reservoir conditions, but produces a small quantity of liquid condensate on reduction to separator/stock tank conditions, may be termed "wet gas". A typical phase diagram for a wet gas is show in figure 3-10. A AT origina reservoir conditions Pressure | I | | | Tam Te ture ‘emperature: = Pig. 3-10. Phase diagram of wet gas. (Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs.)a C. Reservoir fluid properties An exact knowledge of a reservoir fluids physical properties including compress- ibility is needed to predict reservoir performance and interpret well test data and production logs. 1.- There are three possible sources of data : a) Laboratory measurement made on a representative reservoir fluid sample : 1) ‘The sample may be taken with a PST or wire line bottam hole sampling tool ~ This is the best and most costly method, and requires consider- able care to assure a truly representative sample. = well to be shut in (or slightly opened just before sampling) = pressure during sampling should remain above the bubble point ~ leakage or segregation during transfer mst be avoided - an average of three samples assures reliability 2) Sample of oil and gas taken at the separator and recombined at producing GOR in the lab, ~ flowrates mist be stable ~ gas vented at stock tank must be included in the total GOR b) Charts of correlated or "average" properties usually made on a basis of specific gravity are used in absence of measured data. ~ results with oil volume factor, solubility are subject to larger errors, particularly if the cowosition varies appreciably fron the correlation model ~ gas volume factors are generally accurate to within 18 for hydrocarbon gases with less than 5% impurities. Exceptionally error may reach 2 or 38. ) In situ measurement with production tools. The relative densities of oil/water/gas fluid colums can be measured in situ using a Gradianancmeter in the shut in well. An accurate determination of these densities requires a well calibrated bottom hole Pressure gauge such as the Hewlett-Packard quartz pressure gauge. Where direct laboratory PVT measurements are not available, it may be necessary to use charts to estimate fluid properties. Use of the "Fluid Conversion Charts" given on the following pages should be made with the understanding that they are correlations or estimates of average physical properties with specific gravity, temperature and pressure, while the true fluid behaviour depends on chemical composition of the constituents. ‘The application at hand dictates which sources of data may be used. Obviously, reservoir predictions made by material balance methods, can be no better than the fluids data used. On the other hand, use of a gas volume factor based on specific gravity correlations is probably better ‘than needed to convert a downhole spinner flowmeter volumetric rates to surface conditions.312 2) Compressibility of gases a) Ideal gas behaviour : The ideal gas law may be expressed : pV = oT where [C_UNTTS-CGS Pp = absolute pressure of gas in atmospheres V = volume occupied by gas in co n = number of grammoles of gas APL UNITS P = absolute pressure of gas in psia (psia= 14, 74gauge pressure) V = volume occupied by gas in cu ft n= number of Ib-moles of gas (grams of gas/molecular ‘weight ) 82.05 (gas constant) (bs of gas/molecular weight) R = 10.71 (gas constant) absolute temperature in T = absolute temperature in Se at (Oe aeosee) ‘To find the volume occupied by a quantity of gas when the conditions of temperature and pressure are changed fran State 1 to State 2 we note that n = pv/RT= a constant, so that; R T where : are absolute pressures in States 1 and 2 are absolute temperatures in States 1 and 2 are volumes in States 1 and 2. Py and pa ‘1% and Tp Vy and V2 Boyles law is pV = p'v' at constant temperature. Charles law is V_ _V' at constant pressure. T rb)_Deviation factor for natural gases Most gases show considerable deviation from ideal behaviour at elevated temperatures and pressures. The compressibility factor "2", which is a 313 function of the gas composition, pressure, and temperature, is used to mod~ ify the ideal-gas law. ‘The law now takes the form : Bi 2 pao aT 2gt2 where P} and po are absolute pressures at States 1 and 2 ‘V1 and V3 are volumes at States 1 and 2 Y and 72 are absolute temperatures at States 1 and 2 24 and 22 are compressibility correction factors at States 1 and 2. ‘The generalized chart of figure 3-11 can be used to approximate the capressibility factor Z, of any gas after first reducing it to a “corresponding state". Fig. 3-11. The compressibility factor for natural gases as a function of pseudoreduced pressure and tenperature.314 Fluids are in a corresponding state, with respect to the critical state, the reference, when any to variable properties have the same ratio of reduced values. v v; a B Tate * PRoBp le 1) For pure substances, the critical temperature and pressure is found from a table of physical propertic 2) For mixtures of known composition the "pseudo critical" pressure and temp- erature is calculated by taking the mole average of the individual constituant values. dee Boe = EB yqPot +2 Pog vere Te = Dy1 Tot + ¥2 Tog vee where : mole fraction of component 1 Po] = critical pressure of component 1 Toy = critical temperature of component 2 3 3 Individual Individual beatae Product Absolute ritieal Critical Temperature ancl Pressure Te"R Bey psi az 286.3 673 60 5503 467 710 60.2 Product Col 2x Col 5 6663 29.1 67 27.9 735.0 5.59 529 4.02 7658 12.86 551 9.26 829.0 473 483 275 845.5 an 490 157 mad 516 440 277 Pseudocritical Temperature 393.75 Preudocritical Pressure _ 667.57 Table 3-3. Computation of Pseudocritical Temperature and Pressure of a Natural Gas, es5 i i i 5 5 i Lbs. /Sq. In. Absol Degrees Rankine Peoudo Critical Temperature rr a aT) Gas Gravity (Air=1) Fig. 3-12. Pseudocritical properties of natural gases. Example Find compressibility factor Z for a .75 gravity gas at 2000 psig, 150°. 1.- From figure 3-12,P, = 665 psi and Ty = 405°R 2.- Reduced temperature and pressures : aT. 460#150 _ Ter Tipo a5 = (1-88 7 P_ _ 2000 + 14.7 PR ~ “Boo 665 3.03 Entering chart figure 3-11 with Tpp = 1.63 and Ppo = 3.03, we find Z = 0.84,3-16 3) Conversion factors between surface and dowmhole volumes Conversion of downhole volumes (or volumetric rates) of oil, gas, and water to equivalent volumes at surface conditions is made so frequently that it is convenient to use conversion factors which account for the overall changes due to solubility and compressibility. Before a discussion of volume factors, let us define the units comonly used to measure hydrocarbon volumes. Qi1_ volume measurement, ‘The unit of measurement of oil is the API barrel or the cubic meter at stock tank conditions - conventionally 60°F (15.5°C) and 14.7 psia (1 atmosphere) . Gas measurement Gas is measured in standard gubic feet scf, or in cubic meters at the same reference conditions 60°F, 14.7 psia. Gas oil ratio Gas oil ratio R, (sametimes abbreviated GOR) is the ratio of gas on to oil production - both measured atestandard conditions 60°F, 14.7 psia. Units are standard cubic feet/stgck ,tank barrel, m/m? scf/B or cubic meters gas per cubic meter of oil - As there are 5.6 cubic feet in a barrel. scf/B+ 5.6 = m3/m ‘The basic surface/downhole volumetric relationships shown diagramatically in figure 3-13 should be kept firmly in mind when dealing with fluid conversions. & 2 a Fig. 3-13. Relationships between Surface and downhole volutes - dissolved gas system.Fomation volume factor, defined below, is a function of fluid composition and the pressure/temperature difference between the downhole and reference state. = Volume at downhole conditions Formation Volume Factor = yor at Feferece Sates evolved from the downhole liquids plus free gas produced independently from the oil. The gas volume factor accounts for expansion of free gas. O11 shrinks in volune between domhole/surface conditions primarily as a Fesult of the solution gas evolved. A typical range of By is 1.2 for low GOR Oil to 1.4 or higher for the more volatile oils. Solubility of gas in water is low and the combined effects of reduction in temperature, pressure and loss of solution gas has a small (but for sane Purposes important) effect on By. a) Gas Formation Volume Factor, By ny = Volume at dombole temp. and pressure 45 gory or n/n? ‘The gas formation volume factor may be known from PVE measurements on a gas sample, or it might be calculated using the