See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/278624022

Iron in the building of gothic churches: its role, origins and production using
evidence from Rouen and Troyes

Article · January 2010

CITATIONS READS

11 46

3 authors, including:

Maxime L'Héritier Philippe Dillmann

Université de Vincennes - Paris 8 French National Centre for Scientific Research
72 PUBLICATIONS   561 CITATIONS    369 PUBLICATIONS   5,295 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

A-Corros View project

Les armatures de fer de la cathédrale de Bourges : nouvelles données, nouvelles lectures View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Maxime L'Héritier on 16 February 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Iron in the building of gothic churches: its
role, origins and production using evidence
from Rouen and Troyes
Maxime L’Héritier, Philippe Dillmann and Paul Benoit

ABSTRACT: Iron was included in the initial design of most gothic churches. Many
tons of iron bars were used in stained-glass windows; iron structural rods and chains
were used in masonry and frameworks, and smaller pieces such as cramps and pins
were used to attach numerous sculpted ornaments. Many questions arise regarding the
use of iron in medieval construction: the quantities used by the master builders, the
location, supply and cost, the nature and quality of the ferrous alloys employed and the
influence of changes in medieval iron production, notably the introduction of water-
powered hammers and blast furnaces. In this research, important medieval churches
in Rouen and Troyes were investigated. Medieval account books were studied, and
metallographic analyses were carried out on 74 iron pieces sampled in the buildings.
This paper presents the methods and the results of this interdisciplinary work.

Introduction So, Viollet-le-Duc’s comments were relevant until the

For a long time there have been doubts about the
extent of the use of iron in stone construction and es-
pecially in gothic churches. To many architects, it was
inconceivable that such a ‘disgraceful’ metal could
form part of the construction of what Heyman (1995)
refers to as ‘stone skeletons’. Negative views about the
use of iron go back as far as the 16th century (Delorme
1648) and were frequently expressed in the 19th
century. At that time, Viollet-le-Duc (1868) devoted
two chapters of his Dictionary of French Architecture
to the problem of armatures and chaînages (chains).
Using his knowledge of medieval architecture, from
the numerous restorations which he undertook, he
was the first to consider this question with little
prejudice. But in the next century, despite World
War II destruction and subsequent restorations, no
significant research was carried out on the subject.
Some architects even continued to cut out iron tie
rods for aesthetic reasons, believing they could not be
part of the original medieval structure. The cathedral
of Beauvais in Picardy is the most famous example,
as it came near to collapse a few years after the last
rods had been cut out (Taupin 1996).
mid-1980s, when the question of the use of ferrous alloys
in medieval architecture was raised once again, thanks
to the work of architects and researchers all over Europe
(Wilcox 1981; Chapelot and Benoit 1985; Haas 1987).
The first monograph studies of monuments such as the
Sainte-Chapelle, Paris (Erlande-Brandenburg 1996), or
the cathedrals of Bourges (Férauge and Mignerey 1996)
and Beauvais (Taupin 1996), as well as research on
medieval account books, showed that iron was used in
great quantities in medieval construction and especially
in gothic churches. In particular, the study of Beauvais
cathedral by Benoit, Fluzin and.Taupin, which included
the first metallographic analyses carried out on medieval
constructional iron (Taupin 1996), followed by the work
of Ph. Bernardi and Ph. Dillmann (2005) on the Popes’
Palace at Avignon, raised a range of questions relating
to the use of iron in medieval architecture.
In Western Europe two major changes occurred in the
production of iron at the end of the Middle Ages: the
development of water-powered forge-hammers and the
introduction of the blast furnace and finery. The rise of
these new techniques was contemporary with the con-
struction of gothic churches between the 12th and the

Historical Metallurgy 44(1) 2010 21–35 21

L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Figure 2: Metal detector survey next to a balustrade in the church

of Saint-Ouen of Rouen.

What kinds of ferrous alloys were employed and did

Figure 1: Church of Saint-Jean-au-Marché record, Arch. Dép.
Aube, 15 G 62, fol. 31 r°.
16th centuries and one must consider their influence
on the use of iron by the great medieval builders.
When it comes to the question of the use of iron,
although architectural investigations come first, such
as where in the structure and why iron was employed
by medieval builders, the economic and metallurgical
questions should not be neglected. What quantities of
iron were used in these churches? What was its cost
by comparison with the other materials? Where did
the iron come from and which ironworks made it?
Table 1: Studied corpus
Monument Construction period
Cathedral Notre-Dame, Rouen end 12th–beg. 16th c.
they receive specific forging treatments? All these
questions require interdisciplinary study: of church
surveys, of historical records, and of metallographic
analyses of iron either sampled in situ or from objects
removed during restoration. Methodology is presented
first; the paper then focuses on the interdisciplinary
studies of seven gothic churches from two important
French medieval cities, Rouen and Troyes (Table 1),
complementing previously-published archaeometric
material (Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007; Desaulty et
al 2009).
Method
For each church, all available medieval account books
relating to construction or upkeep of the monument were
studied (Table 1), in particular the sections concerning
‘blacksmithing expenses’ (dépenses pour forge) or ‘lock-
smithing expenses’ (dépenses pour serrurerie) (Fig 1).
Number of accounting years available and Number of iron
studied during the construction (and span) samples studied
53 (1383–1527) 15

Church Saint-Ouen, Rouen 1318–mid. 16 c.

th
0 24

Church Saint-Maclou, Rouen 1435–1521 10 (1436–1517) 1

Cathedral Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul, Troyes 1200–1634 135 (1293–1520) 15

Church Saint-Urbain, Troyes 1262–1286, 19th and beg. 20th c. 50 (1381–1547) 0

Church Sainte-Madeleine, Troyes end 12 –mid. 16 c.

