THE DURABILITY OF REFRACTORIES

Author(s): W. J. Rees
Source: Journal of the Royal Society of Arts , MARCH 30, 1923, Vol. 71, No. 3671
(MARCH 30, 1923), pp. 338-353
Published by: Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and
Commerce

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41356135

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce is collaborating
with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the Royal Society of Arts

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 338 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. March 3$, 1923.

fractories industries, along with the manu-

no emphasis at a meeting of this Society.
facturers, served to the best of their
Their ability
utilisation is at the basis of all
the needs of the nation, but they had also
industrial con-
operations, and the consumption
tributed to the needs of our allies at a time when
of them provides an adequate index to th
iron and steel had been very vitally required ;
and, although to-day the sword might be condition of industry in general in any
sheathed, the nation had to look ahead and be civilised community. During the European
prepared for the time when war might onceWar, the limiting factor in the production
again break out, and it was very necessary thatof munitions was the rate of production
we should not be behind any other country and application of refractory materials for
in the most vital industry of refractories! the building and maintenance of furnaces
Every encouragement, therefore, ought to be for the metallurgical, glass and ceramic
given to research in connection with all classes industries. Much less than a generation
of refractory materials. The research which had
ago it could be justly said that the technical
been carried out in this country had been in
excellent hands. The British nation had study of the use of refractories in this
scientists in connection with the refractories country was on a much lower plane than
industries who could hold their own with the in Germany, but during the last ten jears
scientists of any other country. In Mr. the Reesleeway has been made up to the advant-
it had a gentleman who was in the foremost age of both manufacturer and user. In
rank of scientists engaged on this work. In many of our Universities and technical
addition to his very important and arduous schools, the study of refractory materials
work in connection with refractories at Sheffield
is receiving increasing attention ; for
University, he had been of very great assistance
example, in the University of Sheffield,
in collaborating with the British Refractories
Research Association ; in fact, that Association refractories is a final subject in the examina-
could not possibly have carried on its work tions for degrees and diplomas in metallurgy,
without the assistance which Mr. Rees had fuel technology and glass technology, and
the
afforded it in connection with a very necessary courses of instruction are
important
item of research. There was no one in the designed to give adequate knowledge of the
country better able to speak on the subject properties and uses of refractory materials.
of refractories, from the scientific stand- It is scarcely necessary to dwell on the
point, than was Mr. Rees. great importance of research in refractories,
He would like to urge the necessity of en-
not only to the refractories industry itself,
couraging research iň regard to the industry.
but to the basic industries of the country.
Unfortunately, the British Refractories Research
Association, like many other Associations,Ithad
is noteworthy that in this vital matter
been founded at a somewhat calamitous time, we are no longer lagging behind ; much
and it would be a national calamity if, at the valuable work has already been accomplished
end of their present five years' period, that and the British Refractories Research
Association found itself unable to continue its Association is now in healthy existence.
work. He would like, through the meeting The manufacturers of refractories are keenly
and through the Royal Society of Arts, toalive
urge to the importance of research and their
that every assistance should be given to the
British Refractories Research Association so attitude offers every encouragement to
that the great work which they had started those whose duty it is to carry on the work.
might be successfully carried on. Our natural resources of raw materials for
Mr. Rees had a great many friends and the manufacture of fireclay and silica bricks
admirers throughout the body of manufacturers are of great extent, and these products
and users of refractories materials, and he was are to-day at least equal to those of any other
quite sure that, as a result of the lecture that country. Improvements can and will be
night and the publicity which it would receive,made, but there is still room for work in the
Mr. Rees would add considerably to the number
of those friends and admirers.
efficient utilisation of the products of to-day.
A contributor to the discussion of a paper
The following paper was read : - recently read by the author (*) suggested
that the best silica firebrick of to-day is
THE DURABILITY OF RE-
no better than that of five and twenty years
FRACTORIES. ago ; even if this were so, there is no doubt
at all that the average quality of silica
By W. J. Rees, В. Sc. Tech., F.I.C., Lecturer
on Refractories, University of Sheffield. firebricks is decidedly higher now than
formerly, and the same may be said of all
The essential importance of refractory types of commercial refractories. Never-
materials in present day civilisation needs theless, the need for the production of

