ARTIGO - Dillmann Et All - Iron in The Building of Gothic Churches Its Role, Origins and Production Using Evidence From Rouen and Troyes

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Iron in the building of gothic churches: its role, origins and production using
evidence from Rouen and Troyes

Article · January 2010

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Iron in the building of gothic churches: its
role, origins and production using evidence
from Rouen and Troyes
Maxime L’Héritier, Philippe Dillmann and Paul Benoit

ABSTRACT: Iron was included in the initial design of most gothic churches. Many
tons of iron bars were used in stained-glass windows; iron structural rods and chains
were used in masonry and frameworks, and smaller pieces such as cramps and pins
were used to attach numerous sculpted ornaments. Many questions arise regarding the
use of iron in medieval construction: the quantities used by the master builders, the
location, supply and cost, the nature and quality of the ferrous alloys employed and the
influence of changes in medieval iron production, notably the introduction of water-
powered hammers and blast furnaces. In this research, important medieval churches
in Rouen and Troyes were investigated. Medieval account books were studied, and
metallographic analyses were carried out on 74 iron pieces sampled in the buildings.
This paper presents the methods and the results of this interdisciplinary work.

Introduction So, Viollet-le-Duc’s comments were relevant until the


mid-1980s, when the question of the use of ferrous alloys
For a long time there have been doubts about the in medieval architecture was raised once again, thanks
extent of the use of iron in stone construction and es- to the work of architects and researchers all over Europe
pecially in gothic churches. To many architects, it was (Wilcox 1981; Chapelot and Benoit 1985; Haas 1987).
inconceivable that such a ‘disgraceful’ metal could The first monograph studies of monuments such as the
form part of the construction of what Heyman (1995) Sainte-Chapelle, Paris (Erlande-Brandenburg 1996), or
refers to as ‘stone skeletons’. Negative views about the the cathedrals of Bourges (Férauge and Mignerey 1996)
use of iron go back as far as the 16th century (Delorme and Beauvais (Taupin 1996), as well as research on
1648) and were frequently expressed in the 19th medieval account books, showed that iron was used in
century. At that time, Viollet-le-Duc (1868) devoted great quantities in medieval construction and especially
two chapters of his Dictionary of French Architecture in gothic churches. In particular, the study of Beauvais
to the problem of armatures and chaînages (chains). cathedral by Benoit, Fluzin and.Taupin, which included
Using his knowledge of medieval architecture, from the first metallographic analyses carried out on medieval
the numerous restorations which he undertook, he constructional iron (Taupin 1996), followed by the work
was the first to consider this question with little of Ph. Bernardi and Ph. Dillmann (2005) on the Popes’
prejudice. But in the next century, despite World Palace at Avignon, raised a range of questions relating
War II destruction and subsequent restorations, no to the use of iron in medieval architecture.
significant research was carried out on the subject.
Some architects even continued to cut out iron tie In Western Europe two major changes occurred in the
rods for aesthetic reasons, believing they could not be production of iron at the end of the Middle Ages: the
part of the original medieval structure. The cathedral development of water-powered forge-hammers and the
of Beauvais in Picardy is the most famous example, introduction of the blast furnace and finery. The rise of
as it came near to collapse a few years after the last these new techniques was contemporary with the con-
rods had been cut out (Taupin 1996). struction of gothic churches between the 12th and the

Historical Metallurgy 44(1) 2010 21–35 21


L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Figure 2: Metal detector survey next to a balustrade in the church


of Saint-Ouen of Rouen.

What kinds of ferrous alloys were employed and did


they receive specific forging treatments? All these
questions require interdisciplinary study: of church
surveys, of historical records, and of metallographic
analyses of iron either sampled in situ or from objects
removed during restoration. Methodology is presented
first; the paper then focuses on the interdisciplinary
Figure 1: Church of Saint-Jean-au-Marché record, Arch. Dép.
Aube, 15 G 62, fol. 31 r°. studies of seven gothic churches from two important
French medieval cities, Rouen and Troyes (Table 1),
complementing previously-published archaeometric
16th centuries and one must consider their influence material (Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007; Desaulty et
on the use of iron by the great medieval builders. al 2009).
When it comes to the question of the use of iron,
although architectural investigations come first, such
as where in the structure and why iron was employed
Method
by medieval builders, the economic and metallurgical For each church, all available medieval account books
questions should not be neglected. What quantities of relating to construction or upkeep of the monument were
iron were used in these churches? What was its cost studied (Table 1), in particular the sections concerning
by comparison with the other materials? Where did ‘blacksmithing expenses’ (dépenses pour forge) or ‘lock-
the iron come from and which ironworks made it? smithing expenses’ (dépenses pour serrurerie) (Fig 1).
Table 1: Studied corpus
Number of accounting years available and Number of iron
Monument Construction period studied during the construction (and span) samples studied
Cathedral Notre-Dame, Rouen end 12th–beg. 16th c. 53 (1383–1527) 15

Church Saint-Ouen, Rouen 1318–mid. 16 c.


th
0 24

Church Saint-Maclou, Rouen 1435–1521 10 (1436–1517) 1

Cathedral Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul, Troyes 1200–1634 135 (1293–1520) 15

Church Saint-Urbain, Troyes 1262–1286, 19th and beg. 20th c. 50 (1381–1547) 0

Church Sainte-Madeleine, Troyes end 12 –mid. 16 c.