th th
17 (1497–1543) 13

Church Saint-Jean-au-Marché, Troyes beg.13th–end. 16th c. 42 (1441–1570) 6

22
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Every reference to the iron trade or ironworking was
recorded. Apart from the smith’s name and the price
paid by the canons, these accounts often mention the
type of iron purchased, its weight, and approximately
where it was placed in the church. More rarely do they
name its origins. For each accounting year, the total of
blacksmithing expenses was reckoned, to compare with
the costs of construction of the building as a whole.
Then a complete survey of each church was carried
out, to create an inventory of every item of iron used in
construction. The investigations were limited by acc-
essibility, but every reachable element was measured,
to quantify as far as possible how much iron was used.
Particular attention was given to stained-glass windows.
When no restoration work was in progress on the church,
a metal-detector was used to access hidden structures
(Fig 2). It was impossible to prospect near stained-glass
panels as they contain too much iron and lead for a
precise signal. Moreover, the detection depth of the
equipment (Minelab Explorer III) could not exceed
c30cm, insufficient to reach, for example, the centre of
most pillars, Therefore the interior links between tie-
rods could not be assessed with this kind of detection,
so an electrical prospecting method had to be developed.
Using merely a 4.5v battery and a light bulb it was poss-
ible to study the electrical and therefore the mechanical
continuity between iron elements.
Eventually, 74 iron objects were sampled for
metallographic analyses (Table 1). One or several
sections were cut on each object. They were embedded
in epoxy resin, polished and Nital etched to reveal the
structure of the metallic matrix. Slag inclusions (SI)
were counted and welding lines were noted. Oberhoffer’s
reagent etching, revealing variations in the phosphorus
content, was also used. As these artefacts generally con-
tain a high proportion of SI, SI analysis was then carried
out according to the method published by Dillmann
and L’Héritier (2007). At least 40 SI were analysed per
sample and average weighted contents were calculated
for all major compounds. Each sample was then plotted,
to determine whether it was smelted by the bloomery
or the finery process (or is undetermined). Finally, the
supply homogeneity of coherent groups of objects was
checked using Non-Reduced Compounds ratios (Al2O3,
SiO2, MgO, K2O and CaO).
Iron reinforcements in Rouen and
Troyes churches
Stained-glass windows
As Viollet-le-Duc noted in his Dictionary of French
Architecture (1868), devoting an entire chapter to the
subject (‘armatures’), stained-glass windows contain
quantities of iron. In each window, several elements
make up the iron framework: bars, rods and pins (Fig 3).
Stained-glass panels are placed between the mullions,
and small iron bars fitted with tenons (barlotières). They
are fixed in position by the insertion of small pins or
nails (clavettes) in the tenons. Thin rods (vergettes) are
attached to each panel to give rigidity to the structure.
Eventually, thicker bars could be used as well to re-
inforce the window’s masonry work. These bigger bars
are often fitted with tenons to receive and fix stained-
glass panels. However, medieval builders distinguished
these ‘elements that serve the masonry’ from the ‘smaller
elements that serve the stained-glass panels’, mainly
referring to the barlotières and the vergettes 1. When a
window was built, these tie-rods were installed as soon
as the mullions and the arch were raised, whereas the
smaller elements were only fixed after glazing, which
could happen several decades later. A good example
is seen in the north-east transept of Troyes cathedral,
whose six upper bays were remodelled in 1504 2. In
that year the canons commissioned locksmith Pierre
L’ange to forge 18 great tie-rods and iron pins for their
masonry 3. On the other hand, barlotières and vergettes
were bought gradually between 1505 and 1543 as the
windows were glazed 4.
Although the purpose of these armatures in maintaining
the integrity of stained-glass panels is quite clear, their
exact role in the stability of the entire window is not
obvious and is still discussed. They were surely used
to give horizontal stability to the masonry during con-
struction, ie before it was loaded, and afterwards to help
the vertical stability of the mullions in the window plane
(Bartel et al 2003). They might also take part of the
wind load (Taupin 1996). When the tie-rods are linked
to one another in the pillars, forming one or several
uninterrupted chains, as in the Saint-Chapelle, Paris,
or in Beauvais cathedral (Erlande-Brandenburg 1996;
Taupin 1996), their structural role is even more import-
ant. For Troyes and Rouen churches, there is however
little evidence, either in the surviving account books or
from observations made during restoration work, that
these rods formed such wall ties. It could only be proved
for the choir of Saint-Urbain church in Troyes after its
reconstruction by architect P Selmersheim late in the
19th century (L’Héritier 2007, 549–552).
Overall, according to medieval account books and
estimates based on standing structures, these armatures
contain at least a few tons of iron in the smaller churches
and can reach around 25 tons in churches with the
23
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Figure 3: Stained glass windows and their iron armatures, Troyes
cathedral upper nave and triforium (c1498–1502). The armatures
consist of ten rows of bars in the upper bays and three rows in
the triforium bays placed approximately every 60cm. In the upper
bays, the first and sixth rows down are indicated with arrows.
largest windows, such as Saint-Ouen in Rouen or Troyes
cathedral, where a single stained-glass window could
contain half a ton of iron5 (Table 2).
Towers, triforiums, frameworks
Windows were not the only part of a gothic church
which used great quantities of iron. The masonry of
many structures was originally reinforced by chains,
bars or smaller iron pieces. Towers standing at transept
crossings, which are very common in Normandy, were
often buttressed by interior chains. In the church of
Saint-Maclou, Rouen, a medieval iron wall tie sealed
with lead was discovered during restoration work soon
after 2000. In the church of Saint-Ouen in Rouen, how-
ever, two parallel chains were already visible before
restoration, as they cross the large arches of the second
floor of the tower (Fig 4). Evidence of their links was
only established at that time, and the connection of
three other chains on the same level still needs to be
proved. Bars are noticeable between the interior arches
on the first floor of the lantern tower of Rouen cathedral
Table 2: Estimated weight of iron used in stained glass windows.
Monument Construction period
Church Saint-Ouen, Rouen 1318 – mid. 16th c.
Cathedral Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul, Troyes 1200 – 1634
Cathedral Notre-Dame, Rouen end 12th – beg. 16th c.
Church Saint-Urbain, Troyes 1262 – 1286, 19th and beg. 20th c.
Church Saint-Maclou, Rouen 1435 – 1521
Church Saint-Jean-au-Marché, Troyes beg.13 – end 16 c.
th th
Church Sainte-Madeleine, Troyes end 12 – mid. 16 c.
th th
24
HM 44(1) 2010
Figure 4: Iron chains in the church of Saint-Ouen of Rouen:
crossing tower (mid-15th century). The rods indicated with
arrows are linked inside the masonry, forming two rows of chains
encircling the crossing tower. A detail of their assembly in the
masonry is shown in the inset (bottom left).
(Fig 5). Are they linked? No dismantling of this part of
the building could throw light on this.
Although few other medieval chains were found in the
structures of Troyes and Rouen churches, tie-rods seem to
have been used frequently in the upper parts of several tri-
foriums: as in Saint-Ouen, Rouen, or in the western parts of
Troyes cathedral, both of which have a clerestory instead
of a blank wall (Fig 6). Large pillars and flying buttresses
were often consolidated by iron cramps and bars6. Also,
the use of small iron elements such as pins and cramps in
balustrades, small columns or pinnacles should not be ne-
glected. Their total weight can be several tons in the largest
churches (L’Héritier et al 2005a; Aumard 2009). In 1387,
32lb. of iron were necessary to build a single pinnacle of
Estimated weight of iron used in
stained glass windows
25 tons
25 tons
15 tons
9 tons (+ 3 tons: nave upper bay-windows built
late in the 19th century).
5.5 tons
5 tons
2.5 tons
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Figure 6: Iron tie-rods in Troyes cathedral western triforium

Figure 5: Iron tie-rods in Rouen cathedral lantern tower (early (late 14th and 15th century).
13th century).