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 March so. шз. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 339

refractories of still higher grade is placed on a truly scientific basis until their
an urgent
one ; indeed, metallurgical progress is desired properties, both physical and
necessitating the provision 4of refractorieschemical, can be specified and tested in
which will have a high resistance to the measurable quantities. Tests are necessary
severe conditions set up by higher workingwhich will enable reliable deductions to be
temperatures or highly active slags. drawn as to the probable behaviour of a
No single type of refractory can be refractory under any particular set of
expected to give adequate service in a conditions. The proper testing of refractory
variety of situations in a furnace where materials therefore necessitates a clear
the conditions to be withstood are distinctly understanding of the conditions which t
different. A difficulty which is in processmaterials will be called on to meet. It is¿
of rapid removal has lain in the lack of perhaps, desirable to point out that the
precise . knowledge of conditions existing term "failure" applied to refractories
in the various parts of industrial furnaces may
; have a wide range of meaning. Under
this led at times to the use of materials severe conditions, the expected life may be
the failure of which was inevitable. The only a few weeks, whilst under other less
selection of refractories which will have severe conditions it may be years. 1 ' Failure ' '
a high durability factor and so assist in may, therefore, be loosely defined in terms
maintaining a continuous output, is an of a life much shorter than the average or
important factor in the cost of production in terms of a much higher cost in refractories
of metals, glass, etc. In particular cases per unit of satisfactory product. An
the success or failure of a metallurgical analysis of "failures" which have come
operation may be entirely dependent on the under the author's notice enables the
suitability and quality of the refractories placing of them into four classes : -
used for the construction and lining of the (a) Unsatisfactory quality, including la
furnace. The life of a furnace or furnace of uniformity of quality.
lining should, therefore, not be measured (b) Faulty selection owing to the absen
in days, weeks or months (or even in heats) of knowledge
; of the conditions to be m
the factor to ascertain, and the only sound (c) Faulty treatment of the material in
basis on which to make comparisons, is service, due either to accident, care-
the cost of refractories per ton (or other lessness or ignorance.
unit) of saleable product. Adequate re- ( d ) Failure to allow a margin so that
fractories will facilitate rapid production, abnormal conditions of short duration
and although the first cost of such material may be withstood. (Or, in other
may be higher and their life no longer, very words, the absence of a "factor of
definite economies in cost of production safety.")
may be possible. In the manufacture of Failures of the first class are in a decided
glass, inadequate or badly selected refrac- minority when compared with those in the
tories (such as pots or tank-blòcks) may so second and third classes. Typical examples
seriously affect the quality of the glass as of the second class (b) are the use of silica
materially to reduce the quantity of saleable bricks in situations which are exposed to
product. In such cases, the factor due to abrupt alternations of temperatures with
deterioration of product through "failure" only a moderately high maximum ; the use
of refractories is of vital importance. So of materials of low refractoriness in high
far as temperature goes, the requirements of temperature furnaces ; and the use of
the glass industry are not nearly so drastic coarse open -textured bricks exposed to the
as in the eteel industry, but because of the abrasive action of hot dust-laden gases.
effect on the quality and physical properties Typical examples of the third-class (c) are
of the glass, greater chemical resistivity is too rapid heating of silica brick structures ;
necessary. failure to relieve stresses due to expansion
Progress in the improvement of re- by slackening tie -bolts ; the juxtaposition
fractories or in the development of new of materials which chemically interact at
types of refractory, can but be slow andhigher temperatures. Examples of the fourth
hesitating if the only available test of theirclass (d) are found in abnormal regenerator
efficiency is that of behaviour under service temperatures due to a breakdown in the
conditions. This must, of course, be the reversing mechanism of regenerative
final and conclusive test, but the selection furnaces and the temporary overloading of
and use of refractory materials cannot be a steam-raising plant. Failures of the first-

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 340 JOURNAL OF TÄE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. March 39, IMS.

two classes should be completely eliminatedTable

; III.
those of the third class can be eliminated Fusion Points :
to a marked extent by the education of Fire-brick . . . . Ï 600-1 720°C
charge-hands, or, as is done in a glass- Silica-brick . . . . 1650-1700°C
manufacturing plant with which the authorMagnesite .. .. 1900-2100°C
was connected, by the payment of a bonusChrome .. .. .. 1800-2000°C
to furnace operators on the tonnage -life ofBauxite . . . . . . 1600-1800°C
such refractories as melting-pots. Zirconia . . . . . . 2000-2500°C
The standard methods of testing proposed Alundum