th th
17 (1497–1543) 13

Church Saint-Jean-au-Marché, Troyes beg.13th–end. 16th c. 42 (1441–1570) 6

22
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Every reference to the iron trade or ironworking was Architecture (1868), devoting an entire chapter to the
recorded. Apart from the smith’s name and the price subject (‘armatures’), stained-glass windows contain
paid by the canons, these accounts often mention the quantities of iron. In each window, several elements
type of iron purchased, its weight, and approximately make up the iron framework: bars, rods and pins (Fig 3).
where it was placed in the church. More rarely do they Stained-glass panels are placed between the mullions,
name its origins. For each accounting year, the total of and small iron bars fitted with tenons (barlotières). They
blacksmithing expenses was reckoned, to compare with are fixed in position by the insertion of small pins or
the costs of construction of the building as a whole. nails (clavettes) in the tenons. Thin rods (vergettes) are
attached to each panel to give rigidity to the structure.
Then a complete survey of each church was carried Eventually, thicker bars could be used as well to re-
out, to create an inventory of every item of iron used in inforce the window’s masonry work. These bigger bars
construction. The investigations were limited by acc- are often fitted with tenons to receive and fix stained-
essibility, but every reachable element was measured, glass panels. However, medieval builders distinguished
to quantify as far as possible how much iron was used. these ‘elements that serve the masonry’ from the ‘smaller
Particular attention was given to stained-glass windows. elements that serve the stained-glass panels’, mainly
When no restoration work was in progress on the church, referring to the barlotières and the vergettes 1. When a
a metal-detector was used to access hidden structures window was built, these tie-rods were installed as soon
(Fig 2). It was impossible to prospect near stained-glass as the mullions and the arch were raised, whereas the
panels as they contain too much iron and lead for a smaller elements were only fixed after glazing, which
precise signal. Moreover, the detection depth of the could happen several decades later. A good example
equipment (Minelab Explorer III) could not exceed is seen in the north-east transept of Troyes cathedral,
c30cm, insufficient to reach, for example, the centre of whose six upper bays were remodelled in 1504 2. In
most pillars, Therefore the interior links between tie- that year the canons commissioned locksmith Pierre
rods could not be assessed with this kind of detection, L’ange to forge 18 great tie-rods and iron pins for their
so an electrical prospecting method had to be developed. masonry 3. On the other hand, barlotières and vergettes
Using merely a 4.5v battery and a light bulb it was poss- were bought gradually between 1505 and 1543 as the
ible to study the electrical and therefore the mechanical windows were glazed 4.
continuity between iron elements.
Although the purpose of these armatures in maintaining
Eventually, 74 iron objects were sampled for the integrity of stained-glass panels is quite clear, their
metallographic analyses (Table 1). One or several exact role in the stability of the entire window is not
sections were cut on each object. They were embedded obvious and is still discussed. They were surely used
in epoxy resin, polished and Nital etched to reveal the to give horizontal stability to the masonry during con-
structure of the metallic matrix. Slag inclusions (SI) struction, ie before it was loaded, and afterwards to help
were counted and welding lines were noted. Oberhoffer’s the vertical stability of the mullions in the window plane
reagent etching, revealing variations in the phosphorus (Bartel et al 2003). They might also take part of the
content, was also used. As these artefacts generally con- wind load (Taupin 1996). When the tie-rods are linked
tain a high proportion of SI, SI analysis was then carried to one another in the pillars, forming one or several
out according to the method published by Dillmann uninterrupted chains, as in the Saint-Chapelle, Paris,
and L’Héritier (2007). At least 40 SI were analysed per or in Beauvais cathedral (Erlande-Brandenburg 1996;
sample and average weighted contents were calculated Taupin 1996), their structural role is even more import-
for all major compounds. Each sample was then plotted, ant. For Troyes and Rouen churches, there is however
to determine whether it was smelted by the bloomery little evidence, either in the surviving account books or
or the finery process (or is undetermined). Finally, the from observations made during restoration work, that
supply homogeneity of coherent groups of objects was these rods formed such wall ties. It could only be proved
checked using Non-Reduced Compounds ratios (Al2O3, for the choir of Saint-Urbain church in Troyes after its
SiO2, MgO, K2O and CaO). reconstruction by architect P Selmersheim late in the
19th century (L’Héritier 2007, 549–552).
Iron reinforcements in Rouen and Overall, according to medieval account books and
Troyes churches estimates based on standing structures, these armatures
Stained-glass windows contain at least a few tons of iron in the smaller churches
As Viollet-le-Duc noted in his Dictionary of French and can reach around 25 tons in churches with the

23
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Figure 3: Stained glass windows and their iron armatures, Troyes


cathedral upper nave and triforium (c1498–1502). The armatures
consist of ten rows of bars in the upper bays and three rows in
the triforium bays placed approximately every 60cm. In the upper
bays, the first and sixth rows down are indicated with arrows.