Rouen cathedral’s western façade 7. The quantity of iron
required for the construction of choir screens is even more
impressive: most of their architectural ornaments are inter-
nally reinforced with small pins and cramps. Bars were
sometimes also used to support their structure (Table 3 and
4). For example, at the beginning of the 16th century an
agreement was made between master builder Jean Gailde
and urban locksmith Pierre Vinot for the construction of
the choir screen of the church of Sainte-Madeleine, which
required more than a ton of iron8.
Eventually, iron was not only used to attach stones
together but also to secure pieces of wood. Several
iron pins were found in Rouen cathedral’s early-13th-
century framework. The time taken for the wood to dry
and to be assembled can hinder the dendro-dating of
construction (Epaud 2007). Dating was assisted later
by metallographic analysis of one of these pins, and its
identification as bloomery iron. (L’Héritier et al 2005b).
Table 3: Iron pieces used for the construction of Troyes cathedral
choir screen between 1384 and 1399 (Data from Bibl. nat., ms.
lat. 9111 and 9112).
Year Iron pieces used in the construction
of the choir screen
1384–1385 156 cramps and 134 pins
5 great bars weighing 42 lb each and 6 other
bars weighing 32 lbs each.
1386–1387 4 pegs, one lever, 58 cramps, 23 pins
1388–1389 15 cramps and 30 pins
1388–1389 36 cramps and 21 pins
1391–1392 cramps and pins
1395–1396 16 great pins and 30 cramps
1397–1398 15 iron cramps and 10 pins
1398–1399 cramps and pins
Total
Fabric accounts cite the use of ‘squared pins’ for the
framework late in the 14th century 9. Troyes cathedral’s
present framework contains many iron links; however
it was completely rebuilt after a fire early in the 18th
century. There are 14th- and 15th-century references
to the use of many iron pins and bars in its original
framework.
First, in 1337, during the construction of the western
nave, blacksmith Jacquemart provided the carpenters
with two big tie-rods weighing 162lb, 50 small ones
and 50 cramps 10. Then, late in the 14th century, the
framework was successively struck by lightning and
damaged by the collapse of the nave, and needed repair:
the canons bought no less than 22 flat iron bars, includ-
ing a six-foot-long great Spanish iron bar; most of these
were used to attach the great wooden tie-beams 11. The
eastern nave and its framework were completed almost
a century later. More iron bars were required for the tie-
beams and at least 80 pins were placed in the assemblies
of the rafters 12. Eventually, the newly-built framework
was attached to the earlier one with ‘two 12-pound great
Weight
links of iron’ 13. Overall, the nave framework contained
more than 600lb of iron.
339 lb
402 lb Cailleaux made a similar statement for the transept
of Sens cathedral and its late 15th/early 16th century
123 lb
framework (1999, 386). According to him, in the transept
40.5 lb
at Sens iron was more used to attach wood pieces than
24.5 lb
stones. Thanks to these examples, sufficient data has
26 lb been gathered to show that Viollet-le-Duc was mis-
87.5 lb taken when he claimed that the ‘art of blacksmithing’
25 lb was ‘totally proscribed from the art of carpentry’ in the
78.5 lb Middle Ages (1868, t. 1, 461–462). Although such early
1146 lb examples as Rouen’s 13th-century pins are very rare,

25
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Table 4: Iron expenses for the choir screen of the church of Sainte-Madeleine of Troyes between 1511 and 1514 (Data from Arch.
dép. Aube, 16 G 47).
Year Element Weight Price
1511–1512 Ironwork - 33s 4d
24 Oct. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 326.75 lb £10 17s 10d
14 Nov. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 353.75 lb £11 15s 10d
21 Nov. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 292.5 lb £9 15s
4 Dec. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 427.5 lb £14 5s
11 Dec. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 265.5 lb £8 4d
13 Feb. 1513 Big bars, small plugs, cramps and rings 609.75 lb £20 6s 6d
1513 Key for the inferior part of the choir screen 42 lb 28s 4d
1513–1514 4 cramps, 2 pins - 3s 4d
1513–1514 1 big leg 11 lb 5s 10d
1513–1514 3 great soupentes (?truss-brackets) ; 3 cramps 28 lb 15s
1513–1514 1 big bent cramp 6 lb 3s 4d
1513–1514 2 big cramps - 2s 6d
1513–1514 2 tinned prods - 15s
Total 2362.75 lb £80 10s 10d

it now seems fairly obvious that medieval carpenters
regularly used iron armatures in wooden frameworks
at least from the 14th century.
Consolidation and repair
Iron armatures were often part of the monument’s
original concept. Yet, from the Middle Ages onwards
many iron pieces were also used for repair work. The
northern transept of Troyes cathedral and its ‘Beau
Portail’ provide one of the best examples of such
practice. This portal was originally built between late
in the 13th and late in the 14th century, when its rose
was finally glazed 14 (Murray 1987, 29), but had to be
constantly consolidated in the next century (Roserot de
Melin 1966, 174, 197). A chain made from at least six
big iron bars weighing about 150lb each was installed
in the northern transept between 1410 and 1413 to
preserve its vaults and walls15. Many other bars and
rods, attaching the Tonnerre stone side buttresses and
gable of the portal’s facing, added in the first half of the
15th century, are also still visible (Fig 7). Several other
chains and rods have been discovered in the northern
transept, although no information is available about
their installation. Metallographic analyses carried out
on two samples from two different chains revealed
they are both made of finery iron (L’Héritier 2009).
According to the earliest references to blast furnaces
and fineries nearby (Rouillard 2003, 401), these chains
were set after the end of the 14th century—more prob-
ably during the modern period—and therefore belong
to restoration work.

Total quantities
Overall, several tons of iron were used in the con-
struction of each church. Troyes cathedral and Saint-
Ouen abbey-church in Rouen are, within the corpus,
the two that required the most iron, about 50 or 60 tons
each (L’Héritier 2007, 719–720). These estimates, based
on account book data as well as on standing structures,
agree with earlier figures given for Upper Palatinate
churches, mentioning 40 tons for Regensburg cathedral
(Haas 1987). Even greater quantities of iron were em-
ployed in the Popes’ Palace in Avignon (Bernardi and
Dillmann 2005) or the dungeon of Vincennes castle
(Chapelot 2004).
Figure 7: Iron bars attaching the Tonnerre stone gable added to
Troyes cathedral Beau portail (first half of the 15th century).

26
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Table 5: Average (hence decimals of £) and largest iron expenses according to accounting books studied (Data from Arch. dép. Seine-
Maritime, G 2481, G 2483 to G 2525; Arch dép. Aube, G 1559 to G 1588, G 4417; Bibl. nat., ms. lat. 9111 to 9913, ms. nouv. acq. lat.
1949, 1950; Arch. nat., KK 398 B.)
Yearly average Yearly largest expenses (main
av% Yearly max%
expenses work that year)
Rouen cathedral £47.5 2.9 % £325.6 (Bell) 12.8 %
Troyes cathedral £24.9 3.3 % £141.1 (Glazing) 27.1 %
Church Saint-Urbain £3.7 2.6 % £61.2 (Glazing) 12.9 %
Church Sainte-Madeleine [Based
only on four accounting years £25.4 4.2 % £78.7 (Stone choir screen ) 12.3 %
(1511–1514).
Church Saint-Jean £30.2 3.9 % £270.5 (Iron choir screen) 12.8 %