by the refractories section of the Ceramic Carboru

Society are well known and widely used,
TABLE IV.
but the provisipn of other tests which give
measurable results and the amplification of Behaviour under a load of 501bs. per
some of the existing tests are desirable. It Firebrick . . Deforms at 1300°-
is also desirable that tests should be con- 1450°C.
Silica -brick . . Rigid to 1600°C,
ducted under conditions which are as near to
the conditions of actual use as is possible. Deforms or shears
The question of the size of the test-piece has at 1550°-1680°C.
been frequently discussed; in the author's Magnesite . . Shears at 1350°-1660°C
opinion tests on whole bricks are much more Bauxite ... Deforms at 1350°-
valuable than those on small portions of the 1500°C.
brick. Better still is a test on a section of Zirconia . . Deforms àt 1450o-
built-up brickwork, but this is beyond the 1650°C
resources of most laboratories. Carborundum . . Rigid at 1650#C.
For furnace construction and main-
TABLE V.
tenance purposes, the most important
refractories are silica, fireclay, magnesite Specific Heats :
and dolomite. Chrome, bauxite, zirconia, 100°C. 1000°C
carborundum, graphite and alundum are Fire-brick .. .. 0.199 .. 0.265
also used to some extent. The following Silica-brick .. .. 0.219 . . 0.263
tables show the ' variations in chemical Magnesite . . . . 0.231 . . 0.324
composition and the principal physical Alundum .. .. 0.198 .. -
properties of these refractoriës. Carborundum .. 0.186 .. -

_____

Fire- Silica Carborun-

brick. Brick. Bauxite. Magnesite. Dolomite. Chrome. Zirconia. dum.

SÌO2 60 to 80 90 to 97 4 to 15 2 to 14 . 2 to 8 ». 3 to 10 5 to 15 0.2 to 5%
AI2O3 15 „ 45 0.5 „ 6 55 „ 85 0.5 „ 3 1 „ 3 5 „ 25 1 „ 3 0.5 „ 5%
Fe203 0.5 „ 5 0.5 „2 2 „ 15 1 „ 8 1 „ 4 15 „ 30 1 „ 8 0.2 „ 2%
TÌO2 0.5 „ 3 0.10 „ 0.5 1„ 7 - • ' - - 0 „ 3 - %
CaO 0.2 „ 1.5 0.5 „ 2.0 0 2 2 „ 10 50 „ 55 1 „ 3 0 „ 2 0 fro 0.5%
MgO 0.2 „ 1.5 0.1 „ 0.5 0 „ 2 72 „ 94 30 „ 38 3 „ 15 0 „ 2 - %
KoO I 0.5 „ 2.5 0.4 „ 1.0 0.5 „ 2.5 - - - - - %
Na20 f
Сг20з - - - - - 35 „ 55 - - %
Zr02 - - - - - - 70 „ 85 - %
SiC - . - ' - - - - - 85 „ 95%
Тавье II. TABLE VL
Specific Gravities : Thermal Conductivities at 1000°C.
Fire-brick .. .. .. 2.6 to 2.75 v Calories per c. cm.
Silica-brick . . . . . . 2.3 „ 2.50 per second, per
Magnesite . . . . . . * 3.2 „ 3.60 deg. C.
Chrome , . . . . . 3.8 „ 4.00 Fire-brick . . . . . . .0038
Bauxite . . . . . . 3.1 „ 3.30 Silica-brick . . . . .0044
Zirconia . . . . . . 4.8 „ 5.00 Magnesite .. .. .. .0079
Alundum . . . . . . 3.9 „ 4.00 Chrome . . . . . . .0057
Carborundum . * . . 3.1 „ 3.20 Carborundum . . . . . . .0231

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 March 80 , 1923 . JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 341

TABLE VII.
Electrical Resistivities.

Bonded Recrvst-
Fireclay Silica. Magne- Chrome Bauxite Zirconia Carbor- Carbor- Alundu
site. undum. undum.

Mee. Meg. Meg. Meg. Meg. Meg. Ohms. Ohms. Meg.

Cold ... <137 <125 <137 48 <134 <134 107,200 106 -
Ohms. Ohms. Ohms. Ohms.
<800°C ...57,600 2.38 5.0 803 109,000 558,000 12,550 6.5 16
Ohms.
$00°C. ...20,600 765,000 1.2 375 32,500 224,000 8,200 5.2 5
Ohms.
l,000eC. ... 10,800 300,000 708,000 171 17,200 131,300 7,400 4.1 1.8
1,100°0. ... 6,590 126,000 560,000 78 9,200 53,800 6,160 3.1 -
1,200°C. ... 4,160 62,000 193,500 63 6,100 7.710 4,160 2.4 -
l,300°a ... 2,460 30,900 67,400 77 5,600 2,100 2,420 - 2.0
I,400°C. ... 1,420 16,500 22^400 85 2,200 960 1,430 1.7 -
l,500eC. ... 890 8,420 2,500 41 1,100 410 745 1.6 -
•