largest windows, such as Saint-Ouen in Rouen or Troyes


cathedral, where a single stained-glass window could Figure 4: Iron chains in the church of Saint-Ouen of Rouen:
crossing tower (mid-15th century). The rods indicated with
contain half a ton of iron5 (Table 2). arrows are linked inside the masonry, forming two rows of chains
encircling the crossing tower. A detail of their assembly in the
Towers, triforiums, frameworks masonry is shown in the inset (bottom left).
Windows were not the only part of a gothic church
which used great quantities of iron. The masonry of (Fig 5). Are they linked? No dismantling of this part of
many structures was originally reinforced by chains, the building could throw light on this.
bars or smaller iron pieces. Towers standing at transept
crossings, which are very common in Normandy, were Although few other medieval chains were found in the
often buttressed by interior chains. In the church of structures of Troyes and Rouen churches, tie-rods seem to
Saint-Maclou, Rouen, a medieval iron wall tie sealed have been used frequently in the upper parts of several tri-
with lead was discovered during restoration work soon foriums: as in Saint-Ouen, Rouen, or in the western parts of
after 2000. In the church of Saint-Ouen in Rouen, how- Troyes cathedral, both of which have a clerestory instead
ever, two parallel chains were already visible before of a blank wall (Fig 6). Large pillars and flying buttresses
restoration, as they cross the large arches of the second were often consolidated by iron cramps and bars6. Also,
floor of the tower (Fig 4). Evidence of their links was the use of small iron elements such as pins and cramps in
only established at that time, and the connection of balustrades, small columns or pinnacles should not be ne-
three other chains on the same level still needs to be glected. Their total weight can be several tons in the largest
proved. Bars are noticeable between the interior arches churches (L’Héritier et al 2005a; Aumard 2009). In 1387,
on the first floor of the lantern tower of Rouen cathedral 32lb. of iron were necessary to build a single pinnacle of

Table 2: Estimated weight of iron used in stained glass windows.


Estimated weight of iron used in
Monument Construction period stained glass windows
Church Saint-Ouen, Rouen 1318 – mid. 16th c. 25 tons

Cathedral Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul, Troyes 1200 – 1634 25 tons

Cathedral Notre-Dame, Rouen end 12th – beg. 16th c. 15 tons

Church Saint-Urbain, Troyes 1262 – 1286, 19th and beg. 20th c. 9 tons (+ 3 tons: nave upper bay-windows built
late in the 19th century).
Church Saint-Maclou, Rouen 1435 – 1521 5.5 tons

Church Saint-Jean-au-Marché, Troyes beg.13 – end 16 c.


th th
5 tons

Church Sainte-Madeleine, Troyes end 12 – mid. 16 c.


th th
2.5 tons

24
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Figure 6: Iron tie-rods in Troyes cathedral western triforium


Figure 5: Iron tie-rods in Rouen cathedral lantern tower (early (late 14th and 15th century).
13th century).

Rouen cathedral’s western façade 7. The quantity of iron Fabric accounts cite the use of ‘squared pins’ for the
required for the construction of choir screens is even more framework late in the 14th century 9. Troyes cathedral’s
impressive: most of their architectural ornaments are inter- present framework contains many iron links; however
nally reinforced with small pins and cramps. Bars were it was completely rebuilt after a fire early in the 18th
sometimes also used to support their structure (Table 3 and century. There are 14th- and 15th-century references
4). For example, at the beginning of the 16th century an to the use of many iron pins and bars in its original
agreement was made between master builder Jean Gailde framework.
and urban locksmith Pierre Vinot for the construction of
the choir screen of the church of Sainte-Madeleine, which First, in 1337, during the construction of the western
required more than a ton of iron8. nave, blacksmith Jacquemart provided the carpenters
with two big tie-rods weighing 162lb, 50 small ones
Eventually, iron was not only used to attach stones and 50 cramps 10. Then, late in the 14th century, the
together but also to secure pieces of wood. Several framework was successively struck by lightning and
iron pins were found in Rouen cathedral’s early-13th- damaged by the collapse of the nave, and needed repair:
century framework. The time taken for the wood to dry the canons bought no less than 22 flat iron bars, includ-
and to be assembled can hinder the dendro-dating of ing a six-foot-long great Spanish iron bar; most of these
construction (Epaud 2007). Dating was assisted later were used to attach the great wooden tie-beams 11. The
by metallographic analysis of one of these pins, and its eastern nave and its framework were completed almost
identification as bloomery iron. (L’Héritier et al 2005b). a century later. More iron bars were required for the tie-
Table 3: Iron pieces used for the construction of Troyes cathedral beams and at least 80 pins were placed in the assemblies
choir screen between 1384 and 1399 (Data from Bibl. nat., ms. of the rafters 12. Eventually, the newly-built framework
lat. 9111 and 9112). was attached to the earlier one with ‘two 12-pound great
Year Iron pieces used in the construction Weight
links of iron’ 13. Overall, the nave framework contained
of the choir screen more than 600lb of iron.
1384–1385 156 cramps and 134 pins 339 lb
5 great bars weighing 42 lb each and 6 other
402 lb Cailleaux made a similar statement for the transept
bars weighing 32 lbs each.
of Sens cathedral and its late 15th/early 16th century
1386–1387 4 pegs, one lever, 58 cramps, 23 pins 123 lb
framework (1999, 386). According to him, in the transept
1388–1389 15 cramps and 30 pins 40.5 lb
at Sens iron was more used to attach wood pieces than
1388–1389 36 cramps and 21 pins 24.5 lb
stones. Thanks to these examples, sufficient data has
1391–1392 cramps and pins 26 lb been gathered to show that Viollet-le-Duc was mis-
1395–1396 16 great pins and 30 cramps 87.5 lb taken when he claimed that the ‘art of blacksmithing’
1397–1398 15 iron cramps and 10 pins 25 lb was ‘totally proscribed from the art of carpentry’ in the
1398–1399 cramps and pins 78.5 lb Middle Ages (1868, t. 1, 461–462). Although such early
Total 1146 lb examples as Rouen’s 13th-century pins are very rare,