The supply and cost of iron enough detail to deal with different types of blacksmith-
ing expenses separately and quantify every share. Data
Blacksmithing costs and the influence of are summed up in Table 6. Construction iron in general,
recycling ie all armatures (chains, bars, pins, cramps, etc.) used
Despite these quantities of iron, blacksmiths’ costs never in masonry, windows or frameworks, only accounts
exceeded an average of 2–4 per cent of the builders’ for one third to one half of the overall expenses linked
overall expenses (Table 5). This agrees with the figures with iron. However, within structural iron, armatures
suggested at the Pierre et métal dans le bâtiment au for windows have by far the largest share. Nails reach
Moyen Age conference, according to which iron and lead about 15% and amount to the second largest expense.
account together for 6–10 per cent of the construction Others such as bells, tools, locks and keys, are between
cost (Benoit 1985). As far as we are aware, Popes’ 5% and 15%.
Palace’s yard is the only known case where the share of
iron exceeds 10% on average (Bernardi and Dillmann Whenever possible, recycling reduced the cost of con-
2005). However, in any building yard blacksmithing struction. Between 1430 and 1433, the canons of Rouen
expenses could occasionally reach 10% and more rarely cathedral systematically sold the ‘old iron’ of the former
up to 30% of the yearly expenses, eg when glazing was windows to Jean Paen, locksmith, who was in charge
taking place (Table 5). Locksmiths’ wages and the cost of their renovation 16. Overall, more than two tons of
of iron account for 10–40% of the price of a stained- iron were collected, which helped to cut blacksmithing
glass window (Minois 2005, 286–289; L’Héritier 2007, expenses by about a third 17 (Table 7). Such references
723–726). to ‘old iron’ are not unusual in medieval account books,
but most of the time one cannot characterise or quantify
The account books of Troyes and Rouen cathedrals give its re-use. Metallographic analyses can throw light on
Table 6: Details of iron expenses for Rouen and Troyes cathedrals (Data from Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2481, G 2483 to G 2525;
Arch dép. Aube, G 1559 to G 1588, G 4417; Bibl. nat., ms. lat. 9111 to 9913, ms. nouv. acq. lat. 1949, 1950; Arch. nat., KK 398 B).
Prices rounded to the nearest sol (s)
Rouen cathedral (1383–1512) Rouen cathedral (1383–1435) Troyes cathedral (1293–1521)
Construction iron (except bay- £81 18s 3.8% £57 10s 8.8% £400 14s 11.7%
windows)
Construction iron (for bay- £215 16s 9.9% £203 30.9% £768 2s 22.5%
windows)
Nails £247 2s 11.4% £86 10s 13.2% £579 14s 17.0%
Locks. hinges. keys… £149 2s 6.9% £78 8s 11.9% £316 9.3%
Bells £338 15.6% £29 14s 4.5% £317 12s 9.3%
Tools £361 8s 16.6% £88 13.4% £182 18s 5.4%
Machines £47 2.2% £39 18s 6.1% £160 6s 4.7%
Furnitures £34 4s 1.6% £1 18s 0.3% £275 10s 8.1%
Undetermined £698 14s 32.2% £71 6s 10.9% £415 2s 12.1%
Total £2173 4s 100% £656 4s 100% £3415 18s 100%

Construction iron (total) £297 14s 13.7% £260 10s 39.7% £1168 16s 34.2%
Of which for bay-windows £215 16s 72.5% £203 79.7% £768 2s 65.7%

27
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Table 7: Proportion of iron expenses for the glazing of Rouen cathedral upper choir windows (forma). (Data from Arch. dép. Seine-
Maritime, G 2487, G 2489 to G 2491) (ob = half of 1d).
Weight Weight of Price of iron after
Price of iron
  Price of glass of Ferro % Iron recycled Ferro recycling at 5 or % Iron
(13d / lb)
novo antico 6d / lb
1a, 2a, 3a parva forma £199 10s 479.75lb £26 11s 9d 11.8 % 504lb £17 1s 6d 7.9 %
4a parva forma £40 10s 11d 225lb £12 7s 9d 23.4 % 164lb £8 5s 9d 17.0 %
5a parva forma £40 10s 11d 228lb £12 11s 23.6 % 162lb £8 10s 17.3 %
1a magna forma £61 14s 10d ob 379.5lb £20 12s ob 25.0 % 337lb £12 3s 7d ob 16.5 %
2 magna forma
a
£61 14s 10d ob 378.5lb £20 11s ob 25.0 % 332lb £12 5s ob 16.6 %
3a magna forma £61 10d 379.5lb £20 17s 1d ob 25.5 % 337lb £14 2s 2d 18.8 %
4a magna forma £61 10d (+ £10) 383lb £21 11d 22.9 % 334lb £13 14s 8d ob 16.2 %
5a magna forma £61 10d (+ £7) 385.5lb £21 3s 7d ob 23.7 % 335lb £14 4s ob 17.3 %
6 magna forma
a
£61 10d (+ £7) 385lb £21 3s 1d 23.7 % 333lb £14 5s 4d 17.3 %
7 magna forma
a
£67 10d 411.5lb £22 11s 9d ob 25.2 % 336lb £15 11s 9d ob 18.9 %
8a magna forma £67 10d 386lb £20 18s 2d 23.8 % 331lb £16 18s 7d 20.2 %
9 magna forma
a
£67 10d 406lb £22 5s 10d 24.9 % 324lb £15 10s 10d 18.8 %
10a magna forma £67 10d (+ £2) 406lb £22 5s 10d 24.4 % 324lb £15 10s 10d 20.8 %
1 fourme de la nef
e
£32 16s 8d 221lb £12 10s 6d 27.6 % 220lb £7 18s 8d 19.5 %
Total £932 8s 2d 4833.25lb £264 19s 11d ob 22.1 % 4153lb £178 4s 2d ob 16 %

this point by grouping examination of welding lines
and study of SI homogeneity (Dillmann and L’Héritier
2007; L’Héritier and Dillmann 2009). About two thirds
of the 74 samples would come from ‘brand-new iron’,
ie not from the welding of scrap iron, and five to ten per
cent from reclaimed scrap. Brand-new iron seemed to
form the largest share in medieval buildings; however
another kind of recycling could not be considered: the
simple re-use of an iron piece without any addition of
iron from another source. If not explicitly mentioned in
account books, such re-use can only be recognised by
studying each object. Within the entire corpus, only one
cramp appeared to have had an earlier life, before being
used on the balustrade of Saint-Jean-au-Marché church:
it is indeed much flatter than other cramps on the same
balustrade, and has two redundant holes (L’Héritier and
Dillmann 2009). In this regard, fabric accounts mention
that locksmith Guillaume Royer received 226lb of ‘old
iron’ to forge iron cramps on 26 May 1549, when works

Figure 8: Map of the regions supplying the city of Rouen with Figure 9: Map of the ironworks supplying Troyes building yards
iron late in the Middle Ages. with iron late in the Middle Ages.