The durability of the ducted on small fragments.

refractories used The following
for the construction and maintenance of particulars relate to one such case : - The
furnaces is dependent on the following brick was of fireclay with a coarse texture,
factors : - practically all the fragments of grog being
1. The softening temperatures. rounded. The chemical analysis was -
2. The mechanical strength at normal Silica .. .. .. 65.69 per cent
and high temperatures. Titanium Oxide . . 0.51 „ „
3. The thermal or reversible expansion. Alumina . , 28.86 ,, „
4. The , permanent expansion or contrac-Ferric Oxide . . . . 2.64 „ „
tion. Lime . . . . . . 0.43 „ ,,
5. The resistance to abrasion. Magnesia . . . . 0.51 „ „
6. The resistance to slag attack. Potassium Oxide .. 0.87 „ „
7. The permeability to gases and Sodium Oxide . . 0.62 „ „
vapours at high temperatures.
100.13
8. The resistance to abrupt changes of
temperature at high and low tempera- The normal softening point by Standard
tures.
Test was equivalent to that of Cone 29-30
9. The changes in properties after pro- (1660°C). The whole brick when heated
longed heating. deformed at 1600°C, the rounded grog
The relative importance of these factors fragments apparently sliding over each other
will naturally vary with the type of furnace. as soon as the matrix of the brick became
The texture (in which term is summed up only slightly viscous (See Fig. 1). In a
the homogeneity, extent of vitrification,
porosity and the size and shape of the
grains) of a refractory material will have
an important influence on its durability,
and in particular on its resistance to abrasion
and spalling. Resistance to slag attack
will be a factor of chemical composition
and texture.
The softening point without load may be
usefully examined by placing a whole briçk
on a convex refractory surface and, with
Fig. 1.
a slow rate of heating, observing the tempera-
ture/ at which deformation occurs. In brick of similar chemical composition, but
of finer texture, with angular grog, there was
several instances the softening temperature
thus obtained has been 50-1 00 °C lower a close approximation between the indica-
than that obtained in the standard test tions of the two tests. In the whole brick
for softening temperatures which test, volume changes and the influence of
is con-

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 342 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. March ?9, î 923.

furnace atmosphere can also be observed. A. B.

The mechanical strength of cold bricks Silica .. .. 63.36% 57.14%

varies with the texture and extent of Titanium Oxide . . 1.02% 1.41%
burning. The following figures were Alumina . . . . 29.95% 37.44%
obtained on testing a batch of even-texturedIron Oxide . . . . 2.44% 2.39%
hand-made firebricks having a normal Lime . . . . 0.81% 0.31%
refractoriness equivalent to Cone 30 (1670°C). Magnesia . . . . 0.62% 0.24%
The bricks were re -burned at 1200°C, 1300°C Potassium Oxide . . 1.02% 0.84%
and 1400°C. Sodium Oxide . . 0.64% 0.31%