25
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Table 4: Iron expenses for the choir screen of the church of Sainte-Madeleine of Troyes between 1511 and 1514 (Data from Arch.
dép. Aube, 16 G 47).
Year Element Weight Price
1511–1512 Ironwork - 33s 4d
24 Oct. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 326.75 lb £10 17s 10d
14 Nov. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 353.75 lb £11 15s 10d
21 Nov. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 292.5 lb £9 15s
4 Dec. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 427.5 lb £14 5s
11 Dec. 1512 Iron to link the choir screen 265.5 lb £8 4d
13 Feb. 1513 Big bars, small plugs, cramps and rings 609.75 lb £20 6s 6d
1513 Key for the inferior part of the choir screen 42 lb 28s 4d
1513–1514 4 cramps, 2 pins - 3s 4d
1513–1514 1 big leg 11 lb 5s 10d
1513–1514 3 great soupentes (?truss-brackets) ; 3 cramps 28 lb 15s
1513–1514 1 big bent cramp 6 lb 3s 4d
1513–1514 2 big cramps - 2s 6d
1513–1514 2 tinned prods - 15s
Total 2362.75 lb £80 10s 10d

it now seems fairly obvious that medieval carpenters big iron bars weighing about 150lb each was installed
regularly used iron armatures in wooden frameworks in the northern transept between 1410 and 1413 to
at least from the 14th century. preserve its vaults and walls15. Many other bars and
rods, attaching the Tonnerre stone side buttresses and
Consolidation and repair gable of the portal’s facing, added in the first half of the
Iron armatures were often part of the monument’s 15th century, are also still visible (Fig 7). Several other
original concept. Yet, from the Middle Ages onwards chains and rods have been discovered in the northern
many iron pieces were also used for repair work. The transept, although no information is available about
northern transept of Troyes cathedral and its ‘Beau their installation. Metallographic analyses carried out
Portail’ provide one of the best examples of such on two samples from two different chains revealed
practice. This portal was originally built between late they are both made of finery iron (L’Héritier 2009).
in the 13th and late in the 14th century, when its rose According to the earliest references to blast furnaces
was finally glazed 14 (Murray 1987, 29), but had to be and fineries nearby (Rouillard 2003, 401), these chains
constantly consolidated in the next century (Roserot de were set after the end of the 14th century—more prob-
Melin 1966, 174, 197). A chain made from at least six ably during the modern period—and therefore belong
to restoration work.

Total quantities
Overall, several tons of iron were used in the con-
struction of each church. Troyes cathedral and Saint-
Ouen abbey-church in Rouen are, within the corpus,
the two that required the most iron, about 50 or 60 tons
each (L’Héritier 2007, 719–720). These estimates, based
on account book data as well as on standing structures,
agree with earlier figures given for Upper Palatinate
churches, mentioning 40 tons for Regensburg cathedral
(Haas 1987). Even greater quantities of iron were em-
ployed in the Popes’ Palace in Avignon (Bernardi and
Dillmann 2005) or the dungeon of Vincennes castle
(Chapelot 2004).
Figure 7: Iron bars attaching the Tonnerre stone gable added to
Troyes cathedral Beau portail (first half of the 15th century).

26
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Table 5: Average (hence decimals of £) and largest iron expenses according to accounting books studied (Data from Arch. dép. Seine-
Maritime, G 2481, G 2483 to G 2525; Arch dép. Aube, G 1559 to G 1588, G 4417; Bibl. nat., ms. lat. 9111 to 9913, ms. nouv. acq. lat.
1949, 1950; Arch. nat., KK 398 B.)
Yearly average Yearly largest expenses (main
av% Yearly max%
expenses work that year)
Rouen cathedral £47.5 2.9 % £325.6 (Bell) 12.8 %
Troyes cathedral £24.9 3.3 % £141.1 (Glazing) 27.1 %
Church Saint-Urbain £3.7 2.6 % £61.2 (Glazing) 12.9 %
Church Sainte-Madeleine [Based
only on four accounting years £25.4 4.2 % £78.7 (Stone choir screen ) 12.3 %
(1511–1514).
Church Saint-Jean £30.2 3.9 % £270.5 (Iron choir screen) 12.8 %

The supply and cost of iron enough detail to deal with different types of blacksmith-
ing expenses separately and quantify every share. Data
Blacksmithing costs and the influence of are summed up in Table 6. Construction iron in general,
recycling ie all armatures (chains, bars, pins, cramps, etc.) used
Despite these quantities of iron, blacksmiths’ costs never in masonry, windows or frameworks, only accounts
exceeded an average of 2–4 per cent of the builders’ for one third to one half of the overall expenses linked
overall expenses (Table 5). This agrees with the figures with iron. However, within structural iron, armatures
suggested at the Pierre et métal dans le bâtiment au for windows have by far the largest share. Nails reach
Moyen Age conference, according to which iron and lead about 15% and amount to the second largest expense.
account together for 6–10 per cent of the construction Others such as bells, tools, locks and keys, are between
cost (Benoit 1985). As far as we are aware, Popes’ 5% and 15%.
Palace’s yard is the only known case where the share of
iron exceeds 10% on average (Bernardi and Dillmann Whenever possible, recycling reduced the cost of con-
2005). However, in any building yard blacksmithing struction. Between 1430 and 1433, the canons of Rouen
expenses could occasionally reach 10% and more rarely cathedral systematically sold the ‘old iron’ of the former
up to 30% of the yearly expenses, eg when glazing was windows to Jean Paen, locksmith, who was in charge
taking place (Table 5). Locksmiths’ wages and the cost of their renovation 16. Overall, more than two tons of
of iron account for 10–40% of the price of a stained- iron were collected, which helped to cut blacksmithing
glass window (Minois 2005, 286–289; L’Héritier 2007, expenses by about a third 17 (Table 7). Such references
723–726). to ‘old iron’ are not unusual in medieval account books,
but most of the time one cannot characterise or quantify
The account books of Troyes and Rouen cathedrals give its re-use. Metallographic analyses can throw light on
Table 6: Details of iron expenses for Rouen and Troyes cathedrals (Data from Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2481, G 2483 to G 2525;
Arch dép. Aube, G 1559 to G 1588, G 4417; Bibl. nat., ms. lat. 9111 to 9913, ms. nouv. acq. lat. 1949, 1950; Arch. nat., KK 398 B).
Prices rounded to the nearest sol (s)
Rouen cathedral (1383–1512) Rouen cathedral (1383–1435) Troyes cathedral (1293–1521)
Construction iron (except bay- £81 18s 3.8% £57 10s 8.8% £400 14s 11.7%
windows)
Construction iron (for bay- £215 16s 9.9% £203 30.9% £768 2s 22.5%
windows)
Nails £247 2s 11.4% £86 10s 13.2% £579 14s 17.0%
Locks. hinges. keys… £149 2s 6.9% £78 8s 11.9% £316 9.3%
Bells £338 15.6% £29 14s 4.5% £317 12s 9.3%
Tools £361 8s 16.6% £88 13.4% £182 18s 5.4%
Machines £47 2.2% £39 18s 6.1% £160 6s 4.7%
Furnitures £34 4s 1.6% £1 18s 0.3% £275 10s 8.1%
Undetermined £698 14s 32.2% £71 6s 10.9% £415 2s 12.1%
Total £2173 4s 100% £656 4s 100% £3415 18s 100%