28
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Table 8: Iron origins cited in Troyes cathedral fabric accounts.
Occurrences
Origin Year of first occurrence
(different years)
Spanish iron 3 (2) 1379
Great forge of Doulevant 1 1410
Iron brought from Vendeuvre 1 1411
Reclus iron 18 (13) 1431
Cosdon iron 5 (4) 1475
Chennegy iron (Valcon forge) 1 1499
Cast iron of Anglus forge near 1 1509
Bar-sur-Aube
were undertaken in this part of the church 18. Despite this
single example, the importance of re-use and recycling
of iron should not be neglected, as it is probably more
frequent than it first seems.
Local supply
Iron mostly came from local or regional production
areas. Although the Rouen and Troyes fabric accounts
contain a few references to Spanish iron, these are rare
and cannot be considered significant 19. For the city of
Rouen, the account books give no further information
about the sources of iron. According to Lardin (2001,
230), main supply regions were the pays d’Ouche to
the south, the pays de Bray to the east between Rouen
and Beauvais and the Bellencombre region, north east
of Rouen towards Dieppe (Fig 8). Yet recent trace
element analyses on SI discard the pays de Bray as a
major source for the end of the Middle Ages as none of
the 25 samples analysed seem to come from this region
(Desaulty et al 2009). For Troyes, the pays d’Othe to the
west (Cailleaux 1991, Rouillard 2003) and the pays du
Der to the east (Verna 1995), as well as Reclus abbey,
seem to have provided the most iron during the 15th
century (Fig 9) (L’Héritier 2007, 733–741). Although
produced more than 75km north of Troyes, Reclus abbey
(fer du Reclus) seems to overtake local production, being
the main supplier mentioned in account books between
1430 and 1520 (Table 8). Nevertheless, one must put its
importance into perspective, for the provenance of most
iron provided by urban locksmiths and merchants is not
cited. It very likely came from local rural iron workshops
which sold their products in Troyes.
Supply regions can therefore change from one campaign
of construction to another or even during a campaign.
This point was verified by metallographic analysis, com-
paring chemical signatures of different samples within an
apparently homogeneous group. For example three statue
cramps were sampled on the western façade of Rouen
cathedral for which several campaigns of sculpture were
identified between 1362 and 1421 (Bottineau-Fuchs
Year of last occurrence Remarks
1391 No particular price in 1379
1410
1411
Reclus ‘molten iron’
1520 (1453)
1509
1499
1509 Cast iron
1997) and three others were sampled on the adjacent
Tour de Beurre built late in the 15th century. The SI
composition and the NRC ratios of the six statue cramps
clearly reveal three groups, of different origins: one with
ROU 301, the second with ROU 314, 316 and 35/1 and
the last one with ROU 35/2 and 35/3 (L’Héritier et al
2005a; Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007). This was more
recently confirmed by trace element analysis of the same
samples (Desaulty et al 2009). ROU 301 and its statue
were probably installed between 1370 and 1387 when
master Jean Périer was in charge of the portal’s works.
On the other hand, according to the position of statues
314 and 316, the three cramps of the second group
might have been placed just afterwards, between 1388
and 1399, when master Jean de Bayeux had replaced
Perier. ROU 35/1 might have been re-used later for the
Tour the Beurre. This proves that supply regions can
evolve between two campaigns of construction even
when very close in time. Despite this example, no clear
compatibility was observed for other coherent groups
of objects, neither with the NRC method (L’Héritier
2007, 754; Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007) nor with
trace elements (Desaulty et al 2009). Thus, iron pieces
produced in different workshops were used during one
campaign, which endorses the hypothesis that urban
locksmiths supplying the church’s builders bought their
raw material from different merchants
The production of structural iron
The influence of water-powered hammers and
blast furnaces
The builders usually bought iron either as bars from local
merchants to be forged by the building yard’s smith, or
more frequently as finished products from urban smiths.
Some larger pieces that could not be forged by these
urban smiths came directly from rural water-powered
hammer-forges. For example, the 150lb bars used for
the northern transept chain in Troyes cathedral between
1411 and 1413 were provided by the ‘great forge’ (grosse
forge) of Colin Midon in Doulevant-le-Château 20, about
29
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Figure 10: Changes in proportions of bloomery and finery iron

between the 13th and 17th centuries in northern Burgundy and
southern Champagne (samples from Troyes and Auxerre).

75km east of Troyes, and by Berthelin de Maraix, closer

by in the pays d’Othe 21 (Fig 9). The term ‘great forge’
and the size of the bars suggest the use of water-powered
hammers. By contrast, gallo-roman hand-forged blooms
studied by Pages et al (in press) do not usually exceed
1000cm2 in size (about 8kg). There is no other evidence
of powered forges in the Rouen and Troyes account
books. Yet, considering the size of many tie-rods used
in gothic churches, and according to several results in
experimental archaeology (Crew P and S 1994; Leroy
et al 2000; L’Héritier 2007, 782), it is reasonable to
suggest that these great iron bars were produced at
water-powered hammer forges.

Ferrous alloys used in the gothic churches of Troyes and

Rouen in the Middle Ages have been shown by their
SI composition to have come mainly from bloomery
furnaces (Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007). In Troyes, the
earliest piece of finery iron comes from the cathedral’s
Beau Portail repairs carried out in the middle of the
15th century. At the same period, fabric accounts cite
the trade in small wheels or pulleys of Reclus cast
iron (roelles de fer fondu), indicating the use of a blast
furnace 22. As Reclus abbey provided the cathedral
with iron from at least 1431, it is plausible that its
use of finery iron goes back that far. Moreover, more
recent metallographic analysis of late-14th-century
samples from Auxerre cathedral—only 70km away from
Troyes—have shown that finery iron had been used in its
construction (L’Héritier et al in press a and b). This early
evidence can be linked with the first reference to a blast
furnace and finery in Champagne in 1377 (Rouillard
2003, 401). Yet bloomery iron was still present in both
regions in significant quantities in the first half of the
16th century. This shows the persistence of traditional
forges and the co-existence of the two iron-making
processes in Burgundy and Champagne over almost
two centuries (Fig 10). By contrast in Normandy the
Figure 11: Metallographic structure of some of the studied
samples after Nital etching:
ROU 316. Longitudinal section through a statue cramp from
the western façade of Rouen cathedral (beginning 15th century).
Etching shows a fairly carburized matrix with banded structure
due to elongation of the original bar by hammering.
ROU TN6. Longitudinal section through a pin attaching the
base of a column in the nave of Rouen cathedral (beginning 13th
century). Etching shows a ferritic matrix with local involuntary
cementation on the edge.
OUEN 10. Longitudinal section of a cramp from the outer
balustrade of the crossing tower of the church of Saint-Ouen
(mid-15th century). Etching shows a heterogeneous matrix with
banded structure due to forging.
TROY 03 and 04. Longitudinal sections of two bars attaching the
columns supporting the flying buttresses in the choir of Troyes
cathedral (beginning 13th century). Etching shows a totally
ferritic matrix.
TROY 09. Cross-section of a bar attaching the base of a statue
on the northern façade of Troyes cathedral (mid-15th century).
Etching shows a heterogeneous matrix with no particular
distribution of the carburised zones.
introduction of the blast furnace on any scale was later,
at the end of the 15th century. The site of Le Becquet
dating from 1451 is isolated (Belhoste et al 1991, 51;

30
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Table 9: Carbon content and definition of the types of ferrous alloys

Definition (after Pagès in press) Objects
Average Average
Steel Carbon
Type Rouen Troyes Total % steel carbon Type
surface content surface content
Ferritic 0–20% < 0.3 wt.% 10 30 40 54% 6% 0.02 wt.% Ferritic
Heterogeneous 20–70% < 0.6 wt.% 23 2 25 34% 48% 0.15 wt.% Heterogeneous
Mild steel 70–100% < 0.8 wt.% 7 2 9 12% 94% 0.44 wt.% Mild steel
Total     40 34 74 100%

a
Figure 12: Micrograph of a cramp from church of Saint-Ouen in Rouen showing a banded structure. Nital etching.

Beurre built between 1485 and 1506 (already mentioned:

ROU 35/2 and 35/3).

Nature and quality of iron used in building

Figure 13: Slag inclusions in bar samples from Troyes
cathedral.
Arribet-Deroin 2001). The first objects of finery iron
identified in churches are the cramps from the Tour de
The surfaces of 81 sections cut on 74 objects were
examined (L’Héritier and Dillmann in press). Nital
etching revealed that half the samples are almost com-
pletely ferritic, one third heterogeneous and the last
nine mostly made of quenchable steel (Table 9). Yet no
groups of objects seem to have similar carbon content
(Table 10). In the heterogeneous samples, the carburised
zones take about half the total surface. However, aver-
age carbon content is very low (0.15 wt%) and there
is no particular distribution of the steel zones, nor any
voluntary cementation or quenching structure (Fig 11).
The only visible features are the band structures on
samples that were cut longitudinally (Fig 12), which
are only the consequence of flattening and lengthening
an intrinsically heterogeneous piece of metal (L’Héritier
et al 2005a). This feature is therefore not voluntary and
only reflects the original heterogeneity of the bloom.
All samples are also filled with SI: never less than 5%
in surface and going up to 15% for the dirtiest (Fig 13).
Finally, the matrices of half the sections have a high
phosphorus content (0.1 < wt% P < 0.4) revealed by
‘ghost structures’ in ferritic zones (Buchwald et al 1998;
Stewart et al 2000b; Vega et al 2003).