relation : Piva . Pave aT pT -2Z.mbRhH Bg = V4 * by Ty 2 where conditions 1 are standard and conditions 2 are bottan hole. Charts based on the relationship and correlations between % and specific gravity, pressure and temperature have been established to simplify calculations. ‘The following example illustrates use of these charts (Figure 3-14.)3-18 Find che volume occupied by 400 scf of gas when 7¢ 0.70, Tye = 200°F, and por = 2,000 psia. Using Fig3~ 14lines drawn in) this is solved as follows: 1. Select the group of temperature lines for y— = 0.70. Entering on the abscissa at 2,000 pa, go vertically to the 200°F line, then move left ro the ordinate value of 125 for 1/8, An yy5a Vee = 400s8eF Be Veer Vert = 40_ 2 Veet= jpg 9-2 ou ft EXAMPLE — Interpolation needed. Find the volume occupied by 600 scf of gas where: 7p 74, Tot = 175°F, and Per = 2,000 paia. Using Fig3-14{(lines not drawn in) this is solved as follows: 1, Select the group of temperature lines for y= 0.70, Entering on the abscissa at 2,000 psia, go vertically to the 175°F position, then move left to the ordinate value of 133 for 1/B, 2, Select the group of temperature lines for y— = 0.80. Entering on the abscissa at 2,000 psia, go vertically to the 175°F position, then move left to the ordinace value of 138 for 1/B, 3, The interpolation between the 1/Bg values is solved as follows: oe % Be 0.70 133 0.74 x 0.80 138 1 = 133 +04 x (138-133) = 135 B73 (138-133) ig.3-14 (Chart Fg-1) :1/B,, as a function of yo Tuy and Pry (after Standing and Kats)319 »)_ Formation Volume Factor of oil, By = Volume of ofl (inch dissolved gas at downhole conditions) Fo * Volume of oil at reforencs conditions GO, 14-7 pais The fomation volume factor of an ofl is best determined by PVP measurement on a reservoir fluid sample. Figure 3-15 is a typical plot of PvP data for an undersaturated oil. Fran 8000 psig to the bubble point pressure at 6350 psig, the Bo increase is due to expansion of the undersaturated oil. Oil volume factor Fig. 3-15. Typical Pv? data for differential vapgrization of an undersatur- ated oil at constant temperature (305°).conditions: 3-20 On expansion from 6350 psi to atmospheric pressure increasing amounts of gas are liberated. Note that the Rg , the amount of gas in solution is almost directly proportional to the system pressure. Bo, being dependent essentially on the amount of dissolved gas increases with Pressure up to the bubble point, where all of the available gas is dissolved and then decreases at a rate determined by the liquid compressibility. Solubility and volume factor correlations Solubility of natural. gas in oil is dependent on the composition of the hydrocarbons, the temperature, and pressure applied. Figure 3-16 (chart Fgo-1) can be used to estimate bubble point pressure, Pp, and Rgpy the amount of gas which will dissolve in a given amount of oi] at this pressure and temperature. EXAMPLE — Fig. 5-16 Find the bubble-point pressure, ps, under the following que ne = 240 Mcf/D Tet ‘The solution iss follows: 1 p= 249,000¢8/ = 400¢t/B 2. Take Ruy = R; that is, the solution gas-il ratio at bubble-point pressure is defined as being equal co the producing gas-oil ratio. The assumption is implicit that, for all practical purposes, all the dissolved gas thas come out of solution when standard conditions are reached. PEPEee 3. On the nomograph (Fig 3-16 draw a Line from the temperature (Tw = 180°F) through the solution s-oil ratio at bubble-point pressure (Ray = 400 7 1) to Poin a0 Line A Fig, 2-16 (Cheet Foo-t): Nomoaraph selating ‘tore (or ” 4, Draw a line from the gas gravity (ye = 0.75) “average” conditions. Can be used to 40° APL) 10 Point & find pif Ris is known, or vice versa. 5. Connect Points @ and b and read the answer: p Cat arene eae 1,560 sic. sate under the following eonvons: EEE 500 psia 40°F 7 0° API This is solved wsing Fig.3~16 tines not drawn in), a5 follows: 1. From right to left: draw a line trough 7» = 40” and ‘ye= 0.7 10 locate a point on Line B. 2. from ehat poi, draw a line through py = 900 psia wolineA. 