Construction iron (total) £297 14s 13.7% £260 10s 39.7% £1168 16s 34.2%
Of which for bay-windows £215 16s 72.5% £203 79.7% £768 2s 65.7%

27
L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Table 7: Proportion of iron expenses for the glazing of Rouen cathedral upper choir windows (forma). (Data from Arch. dép. Seine-
Maritime, G 2487, G 2489 to G 2491) (ob = half of 1d).
Weight Weight of Price of iron after
Price of iron
  Price of glass of Ferro % Iron recycled Ferro recycling at 5 or % Iron
(13d / lb)
novo antico 6d / lb
1a, 2a, 3a parva forma £199 10s 479.75lb £26 11s 9d 11.8 % 504lb £17 1s 6d 7.9 %
4a parva forma £40 10s 11d 225lb £12 7s 9d 23.4 % 164lb £8 5s 9d 17.0 %
5a parva forma £40 10s 11d 228lb £12 11s 23.6 % 162lb £8 10s 17.3 %
1a magna forma £61 14s 10d ob 379.5lb £20 12s ob 25.0 % 337lb £12 3s 7d ob 16.5 %
2 magna forma
a
£61 14s 10d ob 378.5lb £20 11s ob 25.0 % 332lb £12 5s ob 16.6 %
3a magna forma £61 10d 379.5lb £20 17s 1d ob 25.5 % 337lb £14 2s 2d 18.8 %
4a magna forma £61 10d (+ £10) 383lb £21 11d 22.9 % 334lb £13 14s 8d ob 16.2 %
5a magna forma £61 10d (+ £7) 385.5lb £21 3s 7d ob 23.7 % 335lb £14 4s ob 17.3 %
6 magna forma
a
£61 10d (+ £7) 385lb £21 3s 1d 23.7 % 333lb £14 5s 4d 17.3 %
7 magna forma
a
£67 10d 411.5lb £22 11s 9d ob 25.2 % 336lb £15 11s 9d ob 18.9 %
8a magna forma £67 10d 386lb £20 18s 2d 23.8 % 331lb £16 18s 7d 20.2 %
9 magna forma
a
£67 10d 406lb £22 5s 10d 24.9 % 324lb £15 10s 10d 18.8 %
10a magna forma £67 10d (+ £2) 406lb £22 5s 10d 24.4 % 324lb £15 10s 10d 20.8 %
1 fourme de la nef
e
£32 16s 8d 221lb £12 10s 6d 27.6 % 220lb £7 18s 8d 19.5 %
Total £932 8s 2d 4833.25lb £264 19s 11d ob 22.1 % 4153lb £178 4s 2d ob 16 %

this point by grouping examination of welding lines simple re-use of an iron piece without any addition of
and study of SI homogeneity (Dillmann and L’Héritier iron from another source. If not explicitly mentioned in
2007; L’Héritier and Dillmann 2009). About two thirds account books, such re-use can only be recognised by
of the 74 samples would come from ‘brand-new iron’, studying each object. Within the entire corpus, only one
ie not from the welding of scrap iron, and five to ten per cramp appeared to have had an earlier life, before being
cent from reclaimed scrap. Brand-new iron seemed to used on the balustrade of Saint-Jean-au-Marché church:
form the largest share in medieval buildings; however it is indeed much flatter than other cramps on the same
another kind of recycling could not be considered: the balustrade, and has two redundant holes (L’Héritier and
Dillmann 2009). In this regard, fabric accounts mention
that locksmith Guillaume Royer received 226lb of ‘old
iron’ to forge iron cramps on 26 May 1549, when works

Figure 8: Map of the regions supplying the city of Rouen with Figure 9: Map of the ironworks supplying Troyes building yards
iron late in the Middle Ages. with iron late in the Middle Ages.

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HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Table 8: Iron origins cited in Troyes cathedral fabric accounts.