Figure 14: Crack

in a pin from Rouen
cathedral; etched
with Oberhoffer’s
reagent.

31
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Table 10: Type of object versus average carbon content.
Type of object Ferritic Heterogeneous
Pin 17 6 1
Cramp 17 2 4
Bars / tie-rods 7 2
Statue cramps 2 2
Frameworks elements (dowels…) 4 1
Others 3 2
Total 50 15
Iron, phosphorus, carbon and SI: ferrous alloys used in
Rouen and Troyes churches in the Middle Ages were
very heterogeneous, far from the state-of-the-art material
that was used for certain bars of the Popes’ Palace in
Avignon, which were probably purchased at two and a
half times the price of regular iron (Dillmann et al 2003;
Bernardi and Dillmann 2005). By comparison, forging
usually seems rudimentary for the Rouen and Troyes
samples, with relatively bad cleansing and refining of
the bloom, no sorting, and no particular thermo-chemical
forging treatment. Moreover, the final form of most iron
pieces used in construction generally recalls the original
bar they had come from. However, despite the unsophis-
ticated quality of the metal, urban locksmiths sometimes
showed extreme care in their work, eg for the median
welding line on the Rouen cathedral statue cramps, even
if hardly necessary (L’Héritier et al 2005b). This feature
highlights the two different stages in the ironworking
process: mass-production of standard quality ferrous
alloys which might have involved water-powered indus-
tries, and the meticulous work of the urban locksmith
who controlled the last stages of production.
Due to the heterogeneity of the iron produced, questions
have to be asked regarding forgeability and mechanical
properties. Phosphorus is known to render iron brittle
when forged at high temperatures (between 900°C
and 1400°C depending on P content) and when cold
worked, especially if it exceeds 0.38wt% (Stewart et al
2000a). WDS analyses carried out on the matrix of some
samples showed that this limit is sometimes locally ex-
ceeded (L’Héritier et al 2005a). Hypotheses about the
forgeability of high-P ferrous alloys were put forward
by Vega et al (2003). It seems that medieval smiths had
a particular skill in forging this kind of iron. Yet, after
etching with Oberhoffer’s reagent, one sample showed
a perpendicular crack along grain boundaries (Fig 14).
It occurred during forging at high temperature as liquid
SI had flowed into the crack perhaps caused by the high
P content (L’Héritier et al 2005a). One cannot know
how many objects had to be forged again because of
such cracks.
32
HM 44(1) 2010
Mild steel Total
24
23
1 10
2 6
0 5
1 6
9 74
Tensile strength analyses have shown that the mechanical
behaviour of these ferrous alloys differs and cannot be
foreseen (Juhin 2005 cited in Dillmann 2009; L’Héritier
2008). However, most iron parts in churches in Rouen
and Troyes fulfilled their function, as they did not break
except sometimes due to corrosion. They may have had
the right dimensions in relation to the stress they had
to sustain in the masonry. Besides, some armatures did
not have to withstand a significant strain, and chains or
rods might sometimes only be in tension in particular
weather conditions (Monnier 2002).
Conclusion
This first interdisciplinary study of the use of ferrous
alloys in medieval architecture has shown how each
source contributes a unique yet complementary per-
spective. More questions still need to be answered,
especially about the role of iron chains and bars in the
stability of structures, considering their unpredictable
mechanical behaviour. More tensile strength analyses
are currently being carried out to this end; partnerships
between architects and archaeologists will be necessary
for monitoring the structures and modelling churches’
movements.
Regarding archaeometry, the chemical signatures of
iron from different regions are currently under examin-
ation and will have an important impact on the study of
constructional iron. Eventually, as well as answering
architectural questions, these monuments provide well-
dated iron that offers a unique source for studying early
manufacturing processes. It has become possible to trace
the diffusion of the blast furnace and finery process in
Western Europe through SI analysis. This new approach
complements historical sources: whereas texts mainly
deal with production units, their techniques and evol-
ution, SI analyses directly deal with objects that were
used. Hence, they give a much more precise idea about
the importance of each reduction process at a given
time and place, and consequently about their respective
influence on the medieval economy.
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Notes
1 Item semblablement fault en chascune formette, tant pour les
quatre gros barreaulx, goujons et crampons servants à la macon-
nerie comme pour les petiz barreaulx locquettez, verges servans
aux verrieres, environ ung millier fer pris ez garnisons de l’eglise,
pour ce, neant. Arch. dép. Aube, G 1571, fol. 58 r°.
2 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1575, fol. 14 v°.
3 A Pierre Lange, serrurier, pour avoir fait dix huit barreaulx de
fer, ensamble les goujons qu’il a convenu pour les six formettes
derriere faites en ceste eglise sur les autelz Saint Anthoine et
Saint Sebastian, dont l’eglise luy a livré pour ce faire XIIC IIIIXX
V livres et demye fer en trente bandes de fer, Arch. dép. Aube, G
1575, fol. 22 v°-23 r°.
4 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1576, fol. 185 v° ; G 1594, fol. 35° r°.
5 See note 1.
6 Item pour avoir fait plusieurs crampons et barreaulx de fer pour
tenir l’arc boutant dernierement fait, pesans ensemble VIXX deux
livres, au pris de huit deniers t., valent en tout, IIII l. I s. IIII d.t.,
Arch. dép. Aube, G 1569, fol. 411 r°. A Thomas le Chat pour VIXX
VII aggrappes de fer pesant VIXX VII l. livrées par luy et mises
es pierres du grant pillier par devers la court l’official, qui a esté
levez jusques au haut de la ramee et pour IIIIXX XVIII aggrappes
mises en l’autre pillier qui a esté levez de maconnerie à l’opposite
par devers le pavement pesant IIIIXX XVIII l. Item pour CXVIII
agrappes mises ou pillier par devers le puis lequel a esté abatuz
jusques à la vossure de l’ars et depuis refait et assavoir les dictes
aggrappes mises pesant CXVIII l., Bibl. nat. ms. lat. 9111, fol.
129 r°.
7 Item audit Jourdain pour autres parties ouvrées en graffes, goujons
et vertevelles, baillés par parties à maistre Johan Perier en euvre
par les massons au pignacle du coste de l’o, lesquelles parties
le dit Perier m’a baillé en gros le pesant à XXXII l. de fer, pour
ce, XXXII s. Pour ces II parties compté au dit Jourdain, LX s. t.,
Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2483, fol. 143 v°.