3, Prom there, drawaline to Ty, = 140°F. 4, Read che answer Ruy =220 4/8Estimation of Bo at Py 321 Bop: the of] fomnation volume factor at bubble point pressure is estimated from igure @ 3-17 (Chart F, ) by entering the gas gravity yg, the solution gas oil ratio at bubble point pressure Rep, and the temperature! Fig. 3-17 (Chart Fgo-4): Nomograph to find Bop seales calibrated in both English ‘ond metric units, EXAMPLE — Nomograph Solution Find Byy under the following conditions: Rey =400cf/B Tye = 180°F Ye = 0065 ye =45° API Using Fig-17 the solution is: 1. Draw 4 line from the gas gravity (y_) of 0.65 through che solution gas-oil ratio at bubble-point pressure (Rus) of 400 cf/B to Line A. 2. Draw a fine from Point @ through Ter (180°F) to By, at 1.24,3-22 Estimation of oil volume fector above bubble point pressure ‘The formation volume factor reaches a maximm value at Pp when all of the available gas is in solution. If the pressure is increased beyond bubble point, and there is no more gas to be driven into solution, a reduction in oil volume results. Fig. 3-18 Oi FVE (B,) as a function of pressure Fig. 8-19 "e)" as a function of Poy, for “average” * (general). : uf oils (afer Caton) ee ‘The ofl compressibility factor (Co) is a function of the density of the oil at tubble point pressure (Pg,) - see figure 3-19, For undersaturated o11, the equation relating Bp to Bob is + Bo = Bob 1 — Co(Pwe - Ph) Nomograph of figure 3-20 (chart Fyo-5) may be used to solve this equation. EXAMPLE — Undersaturated Oil 000 psia = 2,000 pia % “ Find B, under the following conditions: cor : Be = 122 valor " ye Poy = 0.66 gen/ez The solution isas follows: 1, From Figd-19c, = 15 x 10+ 2, By= Bus (1 ~co (Pet — Ps)) 22 (1 = (15 x 10-*) (3,000 ~2,000) ) .20 Fig. 3-29 (Chart Fgo-S): Nomograph 10 find Be. 9-20 Needed: Pen Pu Co(0F Pol 0d Box3-23 ©) Fonmation volume factor of water, By Dissolved gases and salts affect the compressibility of water, hence By. However, the solubility of natural gas in water and brine is small and the effect on compressibility can be neglected for small changes of pressure and temperature and By taken as unity. For large changes in pressure and temperature, By may be found from figure 3-21, for either pure or natural gas saturated water. 5 i é 8 ‘ i i i 3 Fig. 3-21 - Formation volume factor of pure water and a mixture of natural gas and water. (Data of Dodson and Standing.)324 4) Fluid density correlations a) GAS DENSITY 1. Gas specific gravity, 1. is widely used in the oil induscry to characterize natural gases. Gas specific _ravity is defined as the ratio of che density of gas t0 the density of sir, bth at standard conditions. ‘The weight of any volume of agas can be determined by multiplying the volume of gas times yg times Pa The density of ar at standard conditions is 0.001223 ‘em/cc of 0.0762 Ib/cu ft. 2. The density of gas at any teomperacure and pressure can be found from the gas formation volume facto, By hx Pont. Be Pre Pant = Ye (001223) EXAMPLE Find the weight of 500 scf of gas with = 055 ‘This is solved as follows: Weight = Va % Pate % 7 ‘Weight = 500 cu fe X 0.0762 Ib/cu fe X 0.55 20.95 Ibs EXAMPLE Find the density of « gas at standard conditions when: 0.7 X 0.001223 gm/cc = 0.000856 gm/ee EXAMPLE Find the density of a gis when: Ye =0.70 Pet = 2000 psia Ter = 200°F Yqlairton Fig. 8-22-(Chart Fg-5): Nomograph for solving the equation: Peres = Yo (0.001223) (1/B,)- Solution: 1. rom Fi3—14 and as shown in a previous example, 1/B_= 125. a (from paragraph 2, above). 0001223 x (1/8,). "7x 0.001223 gm/ec X 125 = 2, Using the nomograph i construct a line from yg obtain: Prot = 0.11 g/cc Fig 3-22 chart Fy-5), 07 @ (1/B,) = 125 t0b) OIL DENSITY, Po ‘At standard conditions the density of oil is equal 10 the weight divided by the volume; or, in equation form: Pose = Wove/ Vow conditions the density of oil is tll equal ro led by the volume, It i, however, not quite straightforward because the weight of the oil has been in- creased by dissolved gas, and the volume of the oil has been increased by the oil formacion volume factor Wore + Warns Veue X By = Pant Pur yeRs. aint B, In English units: . safeties) Be + 00002178 a envee ‘And at buble-point pressure, p, as used in determining co: re BLS ys 100002178 reRen é gm/ec Note chat the 0.001223 is the density of air in gm/cc, and the 5.615 is the necessary cooversion factor to convert the English units of cf/B into