Occurrences
Origin Year of first occurrence Year of last occurrence Remarks
(different years)
Spanish iron 3 (2) 1379 1391 No particular price in 1379
Great forge of Doulevant 1 1410 1410
Iron brought from Vendeuvre 1 1411 1411
Reclus ‘molten iron’
Reclus iron 18 (13) 1431 1520 (1453)
Cosdon iron 5 (4) 1475 1509
Chennegy iron (Valcon forge) 1 1499 1499
Cast iron of Anglus forge near 1 1509 1509 Cast iron
Bar-sur-Aube

were undertaken in this part of the church 18. Despite this 1997) and three others were sampled on the adjacent
single example, the importance of re-use and recycling Tour de Beurre built late in the 15th century. The SI
of iron should not be neglected, as it is probably more composition and the NRC ratios of the six statue cramps
frequent than it first seems. clearly reveal three groups, of different origins: one with
ROU 301, the second with ROU 314, 316 and 35/1 and
Local supply the last one with ROU 35/2 and 35/3 (L’Héritier et al
Iron mostly came from local or regional production 2005a; Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007). This was more
areas. Although the Rouen and Troyes fabric accounts recently confirmed by trace element analysis of the same
contain a few references to Spanish iron, these are rare samples (Desaulty et al 2009). ROU 301 and its statue
and cannot be considered significant 19. For the city of were probably installed between 1370 and 1387 when
Rouen, the account books give no further information master Jean Périer was in charge of the portal’s works.
about the sources of iron. According to Lardin (2001, On the other hand, according to the position of statues
230), main supply regions were the pays d’Ouche to 314 and 316, the three cramps of the second group
the south, the pays de Bray to the east between Rouen might have been placed just afterwards, between 1388
and Beauvais and the Bellencombre region, north east and 1399, when master Jean de Bayeux had replaced
of Rouen towards Dieppe (Fig 8). Yet recent trace Perier. ROU 35/1 might have been re-used later for the
element analyses on SI discard the pays de Bray as a Tour the Beurre. This proves that supply regions can
major source for the end of the Middle Ages as none of evolve between two campaigns of construction even
the 25 samples analysed seem to come from this region when very close in time. Despite this example, no clear
(Desaulty et al 2009). For Troyes, the pays d’Othe to the compatibility was observed for other coherent groups
west (Cailleaux 1991, Rouillard 2003) and the pays du of objects, neither with the NRC method (L’Héritier
Der to the east (Verna 1995), as well as Reclus abbey, 2007, 754; Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007) nor with
seem to have provided the most iron during the 15th trace elements (Desaulty et al 2009). Thus, iron pieces
century (Fig 9) (L’Héritier 2007, 733–741). Although produced in different workshops were used during one
produced more than 75km north of Troyes, Reclus abbey campaign, which endorses the hypothesis that urban
(fer du Reclus) seems to overtake local production, being locksmiths supplying the church’s builders bought their
the main supplier mentioned in account books between raw material from different merchants
1430 and 1520 (Table 8). Nevertheless, one must put its
importance into perspective, for the provenance of most
iron provided by urban locksmiths and merchants is not
The production of structural iron
cited. It very likely came from local rural iron workshops The influence of water-powered hammers and
which sold their products in Troyes. blast furnaces
The builders usually bought iron either as bars from local
Supply regions can therefore change from one campaign merchants to be forged by the building yard’s smith, or
of construction to another or even during a campaign. more frequently as finished products from urban smiths.
This point was verified by metallographic analysis, com- Some larger pieces that could not be forged by these
paring chemical signatures of different samples within an urban smiths came directly from rural water-powered
apparently homogeneous group. For example three statue hammer-forges. For example, the 150lb bars used for
cramps were sampled on the western façade of Rouen the northern transept chain in Troyes cathedral between
cathedral for which several campaigns of sculpture were 1411 and 1413 were provided by the ‘great forge’ (grosse
identified between 1362 and 1421 (Bottineau-Fuchs forge) of Colin Midon in Doulevant-le-Château 20, about

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L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Figure 10: Changes in proportions of bloomery and finery iron


between the 13th and 17th centuries in northern Burgundy and
southern Champagne (samples from Troyes and Auxerre).

75km east of Troyes, and by Berthelin de Maraix, closer


by in the pays d’Othe 21 (Fig 9). The term ‘great forge’
and the size of the bars suggest the use of water-powered
hammers. By contrast, gallo-roman hand-forged blooms
studied by Pages et al (in press) do not usually exceed
1000cm2 in size (about 8kg). There is no other evidence
of powered forges in the Rouen and Troyes account
books. Yet, considering the size of many tie-rods used
in gothic churches, and according to several results in
experimental archaeology (Crew P and S 1994; Leroy
et al 2000; L’Héritier 2007, 782), it is reasonable to
suggest that these great iron bars were produced at
water-powered hammer forges.