8 A Pierre Vinot, sarrurier de Troyes, fut marchandé à faire et livré
presents les parroissiens, gens de bien de icelle eglise et pour fer
à crochetz et aultres qu’il conviendrait avoir pour la lyaison dudit
jube, à maistre Jehan Gailde tout fin fert affiner, VIII d. t. de la
livre qui est LXVI s. VIII d. le cent, fait le IIIIe jour d’octobre
oudit an, Arch. dép. Aube, 16 G 47, fol. 140 r°.
9 Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2483, fol. 26 v°.
10 Bibl. nat., nouv. acq. lat. 1949, fol. 20 r°.
11 Bibl. nat., ms. lat. 9112, fol. 64 r°, ms. lat. 9111, fol. 129 r°, 173 r°.
12 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1568, fol. 86 r°, 86 v°.
13 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1568, fol. 87 r°.
14 Arch. nat., KK 398 B, fol. 9 r°.
15 The records mention that ‘apart from the bars already bought by
sir Jehan de Chaonnes’, the great archdeacon, four bars weighing
608lb were bought from Colin Midon and two others weighing
266lb from Berthelin de Maraye, Arch. dép. Aube, G 1559, fol.
171 r°. G 1560, fol. 14 v°, 18 v°, 19 r°, G 1561, fol. 19 r°, 19 v°.
16 Item dicto Paen pro ferraturis per ipsum fabricatis pro IIIIta parva
forma chori de novo clarificata alatere pallacii etc. videlicet, pro
duobus magnis barrellis de novo ferro ponderant LXIIII l. Item
pro XII barrellis loquetatis et duobus aliis parvis barrellis cum
LXXIIIIor virgis de ferro novo, ponderant VIIXX Ia l. Item pro tribus
anullis seu circulis de ferro ponderant XX l. Somma pro totum
ponderat insimul XIXX V l. pro qualiter libra, XIII d. t., valent
XII l. III s. IX d. Item pro IC de pailletis de ferro pro situando
penellos victrearum videlicet IIII s. Somma partium, XII l. VII s.
IX d. De qua somma est deducendum pro VIIIXX IIII l. de ferro
antiquo proveniente a dicta IIIIta forma, venditis dicto Paen pro
qualiter libra VI d. t., valent IIII l. II s. Et sic hic ponitur in misia
pro dicta forma dicta deducione facta, ut patet per quittanciam
VIII l. V s. IX d, Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2489, fol. 17 r°.
17 Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2487, G 2489, G 2490 and G
2491.
18 Paié se XXVIe may audit an [1549] audit Guillaume Royer pour
la façon de deuxC XLVII l. fer en esgrappes lesquelles ont esté
emploiés la presente semaine par les massons sur quoy il avoit
racchu en viel fer IIC XXVI l. a deduire icelui pour ce a luy paié
pour sadite facon que pour le surplus dudit fer cent onze soubz,
Arch. dép. Aube, 15 G 57, fol. 79 r°.
19 Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2519, fol. 71 r°; Arch. dép. Aube,
G 1559, fol. 52 r°.
20 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1559, fol. 171 r°.
21 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1561, fol. 19 r°.
22 Arch. dép. Aube, G 4417, fol. 46 r°.
Bibliography
Arribet-Deroin D 2001, Fondre le fer en gueuses au XVIe siècle: le
haut fourneau de Glinet en pays de Bray, PhD. Paris 1 Panthéon-
Sorbonne University.
Aumard S 2009, ‘Le métal dans la construction de la cathédrale Saint-
Étienne d’Auxerre’. In Timbert A (ed), L’homme et la matière.
L’emploi du fer et du plomb dans l’architecture gothique, Actes
du colloque de Noyon, 16–17 November 2006 (Paris), 159–172.
Bartel R, Schiemann L and Jagfeld M 2003, ‘Static analysis and
evaluation of a gothic ‘choir-window’ consisting of a filigree
tracery and slender stone ribs’, in Proceedings of the First
International Congress on Construction History (Madrid),
333–340.
Belhoste J-F et al 1991, La métallurgie normande XIIe-XVIIIe siècles.
La révolution du haut fourneau (Caen).
Benoit P 1985, ‘Métal et construction en France au Moyen Age’, in
Chapelot O and Benoit P (eds), Pierre et métal dans le bâtiment
au Moyen Age (Paris), 359–367.
Bernardi P and Dillmann P 2005, ‘Stone skeleton or iron skeleton: the
provision and use of metal in the construction of the Papal Palace
at Avignon in the 14th century’, in R Bork (ed), De Re Metallica.
The uses of metal in the Middle Ages (Farnham), 297–315.
Bottineau-Fuchs Y 1997, ‘La statuaire monumentale de la cathédrale
de Rouen (XIVe–XVe siècles)’, in S Lemagnen and P Manneville
(eds). Chapitres et cathédrales en Normandie. Actes du XXXIe
Congrès des Sociétés historiques et archéologiques de Normandie
(Caen), 375–406.
Buchwald V F and Wivel H 1998, ‘Slag analysis as a method for
the characterization and provenancing of ancient iron objects’,
Materials Characterization 4, 73–96.
Cailleaux D 1991, ‘Les religieux et le travail du fer en Pays d’Othe’,
in Benoit P and Cailleaux D (eds), Moines et métallurgie dans la
France médiévale (Paris), 193–212.
Cailleaux D 1999, La cathédrale en chantier. La construction du
transept de Saint-Etienne de Sens d’après les comptes de la
fabrique, 1490–1517 (Paris).
Chapelot O and Benoit P (eds) 1985. Pierre et métal dans le bâtiment
au Moyen Age (Paris).
Chapelot J 2004, ‘Le donjon et son enceinte. Une résidence royale’,
Les Dossiers d’Archéologie 289, 60–73.
Crew P and S 1994, ‘The experimental production of bar iron’ in
Mangin M (ed), La sidérurgie ancienne de l’Est de la France dans
son contexte européen, archéologie et archéométrie, Actes du
colloque de Besançon, 10–13 November 1993 (Paris), 175–176.
Delorme P 1648, Architecture, livre X : ‘Des nouvelles inventions
pour bien bastir’ (Paris).
33
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Desaulty A-M et al 2009, ‘Does the iron come from the Pays de
Bray? Examination of an origin hypothesis for the ferrous re-
inforcements used in French medieval churches using major
and trace element analyses’, Journal of Archaeological Science
36, 2445–2462.
Dillmann P, Bernardi, P and Fluzin P 2003, ‘Use of iron for the build-
ing of medieval monuments. The Palais des Papes in Avignon
and other French buildings’, in Archaeometallurgy in Europe 1,
Milan (24–26 September 2003). AIM, 199–208.
Dillmann P and L’Héritier M 2007, ‘Slag inclusion analyses for
studying ferrous alloys employed in French medieval buildings:
supply of materials and diffusion of smelting processes’, Journal
of Archaeological Science 34, 1810–1823.
Dillmann P 2009, ‘De Soissons à Beauvais: le fer des cathédrales
de Picardie, une approche archéométrique’, in A Timbert (ed).
L’homme et la matière. L’emploi du fer et du plomb dans l’archi-
tecture gothique, Actes du colloque de Noyon, 16–17 November
2006, 93–112 (Paris).
Epaud F 2007, De la charpente romane à la charpente gothique en
Normandie. Évolution des techniques et des structures de charp-
enterie aux XIIe–XIIIe siècles (Caen).
Erlande-Brandenburg A 1996, ‘L’architecture rayonnante et le métal’,
Dossiers d’archéologie 219, 46–53.
Férauge M and Mignerey P 1996, ‘La cathédrale de Bourges et
l’utilisation du fer dans l’architecture’, Bulletin Monumental,
129–148.