B/B. The 141.5/ (131.5 + 70), ‘of course, coaverts yo in API £0 Pac i gmn/cc. In metric units the above equations would simplify co: exe + 0.001223 gRe Be Pe = 0001225 Fn le EXAMPLE — English units Find Pye in the following situation: By 876 + 0,0002178 x 0.75 x 3500 121 0.771 g/cc 3-25 Fig. 8-23 - (Chat Fj -6): Nomograph to find Pour Ne‘ bs Yor Yoo and Boy ‘An alternate solution is with Fig 3-23 Chart Fgo-6), the nomograph for determining Pave 75 through Ry = 350 cf/B 1. Draw a Hine from yp toLine A. 2. Draw a line from Poine a to y = 30° API and estab- lish Point b 3, Draw a line from Point b through B, = 1.21 to the answer, Pont = O.7 7 gmn/ ec. EXAMPLE — Metric units Find pp in the following situations: ‘The solution is: 1. poy = Pane +0.001223 y¢Ron, Bo 0.84 + 0.001223 x 0.65 x 100 1.26 = 0.730 gm /ec Pa3-26 5) ©) WATER DENSITY, py ‘The density of gas-free water isa function of temper: ture, pressure, and water salinity. A nomograph of this rela- tionship is shown in Fig. 3-24 (Chart Fwel). As the solubility of gas in water (Rey) is small, che effect of the dissolved gas is ignored, and this chart is sed for the density of water at any Row. EXAMPLE Find the density of water under che following condi- tions: Cxxcr= 90,000 pra Tur =200°F Pet = 2,000 psi Using Fig 3-24 the solution is as follows: 1. Starting from Css: = 90,000 ppm, draw a Hine through Twe = 200°F to Point @. 2, Statting from par = 2,000 psi, draw Line through Point ero water density (Pwr), of 14038 gmv/ee. Viscosity correlations a) GAS VISCOSITY ‘Ac elevated cemperatures and low pressures, low-gravity ‘gases closely resemble "perfect" gas in theit behavior, while at low temperatures and high pressures, the heavier gases resemble liquids. ‘The charts in Fig 3-25¢hert Fg-6) give gas viscosity as a function of temperature and pressure, for gases of five different gravicies. ‘Note thar above aboue 1,500 psi, an increase in tempera- ture decreases the gas viscosity, while below that point in- creasing the temperature increases the viscosity, Fig, 5-24-(Chrt Fw-1): Nomograph to find Poowr. Needed: Cracey Tuy atid Pay Pressure, 000 psio a % Hy Ctatipaees Pressure, 1000 psa Presears 000 pia Fig. 3-25 (Chart Fg-6):Gas viscosity, yey af a function of ym) Tes, and fyey (covrtesy Oi and Gas Journal).b) OM VISCOSITY, 11. ‘The viscosity of crude oil decreases with a temperature increase and with an increase of dissolved gas, Heavier oils are generally more viscous than lighter oils of the same hydrocarbon base. ‘The question of which viscosity units are co be used may be rather confusing since there are several differene systems used in the oil field, The centipoise is the unit used chrough- out this document. ‘The charts given ia Fig. 3-267 Chart Fgo-7) correlate crude oil viscosity with stock-eaak oil gravity, eemperature, and solution gas-oil ratio at or below bubble-poine pressure. If the pressure on the oil is above bubble-point pressure its viscosity is increased by the amount given by the correction curve. EXAMPLE Find the oil viscosity in centipoises, in the following situation: Referring to Fig. 5-26 (English units), the solution is made as follows: 1, Start on the ordinate at 30° API. 2. Go tight 0 200°R, 3. Drop to the Ras value of 400 cf/B. 4. Go left to read 1 cp, the viscosity at bubble-poine pressure, and, along the way, note the Poine D. 5. Drop vertically from Point D to the abscissa, Read a viscosity gradient of 0.07 cp/1,000 psi. This figure is used only when Pur > Po, which is the case in this problem, The increase in viscosity is from the value obtained on the ordinate (Step 4), so that: 7 0.07 Z o= LOD + og ae (Pet BS) Bo= Lp + (2,700 ~ 1,700) = 1.07 ep 3-27 English 4 or 1 10 Viscosity increase, cp/000 psi Fig. 3-26 (Chart Fgo-7): sor as a function of ‘oro Tn and Ryy (and viscosity increase where Puy > do).