Ferrous alloys used in the gothic churches of Troyes and


Rouen in the Middle Ages have been shown by their
SI composition to have come mainly from bloomery Figure 11: Metallographic structure of some of the studied
furnaces (Dillmann and L’Héritier 2007). In Troyes, the samples after Nital etching:
earliest piece of finery iron comes from the cathedral’s ROU 316. Longitudinal section through a statue cramp from
Beau Portail repairs carried out in the middle of the the western façade of Rouen cathedral (beginning 15th century).
Etching shows a fairly carburized matrix with banded structure
15th century. At the same period, fabric accounts cite due to elongation of the original bar by hammering.
the trade in small wheels or pulleys of Reclus cast ROU TN6. Longitudinal section through a pin attaching the
iron (roelles de fer fondu), indicating the use of a blast base of a column in the nave of Rouen cathedral (beginning 13th
century). Etching shows a ferritic matrix with local involuntary
furnace 22. As Reclus abbey provided the cathedral cementation on the edge.
with iron from at least 1431, it is plausible that its OUEN 10. Longitudinal section of a cramp from the outer
use of finery iron goes back that far. Moreover, more balustrade of the crossing tower of the church of Saint-Ouen
(mid-15th century). Etching shows a heterogeneous matrix with
recent metallographic analysis of late-14th-century banded structure due to forging.
samples from Auxerre cathedral—only 70km away from TROY 03 and 04. Longitudinal sections of two bars attaching the
Troyes—have shown that finery iron had been used in its columns supporting the flying buttresses in the choir of Troyes
cathedral (beginning 13th century). Etching shows a totally
construction (L’Héritier et al in press a and b). This early ferritic matrix.
evidence can be linked with the first reference to a blast TROY 09. Cross-section of a bar attaching the base of a statue
furnace and finery in Champagne in 1377 (Rouillard on the northern façade of Troyes cathedral (mid-15th century).
Etching shows a heterogeneous matrix with no particular
2003, 401). Yet bloomery iron was still present in both distribution of the carburised zones.
regions in significant quantities in the first half of the
16th century. This shows the persistence of traditional
forges and the co-existence of the two iron-making introduction of the blast furnace on any scale was later,
processes in Burgundy and Champagne over almost at the end of the 15th century. The site of Le Becquet
two centuries (Fig 10). By contrast in Normandy the dating from 1451 is isolated (Belhoste et al 1991, 51;

30
HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Table 9: Carbon content and definition of the types of ferrous alloys


Definition (after Pagès in press) Objects
Average Average
Steel Carbon
Type Rouen Troyes Total % steel carbon Type
surface content surface content
Ferritic 0–20% < 0.3 wt.% 10 30 40 54% 6% 0.02 wt.% Ferritic
Heterogeneous 20–70% < 0.6 wt.% 23 2 25 34% 48% 0.15 wt.% Heterogeneous
Mild steel 70–100% < 0.8 wt.% 7 2 9 12% 94% 0.44 wt.% Mild steel
Total     40 34 74 100%

a
Figure 12: Micrograph of a cramp from church of Saint-Ouen in Rouen showing a banded structure. Nital etching.

Beurre built between 1485 and 1506 (already mentioned:


ROU 35/2 and 35/3).

Nature and quality of iron used in building


The surfaces of 81 sections cut on 74 objects were
examined (L’Héritier and Dillmann in press). Nital
etching revealed that half the samples are almost com-
pletely ferritic, one third heterogeneous and the last
nine mostly made of quenchable steel (Table 9). Yet no
groups of objects seem to have similar carbon content
(Table 10). In the heterogeneous samples, the carburised
zones take about half the total surface. However, aver-
age carbon content is very low (0.15 wt%) and there
is no particular distribution of the steel zones, nor any
voluntary cementation or quenching structure (Fig 11).
The only visible features are the band structures on
samples that were cut longitudinally (Fig 12), which
are only the consequence of flattening and lengthening
an intrinsically heterogeneous piece of metal (L’Héritier
et al 2005a). This feature is therefore not voluntary and
only reflects the original heterogeneity of the bloom.
All samples are also filled with SI: never less than 5%
in surface and going up to 15% for the dirtiest (Fig 13).
Figure 13: Slag inclusions in bar samples from Troyes Finally, the matrices of half the sections have a high
cathedral. phosphorus content (0.1 < wt% P < 0.4) revealed by
Arribet-Deroin 2001). The first objects of finery iron ‘ghost structures’ in ferritic zones (Buchwald et al 1998;
identified in churches are the cramps from the Tour de Stewart et al 2000b; Vega et al 2003).

Figure 14: Crack


in a pin from Rouen
cathedral; etched
with Oberhoffer’s
reagent.

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L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES HM 44(1) 2010

Table 10: Type of object versus average carbon content.


Type of object Ferritic Heterogeneous Mild steel Total
Pin 17 6 1 24
Cramp 17 2 4 23
Bars / tie-rods 7 2 1 10
Statue cramps 2 2 2 6
Frameworks elements (dowels…) 4 1 0 5
Others 3 2 1 6
Total 50 15 9 74