Crushing strength, 99.86 100.08

per sq. in. Porosity . . . . 27% 24%

Brick as delivered . . 2000 lbs. Normal Refractoriness Cone 29 Cone 34
Brick re-burned at 1200°C 2000 lbs.
Deformation com- (1650°C) (1750°C)
Brick re-burned at 1300°C 2200 lbs. menced under load
Brick re-burned at 1400°C 2600 lbs.
of 501bs. per sq. in . .. Cone 10 Cone 14
(1300°C) (1410°C)
The superiority of well burned bricks is
Severe distortion at . . Cone 14 Cone 20
indicated by these figures.
(1410°C) (1530°C)
The mechanical strength of fireclay bricks
Cold crushing strength
is much lower at high temperatures owing in lbs. per sq. in. . . 2500 3500
to the gradual formation of a viscous
condition in the brick. Dr. J. W. Mellor Despite the higher alumina content of
brick В., the more fusible matrix which
has shown that the sensitivity of a fireclay
would be present in brick Á causes a greater
to load increases with increasing alumina
reduction in refractoriness under load.
content of the clay. This factor, associated *
A simple
with the interaction of the fluxing con- method of applying the load tes
is to support a brick on its two ends leavin
stituents of the brick with the other con-
a «lear span of 7 or 8 inches, and load it in
stituents, or the gradual softening of the
the centre with a heavy brick (such as a
product of these interactions »during the
chrome brick) on end. Then heat to 1400°C
burning of the brick, is responsible for the
(or upwards) and observe the deformation,
lower resistance to crushing strains at high
temperatures. With normal-textured if any, produced. This type of test is
particularly useful in observing the strength
silica bricks the loss of mechanical strength
at high temperatures is much less than of fireclay mixtures used in making glass-
with fireclay bricks because of the greater house pots or steel-melting crucibles.
viscosity of silica and saturated silicate The thermal or reversible expansion is
melts. Very fine textured silica bricks an important factor in the use of silica
show a greater loss in mechanical strength bricks, because of the a - ß inversions
than the normal -textured bricks unless
they have been so well burned that the
greater part of the quartz has been inverted
and re-crystallised. In a series of tests
carried out by Mellor and Emery (2) on
20 fireclay bricks of varying texture and
refractoriness, the normal refractoriness
varied from cones 26 to 33 (1680°-17309C),
whilst under ä load of 60 lbs. per sq; in.,
deformation was complete at from Čone
13-20 (1380° - 1630°C). Bleininger and
Brown(S) conducted a similar- series of
teste on 23 American fireclay bricks with
normal refractoriness varying between
Cones 26 and 34 (1580°-1760°C). Under
a load of 50 lbs. per sq. in. deformation
commenced between 1160° and 1330°C.
The following particulars refer to tests
conducted on two hand -made firebricks Fig. 2.

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Marek 90, msè JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 343

which, with quartz and cristobalite, are both in texture and burning, the author
accompanied by marked volume changes is in agreement with these conclusions,
(See Fig. 2). Messrs. Cobb, Hodsman and but in some bricks tested in this way,
Houl ds worth ( * ) have investigated this contradictory results have been obtained
factor for numerous types of brick and theirfrom small test-pieces because of variations
results indicate that in firebricks containing in texture and burning throughout the
free quartz, the thermal properties of the brick. Results which have accorded well
«quartz are only slightly masked by the with the behaviour of bricks in use have
presence of the firclay. The rapid increase been obtained in the author's laboratory
in the rate of expansion at 575°C due to by slowly heating whole bricks to the test
the a- ß change in the quartz is almost astemperature (Cone 14. 1410°C), and main-
marked in a semi -silica as in a normal taining that temperature for four hours.
silica brick (See Figs. 3 and 4). Just as A useful test is to heat one -half of a brick
for a few hours at the temperature at which
it is to be used, and then to compare the
two halves of the brick. J. W. Mellor(6)
has examined the influence of furnace
atmosphere on the high temperature volume
changes of firebricks. In the author's
own experience bricks high in iron -oxide
and silica show a rapid contraction at
1100°C-1200°C due to the formation of
fusible ferrous silicate, particularly in a
reducing atmosphere. Above 1350°C such
bricks expand again, bloating having
occurred. When it is known that a particular
brick is to be used under reducing conditions
the test should be made under comparable
conditions.
Fig. 3.
With silica bricks there appears to be a
definite linear connection between the true
specific gravity and after-expansion. Fig. 5
gives the results of about 30 tests of com-
mercial silica bricks(7). The majority of
the after -expansion results lie on a straight
line ; those which deviate from it having a
very coarse texture. With American silica
bricks, Harvey and Moore found a difference
in thé behaviour of bricks made from Medina
and Baraboo quartzites, the heat treatment
which resulted in a certain proportion of
quartz conversion with Medina bricks, giving
a smaller proportion of conversion with
Baraboo bricks. With British bricks
differences of texture appear (assuming
Fig. 4.
approximately equal lime content) to have
much care, therefore, is necessarya in
greater effect on the rate of conversion
heating
a structure (a coke oven for example) than differences in the source of the raw
built of serpi -silica bricks as one built of material. It should be possible, however,
silica bricks. for a manufacturer of silica bricks to prepare
The Standard After -Contraction or After- from experimental' data a chart on which the
Expansion test is designed to indicate the after -expansion could be read off from a
permanent volume change which the brick determination of the true specific gravity.
is likely to undergo when in use at high At present there is no quantitative method
temperature. Experimental work by Miss for determining the resistance of refractories
Jones(i>) indicates the advantage of the to abrasion and to slag attack, the available
use of small test-pieces cut from bricks. methods being purely comparative. Mellor
So long as the bricks are homogeneous and Emery (8) devised a method for observing

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 344 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. March so , 1925.