+28 c) WATER VISCOSITY, jy The viscosity of water is primerily a function of eem- perature and water salinity. Fig. 3-27( Chart Fwe2) shows this relatos EXAMPLE Find the viscosity of water under the following condi- Caer = 150,000 ppm Tor =200°F Using Fig, 2-19, the solution is: 1. te =0.43 6p @) VISCOSITY OF MIXTURES ‘The viscosity of a water-in-oil emulsion may be many times that of either the water ot the oil. As a practial limit, however, the viscosity of a water-in-oil emulsion does not exceed 5 ep. D._Rock Lume i While fluid pressure in the reservoir rock pore space decreases with depletion, the lithostatic pressure on the matrix remains essentially constant. This causes the pore-volume and rock bulk volume to decrease with depletion. Correlations of Hall and Knaap, Figure 3-28, have been used extensively in the Literature, however these correlations do not apply over a very wide range of xeservoir rocks. They may be used only to give order of magnitude estimates for the more consolidated rocks but not for friable sandstone. Foumation campressibility is best measured in the laboratory for the reservoir rock being studied. Tonowatr, Tas" Fig. 3-27. Water viscosity vs. temp and concentron of NaCl Fig. 3-28. Pore-volume canpressibil- ity - limestone Fig. 3-29, Pore-volume compressibil~ ity - sandstoneFgo-7 Fow-1 Fw Fwe2 29 Pen Twit Ye 1/By Me PeoTeove «+ steevene 335 Pe (ory) Ray (Or po), Twt veand ys (0 Pane) 3636 k Pro Pe “ sees Ba Rav, yo Yor Twe English only) 3-38 Ba Revs yw Tot (English or metric) 3439 By Py PosGo (ot Pen), Bar 3-40 Powt eR yo (Of Pose), Be Heo (and pl increase, if yor (Pore)s Tots Rew ‘eis greater than py) Solution Gas-Water ratio Densities of NaCl solutions Water viscositysie Chart fg-1 GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR After Standing and Katz, Ref. 3. ‘Gio eeatyat_ataneor condone scons geo» 000127 Pree. g/ag cn Find Vent Select "yp = 0.70" section. Enter abscis at 2,000 pia, go vertically co 200°F. Given: Vise = 400cu f beh iaettetae By ke = o5 = Yor = 400. By 75> Vee Vanepsia Pressure, Ppe? kg/sq cm Pseudo-critical oR °K % ~ a oF oT =e es ée 36 352 25 ar Chart fg-2 PSEUDO-CRITICAL NATURAL GAS PARAMETERS After Brown et ol, Ref. 4 07 08 09 10 Gas gravity, Yq (air = 1.0) Find Tye and pre L._ Enter abscissa a 0.75. Go up to: : Ty, = 406°R Given: ye a ven: y, 7 Pre= 664 pia 3313-32 Chart fg-3 NATURAL GAS DEVIATION FACTOR After Standing and Kotz, Ref. Pseudo-Reduced Pressure, Dpr 2 34 5 Peowdo-Reduces |] |] | | Tamparotur,Tpe (|) |: Gas Compressibility Factor, z Gas Compressibility Factor, z 10 W 12 3 Pseudo-Reduced Pressure, Ppr Find Por = Pat! Pre= 2,000/ 650 = 3007. Given: Per = 2,000 psia Tye = Tet/Tye = 660/410 = 161 Bye = 650 psia Enter abscissa (cop) at 3.07 (Ppr)-Go down to Tyr of 1.61, berween Tor = 200°F (660°R) 1.6 and 17 lines Tye = 410R 2= 0.828Chart fg-4& 333 GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR (Nomograph) © 74 scHLumoEncER Chart computes: 1 1 Heiney Solving for % 1 Pot By Brower =140 kg/sqem eC 1828 |. Enter pye scale at 140 kg/sq cm. Follow Lines a in small diagram, 1B, 35,> Chart fg-5 GAS DENSITY © W974 schuumaencen Yq (Air=10) 0.8 Chart computes: SOLVING FOR Prgwt % front oe Find Prewt, Given: ye =0.75 1/B, = 140 1, Connect y— = 0.75 and 1/B, = 140, asin small diagram. 2. Pre = 0.13 gm/ce,Chart f9-6 aa GAS VISCOSITY Courtery of Oil and Gas Journal, May 12, 1949, Hg,Centipoises 3 Pressure, 1,000 psia % Hzg,Centipoises Pressure, 1,000 psia = 1.0 | £25904 | 23094 Hg: Centipoises aa T z ss Pressure, 1,000 psia Find ewe 1. Enter yg = 0.70 chart at pet = 2,000 psa Given: y Put Tee 2 Goup ro Tee = 200°F. 3. tye = 0.018 centipoises.“ Chart fgo-1 BUBBLE-POINT PRESSURE © wre scinumpencee Rsb Pp (Pwe) (R,) kg/sqem psia cu m/cu m 700: 500° B Ra, = R, since the field-usage definition of py stipulates given flow rates of oil and gas, taken here tobe qos and qaxe (above) (On che nomograph, locate Point a by a line through Tw: = 180°F and Ray = 400. Locate Point b by aline through 740.75 and y4 = 40° APL = 240900¢f/D _ meee = 1 R= OOD = do0ct/B Cor nd b: py = 1,560 psia,Chart fgo -2 Pat | SOLUTION GOR CORRECTION FACTOR © 974 scHUnnERcER By =1-4+K(Byp-!) 02 03 04 O05 06 OF 0: Pwr /Pb Find k, Given: per= 250 ke/sqcm Py = 185 kg/sqjem 1. pee/pe=074 2 Enter abscissa a 0.74 3, k= 0.810.3-38 Chart fgo-3 FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR AT p,, OIL After Standing, Ref. 6, Find Boy. Enter upper lf scala: Ruy = 260, Gorighetoy,=07. Godownto = Gogh 10Te= 160 Go down to the answer: By = 1.155% (oir= 10) Chart fgo-—4 FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR AT p,, OIL (Nomograph) © 17 scmumeencer Locate Point e by line through y~ = 0.65 and Ra, = 400, Draw a line from a through Twe= 180°F, tothe answer: Byy= 1.24 3-39a0 Chart fgo-5 FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, Ol @ 1974 scHumaercer Chart computes: Bo = Bopl!