Iron, phosphorus, carbon and SI: ferrous alloys used in Tensile strength analyses have shown that the mechanical
Rouen and Troyes churches in the Middle Ages were behaviour of these ferrous alloys differs and cannot be
very heterogeneous, far from the state-of-the-art material foreseen (Juhin 2005 cited in Dillmann 2009; L’Héritier
that was used for certain bars of the Popes’ Palace in 2008). However, most iron parts in churches in Rouen
Avignon, which were probably purchased at two and a and Troyes fulfilled their function, as they did not break
half times the price of regular iron (Dillmann et al 2003; except sometimes due to corrosion. They may have had
Bernardi and Dillmann 2005). By comparison, forging the right dimensions in relation to the stress they had
usually seems rudimentary for the Rouen and Troyes to sustain in the masonry. Besides, some armatures did
samples, with relatively bad cleansing and refining of not have to withstand a significant strain, and chains or
the bloom, no sorting, and no particular thermo-chemical rods might sometimes only be in tension in particular
forging treatment. Moreover, the final form of most iron weather conditions (Monnier 2002).
pieces used in construction generally recalls the original
bar they had come from. However, despite the unsophis-
ticated quality of the metal, urban locksmiths sometimes
Conclusion
showed extreme care in their work, eg for the median This first interdisciplinary study of the use of ferrous
welding line on the Rouen cathedral statue cramps, even alloys in medieval architecture has shown how each
if hardly necessary (L’Héritier et al 2005b). This feature source contributes a unique yet complementary per-
highlights the two different stages in the ironworking spective. More questions still need to be answered,
process: mass-production of standard quality ferrous especially about the role of iron chains and bars in the
alloys which might have involved water-powered indus- stability of structures, considering their unpredictable
tries, and the meticulous work of the urban locksmith mechanical behaviour. More tensile strength analyses
who controlled the last stages of production. are currently being carried out to this end; partnerships
between architects and archaeologists will be necessary
Due to the heterogeneity of the iron produced, questions for monitoring the structures and modelling churches’
have to be asked regarding forgeability and mechanical movements.
properties. Phosphorus is known to render iron brittle
when forged at high temperatures (between 900°C Regarding archaeometry, the chemical signatures of
and 1400°C depending on P content) and when cold iron from different regions are currently under examin-
worked, especially if it exceeds 0.38wt% (Stewart et al ation and will have an important impact on the study of
2000a). WDS analyses carried out on the matrix of some constructional iron. Eventually, as well as answering
samples showed that this limit is sometimes locally ex- architectural questions, these monuments provide well-
ceeded (L’Héritier et al 2005a). Hypotheses about the dated iron that offers a unique source for studying early
forgeability of high-P ferrous alloys were put forward manufacturing processes. It has become possible to trace
by Vega et al (2003). It seems that medieval smiths had the diffusion of the blast furnace and finery process in
a particular skill in forging this kind of iron. Yet, after Western Europe through SI analysis. This new approach
etching with Oberhoffer’s reagent, one sample showed complements historical sources: whereas texts mainly
a perpendicular crack along grain boundaries (Fig 14). deal with production units, their techniques and evol-
It occurred during forging at high temperature as liquid ution, SI analyses directly deal with objects that were
SI had flowed into the crack perhaps caused by the high used. Hence, they give a much more precise idea about
P content (L’Héritier et al 2005a). One cannot know the importance of each reduction process at a given
how many objects had to be forged again because of time and place, and consequently about their respective
such cracks. influence on the medieval economy.

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HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

Notes pro dicta forma dicta deducione facta, ut patet per quittanciam
VIII l. V s. IX d, Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2489, fol. 17 r°.
1 Item semblablement fault en chascune formette, tant pour les 17 Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2487, G 2489, G 2490 and G
quatre gros barreaulx, goujons et crampons servants à la macon- 2491.
nerie comme pour les petiz barreaulx locquettez, verges servans 18 Paié se XXVIe may audit an [1549] audit Guillaume Royer pour
aux verrieres, environ ung millier fer pris ez garnisons de l’eglise, la façon de deuxC XLVII l. fer en esgrappes lesquelles ont esté
pour ce, neant. Arch. dép. Aube, G 1571, fol. 58 r°. emploiés la presente semaine par les massons sur quoy il avoit
2 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1575, fol. 14 v°. racchu en viel fer IIC XXVI l. a deduire icelui pour ce a luy paié
3 A Pierre Lange, serrurier, pour avoir fait dix huit barreaulx de pour sadite facon que pour le surplus dudit fer cent onze soubz,
fer, ensamble les goujons qu’il a convenu pour les six formettes Arch. dép. Aube, 15 G 57, fol. 79 r°.
derriere faites en ceste eglise sur les autelz Saint Anthoine et 19 Arch. dép. Seine-Maritime, G 2519, fol. 71 r°; Arch. dép. Aube,
Saint Sebastian, dont l’eglise luy a livré pour ce faire XIIC IIIIXX G 1559, fol. 52 r°.
V livres et demye fer en trente bandes de fer, Arch. dép. Aube, G 20 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1559, fol. 171 r°.
1575, fol. 22 v°-23 r°. 21 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1561, fol. 19 r°.
4 Arch. dép. Aube, G 1576, fol. 185 v° ; G 1594, fol. 35° r°. 22 Arch. dép. Aube, G 4417, fol. 46 r°.
5 See note 1.
6 Item pour avoir fait plusieurs crampons et barreaulx de fer pour
tenir l’arc boutant dernierement fait, pesans ensemble VIXX deux
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HM 44(1) 2010 L’HERITIER ET AL: IRON IN FRENCH GOTHIC CHURCHES

The authors Diriger des Recherches’. He works as a scientist in the


Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and is
involved in archaeometallurgy and corrosion studies
Maxime L’Héritier has a doctorate in archaeology from on ancient ferrous artefacts. He leads the Laboratoire
the University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, awarded Archéomatériaux et Prévision de l’Altération, gathering
for research into the use of constructional iron in the people from the CNRS (UMR5060 and UMR3299) and
Middle Ages. Since 2007, he has held a contract-re- the CEA (SIS2M laboratory).
searcher position in the Institut de Recherche sur les- Address: LAPA/SIS2M Bat 637, CEA Saclay, 91191 Gif
Archéomatériaux in the French Centre National de la sur Yvette Cedex, France
Recherche Scientifique (IRAMAT / CNRS UMR5060) e-mail: philippe.dillmann@cea.fr
to work as an archaeometallurgist.
Address: IRAMAT Centre Ernest Babelon 3D rue de la Paul Benoit is an emeritus professor in history and the
Férollerie 45071 Orléans Cedex 2 archaeology of technology from the University of Paris
e-mail: lheritier.maxime@neuf.fr 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. Among his research topics he has
worked on the development of water-powered industries
Philippe Dillmann is an engineer in material science in the Middle Ages, especially relating to metallurgy.
and also has a doctorate and a French ‘Habilitation a e-mail: paul.benoit@univ-paris1.fr

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