Fio. 5.

the abrading or corrosive action of hot dust-

laden gases on bricks by feeding a stream
of dust into the blast entering the burner
of a furnace. Observations of this type are
important in connection with refractories
for use in furnace ports, regenerators and
high temperature boiler arches and » fire-
boxes. The resistance of a refractory to
the corrosion of a slag, dust or ash may be
roughly determined by drilling a hole in
the brick, filling it with the slag or ash and
heating under pre -determined conditions.
The brick is then cut or broken across the Fig. 7.

hole and the extent of corrosion or depth author has recently observed the corrosive
of penetration observed. (See Fig. 6.) A action of two coal ashes of the following
approximate analyses : -
А В
Silica

Iron Oxide . . . .' 26.9 2,9

Alumina .. .. .. 25.2 34.4
Lime .. .. .. 1.9 12.9
Magnesia .. .. 1.8 4.4
Alkalies (as K20) . . 3.8 5.4

Fusion Point .. .. 1260°C 1150°C.

The observations were made by the
method. Under reducing conditions the
corrosive action of ash A on a siliceous

Fig. 6.
firebrick at 1,400°C. was severe, but much
less marked on an aluminous brick. Under
rather better method(9) is to cement to
oxidising conditions the siliceous firebrick
the face of the brick a clay ring andwas
fillmuch
this more resistant to the corrosión,
with the slag or ash as the face or skin the of
difference
the between the resistance of the
brick is not then removed (see Fig. 7). two types of brick being less marked. With
The lower porosity of the. face of the brick
ash В there was very little difference in the
may retard the speed of corrosion. The corrosive action under oxidising or reducing

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 March 30, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 345

Fifi 7.

conditions. The ajbtack on a siliceous brick ture range - this is the case with silica
was in both cases much more severe than on bricks when the л-ß change in cristobalite
an aluminous brick. In other cases at 240° C. and in quartz at 575° C. is
examined, a high resistance to the corrosion
accompanied by an appreciable volume
of coal ash at high temperatures has been change (see Fig. 7) - to a high co-efficient«
given by a well-made siliceous firebrick of expansion accompanied possibly by a low
(85% silica) of low porosity. The porosity thermal conductivity ; or to continuing
of the brick is an important factor in the contraction of the hot end of the brick, this-
resistance to both abrasion and slag attà-ck, latter being a frequent cause of spalling m
but the determining factor may be the magnesite or highly aluminous bricks ; or
facility with which the brick face becomes to repeated abrupt temperature changes.
covered with a protective glaze either by its There is no really satisfactory quantitative
own surface semi -fusion or by intersection method for the determination of spalling
of the brick with the dust or ash. With tendency. McDowell ( 10 ) determines the
silica or highly siliceous bricks the high reduction in the modulus of rupture of the
viscosity of such skin glazes may consider- bricks after heating to 600° С for some
ably retard corrosion. In fire boxes and hours and cooling with free access of cold
boiler arches a brick which readily glazes air. Howe and Ferguson(n) have devised
in this way may quite well have greater a method which the author has found to
durability than one which has a greatergive results of comparative valtie. The
intrinsic refractoriness. The development bricks are heated to 1,300° C.-l,350° C., and
of powdered fuel and oil firing lends par- after one hour they are removed from the
ticular importance at the present time furnace and immersed to a depth of four
to this particular property because the inches in a tank of flowing cold water
formation of this skin or glaze on the or exposed to a cold air blast. The spalling
exposed face of the brick reduces the tendency is estimated by the loss after
permeability of the brick to hot gases repeated
or treatment in this way.- Clays
with a long vitrification range produce
vapours and prevents disruption of the brick
from reactions (such as carbon monoxide bricks which are more subject to spalling
cracking with deposition of carbon) than those in which the porosity is approxi-
which may take place in its interior. mately constant over a wide range of
The "spalling" tendency of refractory temperature. Porosity -temperature deter-
bricks is another factor With an importantminations should, therefore, indicate what
bearing on durability, particularly in clays are likely to produce bricks with the
furnaces which are only intermittently at highest durability in situations where
high temperature. This tendency may be spalling troubles have been encountered, or
due to a rapid increase in the rate of should indicate what modifications are
expansion over a particular short tempera- necessary in clay mixtures in order to