~Col Pt Pa Since pee > Po,0il is undersaturated. Connect Pt — Pr = 1,000 psia 10 Pin = 0.66. ‘Make the poine so focared, as shown in small diagram. . Move this point as showa, following trend lines. Connect this point to By = 1.22 and read: BL= 1.20+0.0002178 %R, 8 2 3 a € 3 3 = S s 6 Chart fgo-6 OIL DENSITY AT WELL CONDITIONS © 7 scmunaeacer #41 Ty T 06 O59 058 0.87 Ya lair =1.0) 1, Locate Point @ by a line from yg = 0.75 through R, = 350, 2, Locate Point b by aline from Point @ co yo = 30° API. 3. Drawaline from Poine by chrough B, = 1.21. Poet = 0.77 gra/eeaan Chart fgo—7 OIL VISCOSITY English or 10 10 Viscosity increase, cp/,000 psi Fid poe 30° APL = 200°F 1,700 psia 2,700 psia 400 f/B Enter ordinate at yoge = 30° API. Go tight ro Ty = 200, 3. Go down to Ryy = 400. © 1974 schwumasroen oF 10 10 Viscosity increase, cp/l00 kg/sq cm {. Go left roanswer, locating Point D on the way: pp = 1.0 centipoise. Since pet > Pu Wont > Ha» From Point D, go down co read: viscosity increase = 007 ep/,000 pai owt = Boo + AE(Pee — Po) /1,000 = 1.0 + 0.07 (2,700 ~ 1,700) /1,000 = .07 contipolsos. 100Few Chart fow—1 SOLUTION GAS-WATER RATIO After Dodson and Standing, Ref. 2. ENGLISH e 8 & sou m/eu m 700 180 180-220-280 a0 Temperature °F 0 peection for brine salinity Or Torr 43 METRIC e080 100 Temperature °C Correction for brine salinity oF 6 20 30 Total solidsinbrina,ppm x 10-3 Find Row Given: Tye Det Cyso1 80°F 400 psia 0,000 ppm (Top) Enter the abscissa at Tye = 180. Goup t0 pet = 3,400, Read Rey 16 f/B. 10 30 ‘otol sali in brine, ppm x 10-3 ‘Bortom) Enter che abscissa at 20 (20,000 ppm). Go up oT = 180. Read Fyc = 091. Raw = Row Foc = 16 X 0.91 = 15 of344 ey 5 3 3 z 3 s = 5 8 8 a 8 3 1,000 ppm Chart fw—1 DENSITIES OF NaCl SOLUTIONS © rw74 scuunsercer Standard Conditions 1. Locate Point « by a ine from Cyact = 90,000 thtough Te = 200. 2. Drawealline from pa = 2,000 through a Retd: Pyys = 1.092.gen/ec.3 2 3 A = 5 8 3 5 a = oe 3 8 $ 2 & = Chart fw—2 — WATER VISCOSITY © 74 scmunsercer Temperature, Tyr: 60. 80 100 eppmy 103) 15012004 per 200 = 150,000 ppm Tw =200°F 1. Bncer abscissa at Tye = 200 2, GouptoCnrcr = 150,000. 3. wwe = 043 ep.a1 RESERVOIR ROCK 4 PROPERTIES To form a comercial reservoir of hydrocarbons, any geological formation rust exhibit two essential characteristics. These are a capacity for storage and a transmissivity to the fluid concerned, i.e. the reservoir rock must be able to accumulate and store fluids, and when develorment wells are drilled it must be possible for those reservoir fluids to flow through relatively long distances under snall potential gradients. A._Porosity The void spaces in reservoir rocks are, for the most part, the intergranular spaces between the sedimentary particles. Porosity is defined as a percent- age or fraction of void to the bulk volume of the rock. While the proport- ion of void can be calculated for regular arrangements of uniform spheres, as shown on the left, the porosity of reservoir rocks must be determined by direct measurement on core samples in the laboratory or estimated in situ by well Jog analysis. Porosity of rambohedrally packed Grain sorting, silt,clay and cenent-| spheres - 26% ation affect sandstone porosity Fig. 4-1. Intergranular porosity.4-2 Processes subsequent to sedimentation (cementation, re-crystallization, solution, weathering, fracturing), can modify substantially the proportion and distribution of void space. In reservoir engineering, only the interconnected or effective porosity is of interest since this is the only capacity which can make a contrib- ution to flow. Pore spaces initially present but subsequently sealed off by cementation or re-crystallization effects are of no interest. Primary porosity refers to the void spaces remaining after sedimentation of the ‘granules in the matrix and hence is a matrix porosity. Secondary porosity is the contribution from pits, vugs, fractures and other dis- continuities in the bulk volume of the matrix. The contribution of