Haas W 1987, ‘Die Rolle des Eisens in der vorindustriellen
Architektur dargestellt an ostbayerischen Beispielen’, in Die
Oberpfalz ein Europäisches Eisenzentrum 1600 Jahre Grosse
Hammereinung. Amberg (Theuern), 495–504.
Heyman J 1995, The Stone Skeleton: Structural Engineering of
Masonry Architecture (Cambridge).
Juhin A 2005, Structure métallographique et comportement mé-
canique des tirants de fer du donjon du château de Vincennes,
Masters Dissertation, Paris 6 Pierre et Marie Curie and Paris-Sud
11 Universities.
Lardin Ph 2001, Les chantiers du bâtiment en Normandie orientale
(XIVe–XVIe s.), les matériaux et les hommes (Villeneuve
d’Ascq).
L’Héritier M. et al 2005a, ‘Utilisation des alliages ferreux dans la
construction monumentale du Moyen Age. État des lieux de
l’avancée des études métallographiques et archéométriques’, La
Revue d’Archéométrie 29, 117–127.
L’Héritier M, Dillmann P and Benoit P 2005b, ‘Premiers résultats
métallographiques sur les fers de construction de la cathédrale
Notre-Dame de Rouen’, in Hervieu J-P, Désiré dit Gosset G
and Barré E (eds), Les arts du feu en Normandie, Actes du 39e
congrès organisé par la fédération des sociétés historiques et
archéologiques de Normandie (Eu, 21–24 octobre 2004). (Caen),
287–314.
L’Héritier M 2007, L’utilisation du fer dans l’architecture gothique.
Les cas de Troyes et de Rouen. PhD, Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne
University.
L’Héritier M 2008. Etudes métallographique et mécanique d’alliages
ferreux de construction des époques médiévale et moderne. Post-
doctoral report.
L’Héritier M 2009, ‘L’utilisation du fer dans l’architecture gothique.
Approche méthodologique à travers les villes de Rouen et Troyes’.
In A Timbert (ed).L’homme et la matière. L’emploi du fer et du
plomb dans l’architecture gothique, Actes du colloque de Noyon,
16–17 November 2006 (Paris)
L’Héritier M and Dillmann P 2009, ‘Récupération et remploi du
fer pour la construction des monuments de la période gothique’.
In J-F Bernard, P Bernardi and D Esposito dir. Il reimpiego in
34
HM 44(1) 2010
architettura. Recupero, trasformazione, uso, Proceedings of the
Rome Congress, 8–10 November 2007, Collection de l’Ecole
Française de Rome (Rome), 157–175.
L’Héritier M and Dillmann P (in press), ‘Fer ou acier? Caractérisation
des alliages ferreux utilisés dans la construction des églises
gothiques au Moyen Age et à la période moderne. L’exemple de
Troyes et de Rouen’. In L’Acier avant Bessemer, Proceedings of
the Paris Congress 8–10 December 2005.
L’Héritier M, Aumard S, Dillmann P (in press a), ‘Le métal selon
l’archéologue et l’archéomètre’. In Cathédrale d’Auxerre, résul-
tats récents des recherches pluridisciplinaires et internationales,
Proceedings of the Auxerre Congress, 27–29 September 2007.
L’Héritier M, Dillmann P, Aumard S (in press b), ‘Iron? Which iron?
Methodologies for metallographic and slag inclusion studies
applied to ferrous reinforcements of Auxerre Cathedral’. World
of Iron Conference, Proceedings of the London Congress, 16–20
February 2009.
Leroy M et al 2000, ‘La restitution des savoir-faire pour comprendre
un procédé technique: l’apport de l’expérimentation en archéo-
logie du fer’. In P Petrequin, P Fluzin, J Thiriot and P Benoit
(eds), Arts du feu et production artisanale, XXes Rencontres
internationales d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes, APDCA
(Antibes), 37–52.
Minois D 2005, Le vitrail à Troyes: les chantiers et les hommes
(1480–1560) (Paris).
Monnier E 2002, ‘Des monuments qui jouent avec la mécanique’.
Les Cahiers de Science et Vie 69, 12–21.
Murray S 1987, Building Troyes cathedral. The late gothic campaigns
(Bloomington).
Pages P, Fluzin P, Long L (in press). ‘Des demi-produits de fers
et d’aciers : approches méthodologiques et perspectives fonc-
tionnelles de la cargaison métallique des épaves romaines des
Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (Bouches-du-Rhône, France). In
L’Acier avant Bessemer, Proceedings of the Paris Congress, 8–10
December 2005 (Paris).
Roserot de Melin J 1966, Bibliographie commentée des sources
d’une histoire de la Cathédrale de Troyes, tome I, Construction
(Troyes).
Rouillard J 2003, L’homme et la rivière: histoire du bassin de la
Vanne au Moyen Age (XIIe–XVIe siècles). PhD, Paris 1 Panthéon-
Sorbonne University.
Stewart J W, Charles J A, Wallach E R 2000, ‘Iron-phosphorus-
carbon system, Part 1 - Mechanical properties of low carbon
iron-phosphorus alloys’, Materials Science and Technology 16,
275–282.
Stewart J W, Charles J A, Wallach E R 2000b, ‘Iron-phosphorus-
carbon system, Part 3 - Metallography of low carbon iron-phos-
phorus alloys’. Materials Science and Technology 16, 291–303.
Taupin J-L 1996, ‘Le fer des cathédrales’, Monumental 13, 18–27.
Vega E et al 2003, ‘Forging of phosphoric iron. An analytical and
experimental approach’. In: Archaeometallurgy in Europe(Milan):
24–26 septembre 2003, 336–346.
Verna C 1995, Les mines et les forges des Cisterciens en Champagne
méridionale et en Bourgogne du Nord, XIIe–XVe siècles (Paris).
Viollet-le-Duc E 1854-1868, Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
française du XIe au XVIe. 10 tomes (Paris).
Wilcox R P 1981, Timber and iron reinforcement in early buildings
(London).
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES
The authors
Maxime L’Héritier has a doctorate in archaeology from
the University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, awarded
for research into the use of constructional iron in the
Middle Ages. Since 2007, he has held a contract-re-
searcher position in the Institut de Recherche sur les-
Archéomatériaux in the French Centre National de la
Recherche Scientifique (IRAMAT / CNRS UMR5060)
to work as an archaeometallurgist.
Address: IRAMAT Centre Ernest Babelon 3D rue de la
Férollerie 45071 Orléans Cedex 2
e-mail: lheritier.maxime@neuf.fr
Philippe Dillmann is an engineer in material science
and also has a doctorate and a French ‘Habilitation a
View publication stats
Diriger des Recherches’. He works as a scientist in the
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and is
involved in archaeometallurgy and corrosion studies
on ancient ferrous artefacts. He leads the Laboratoire
Archéomatériaux et Prévision de l’Altération, gathering
people from the CNRS (UMR5060 and UMR3299) and
the CEA (SIS2M laboratory).
Address: LAPA/SIS2M Bat 637, CEA Saclay, 91191 Gif
sur Yvette Cedex, France
e-mail: philippe.dillmann@cea.fr
Paul Benoit is an emeritus professor in history and the
archaeology of technology from the University of Paris
1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. Among his research topics he has
worked on the development of water-powered industries
in the Middle Ages, especially relating to metallurgy.
e-mail: paul.benoit@univ-paris1.fr
35