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 346 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. .^reh 192S-

increase resistance to spalling. In silica bricks which are to be used for

The changes in both physicaltheandbuilding
chemical of coke-ovens a high degree
of quartz
properties which may occur during theconversion
life is essential as growth
of the refractory may haveofathe profound
brick due to continuing conversion
influence on durability. Brief ofmention
quartz to the hasforms of lower specific
already been made of the effect gravity must be avoided. When the coals
of expansion
or contraction of the brick and of the eiffect which are being coked are non-salty,
of skin glazing or vitrification. In the satisfactory durability is obtained from either
open hearth furnace deep seated changesfireclay or semi -silica bricks, but there
take place in the silica bricks, their structureappears to be definite evidence from
and chemical composition being progressivelyAmerican practice that a silica brick oven-
altered between the hot face and the cold end. constrúction renders possible the use of
The beginning of these changes, or, in other higher coking temperatures and a larger
words, the 4 'seasoning' ' of the bricks, output from an oven of given size without
greatly affects the subsequent life of the any sacrifice of by-products. Both from
bricks. The changes in chemical composi- this point of view and . because of the
tion and structure are shown in Table greater resistance they offer to salt -corrosion,
VIII. and Fig. 8. and their higher thermal conductivity • [or
TABLE VIII.
Sílica Ввтск from Roof of Acid Open-hearth Furnace.

Zone. SÍO2 Fe20à FeO AI2O3 CaO MgO МП3О4

A 80.5 11.6 6.4 0.9 0.2 - 04

В 75.4 1 8.5 3.8 1.2 0.4 - #3
С 89.4 3.1 2.8 3.9 0.15 0.1
D 95.2 1.1 1.4 1.8 0.10 -

Silica Brick from Roof of Basic Open-hearth Furnace.

Zone. SÍO2 Fe203 FeO AI2O3 CaO MgO МП3О4

A 87.4 5.6 1.4 0.9 2.8 0.4 1.3

В 86.8 6.6 0.9 1.2 3.1 0.4 1.0
С 89.4 3.1 2.1 4.5 0.2 ЪЛ
D 95.8 0.9 1.1 LS 0.2 -

The author has been told more than once diffusi vi t-y( 13 )] the author strongly advocates
by furnace operators that a silica brick the use of silica bricks in coke-oven con-
which "seasons" well will have a satis- struction. From analytical data obtained
factory durability. There has been much from some washed slacks from South York-
discussion as to the advantage or otherwise shire coke-ovens the author has calculated
of high quartz conversion in promoting that approximately 50 lbs. of salt is carried
the durability of silica bricks in the open-into the oven with each charge of drained
hearth furnace. H. H. Thomasi1 2) has slack(u). The corrosion resulting from the
suggested that the actual density -concentra- presence of this salt is a comparatively low
tion of silica is of more importance than the temperature phenomenon, as the salt begins
crystalline form in which it is present. to volatilise at 800° C, and there is also some
There is much to be said in support of this carrying of salt by hydrolysis, as steam from
view, but the author's experience is that the centre of the charge comes in contact
both high quartz conversion and high silica with the hot coal. J. W. Cobb(15) has
concentration are desirable if maximum shown that interaction between alkalies, lime
durability is to be obtained. In this latter and silica will take place at temperatures
case, durability may also be promoted much below that of fusion of the mixtures,
indirectly by the greater structural stability and there is evidence that this type of-
of the roof as alterations in contour from reaction is important in coke-oven corrosion.
high after - expansion may aversely affect In the coke oven the internal wall does not
the economies of the furnace. reach the temperature (1,200° C.) at which

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 091 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 March 30, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 347

Fio. 8.

salt-glazing takes place rapidly, falling

and theaway. There is now no difficulty
salt vapour instead of reacting with the in this country silica bricks which
in obtaining
surface of the bricks penetrates them will fully
and meet the stringent specification
reaches a zone in the brickwork where necessary for coke-oven use. Some which
the temperature is high enough for inter- the author has tested recently are at least
action between salt and fire clay to take equal to the best American or Continental
place with some rapidity. The joint resultbricks. Where high coking temperatures
of slow interaction in the cooler portion are employed the greater mechanical
of the brick and the more rapid action in strength of good silica bricks is a considera-
the hotter zone is the formation of a tion of importance to the oven builder.
vesicular mass, increasingly open to the Even the highest grade of fireclay brick will »
attack of the salt and likely to fall away ordeform under load at a temperature well
be dragged away by the moving coal or below its normal softening point, whilst a
coke. Facing or glazing the exposed facehighly converted silica brick of low porosity
of bricks in order to increase their resistance will carry load almost up to its fusion
to corrosion, has not been successful owingpoint. At high coking temperatures, there-
to differential expansion, the prepared facefore, the durability of adequately made