secondary porosity to the overall bulk parosity is generally small yet it cari lead to dran- atic increases in bulk permeability. Dual porosity systems From the reservoir engineering point of view, the distinguishing factor between primary and secondary porosity is not the mode of occurance but the very different flow capacity where an interconnected secondary porosity system is present. ‘This is called a dual porosity system. As shown in figure 4-2, the porosity of reservoir rocks may range from about 5¢ of bulk volume to about 30% of bulk volume, the lower porosity range normally being of interest only in dual porosity systers. Tt will normally be possible to distinguish any effects of dual porosity if the “coarse” system has a flow capacity about two orders of magnitude greater than that of the "fine" system, With lesser contrasts, behaviour is virtually in- distinguishable fron single porosity systems with some heterogeneity. In this situation generally only porosities greater than about 108 are likely to be of commercial interest, the lower porosities generally being of interest only when a dual system is clearly definable. scTUA._Racrunc sesemvoTR co nese Fig. 4-2. Range of matrix porosity and permeability of commercial interest of conventional and fractured - dual ity systems.4-3 B,_ Permeability ‘The permeability of a rock is a measure of its specific flow capacity and can be determined only by a flow experiment. Since permeability depends upon continuity cf pore space, there is not any unique relation between the porosity of a rock and its permeability, (except that a rock must have a non- zero porosity if it is to have a non-zero permeability) . Henry Darcy experimented with filtration of water through unconsolidated sand beds about 1856. ‘he results of Darcy's studies, for horizontal flow, can be written in differential form : This is the defining equation for the measurement of pemeability by flow measurement, The unit of proportionality k, between velocity and pressure gradient, is the coefficient of permeability and is usually measured in Darcy. Note that the coefficient of permeability k, is a rock characteristic independent of the fluid used for its measurenent. 1) Practical definition of the Darcy In the oil industry _ permeability is expressed in Darcy units. A xock bas a pemeability of 1 Darcy if a pressure gradient of 1 atn/on induces a flow rate of 1 co/per square cm. of cross-sectional area of a liquid viscosity 1 op. ‘The Darcy is large for a practical unit, and the millidarey is more camonly used. Fig. 4-3, Definition of a Darcy.44 ‘The Darcy thus defined, is a mixed unit which may eventually be replaced by a new SI unit, Tt can be demonstrated as follows that k has the units of length? and that 1 Darcy is equal to tum. Lg where : L= Length ge HL. Te - wv Force Time Evaluating 1 Darcy in ogs units : SB x hy x ME SEC yom 1 darcy = —= =} 108 ca? or 1 pat 2) Factors affecting permeability, While grain size has a negligible effect on the porosity of a rock, this parameter has a predominant effect on pemeability. This is so because grain size controls the total wetted surface. Each grain has a wetted surface surrounding it where fluid velocity is always zero, and shearing friction is formed between this zero velocity layer and any passing fluids. ‘Thus more pressure energy is consumed in moving a given quantity of fluid through a fine granular pack (with its larger wetted surface and corre- spondingly higher frictional losses) than through a coarse granular pack of equal porosity. ‘SMALL GRAINS - LOW PERMEABILITY Fig. 4-4. Effect of grain size on permeabilityAs an exemple of the effect of grain size on wetted surface, compare the wetted surface of a 1m? rectangular conduit with a 1m rectangular conduit filled with .1 mm diameter sand grains. pote swbeocnembere podehe 7 = 2h dar? «x i” olpd 3 (02) x oop 24000 m? Fig. 4-5. Runple illustrating effect of grain size on wetted surface. Fig. 4-6. High horizontal-low vertical permeability. Granular sorting, silting, clay inclusions, and processes subsequent to sedi- mentation mentioned previously, such as solution, cementation, weathering, and fracturing all act to influence both the porosity and permeability of a rock.