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 348 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. March S0t 1923.

silica bricks will excèed that of bricks made furnace(17). Besides water-cooling it is
wholly, or in part, of fireclay. possible to use cold air, blown by fans or
Another example of internal low-tempera- delivered from a compressor through nozzles;
air saturated with moisture or steam-jets.
ture reactions adversely affecting durability
is to be found in the corrosion of glass- By any of these means the temperature
furnace tank-blocks. Instances have been gradient through the furnace lining may be
cited(*6) where the corrosion of tank-blocksmaterially altered and the corroèion of the
has been increased when the working internal surface ret¿ardéd. The cost of the
temperature of the furnace has been reduced,installation , and maintenance of such cooling
without any alteration in the batch. In devices must be set off against the reduced
such cases corrosion is particularly severe consumption in the furnace. A limit to
below the metal level. At the f metal level the expenditure in cooling is thus soon
the temperature is high enough for inter- reached.
'
action between glass and block to take In conclusion, the author would emphasise
place at the block face, but below the metal the desirability of collaboration between
level where the temperature is lower, the the- maker and user of refractories. It is
molten glass is absorbed by the porous frequently in evidence nowadays, and when
block and interaction between glass and the maker of refractories has adequate
clay will occur inside the block at a tempera-
knowledge of the physical and chemical
ture below the melting point of the glass. properties of his raw materials and products,
The physical properties of that portion of and the user h^s adequate knowledge of the
the block will be materially altered and there
conditions existing throughout his furnaces,
will be a consequent spalling aw&y of the then the way is clear for proper specification
face of the block and the rafe of wear will or selection.
be accentuated as the fresh surface of porous
block is exposed tó the glass. Sorqe of the
(1). The Testing oí Keiractories, Sheffield
wear of tank -blocks both at and below the Society of .Engineers and Metallurgy s. Oct. 1922.
(2). Trans. Geram. Soc. 1918. 17. 360.
metal level is due to mechanical erosion (3). Tech. .Papers bureau of Stds. U.S.A. 1912.
No. 7.
by the moving glass. Wear of this, type, as Soc. Glass Tech.* 1919. 3. 201.
(4). Trans.
well as actual chemical corrosion, may be (5). 'u. Trans. Coram. Soc. 1923.
(6). Trans.- Ceram. Soc. 1916. 16. 268.
retarded by the use of well -burned fireclay (7). See also Harvey and Moore, Trans. Amer.
Ceram. Soc. 1921. 6. 488.
blocks of low porosity. (8). Trans. Ceram. Soc. 1918. 18. 230.
The higher temperatures which are (9). Trans. Ceram. Soc. 1918. 18. 536.
(10). Trans. Amer. Inet. Min. Eng. 1917, 119, 2047.
necessary for the satisfactory development (11). Trans. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 1921. 1. 47.
of some of the modern metallurgical opera- (12). Geological Survey. Special Reports, Vol.
xvi.
tions are causing attention to be directed to (13). Green. Trans. Ceram. Soc. 1922. 394.
refractory materials with higher melting (14). Trans. Cerťťm. Soc. 1918, 18. 431.
(15). Journ. Soc.i'Öhem. Ind.' 1910. 29. 69.
points than those normally employed. In(16). See Bees. Journ. Soc. Glass Tech. 1922. 6.
181-204.
some of these cases the higher initial cost (17). See Coffin. Trans. Amèr. Inst. Min. Eng.
of such special refractories as those made of496.
1919.

carborundum, fused alumina, zirconium

silicate and sillimanite may be more than DISCUSSION.
offset by the greater durability obtained.
The author has recently been examining the The Chairman (Mr. H. J. C. Johnston),
behaviour of zirconium' silicate as a re- in opening the discussion, said for the greater
fractory. It appears to be free from the part of Mr. Rees* paper he had been wondering
what he could say in the way of criticism of
tendency to form the cSarbide in the the paper, because, of course, remarks in the
presence of carbon monoxide at high form of praise were rather a useless mode of
temperature which has militated against discussion. He was sorry that Mr. Rees had
the use of zirconium oxide. The success or not amplified further in his paper the idea of
failure of these special refractories dependsjudging refractories by service. Mr. Rees had
entirely on their durability factor in pounds,introduced that idea in# the early part of the
shillings and pence. paper, and had stated that it was going to be
his text, but he had departed a little from that
The prolongation of the life of furnace
text, and had discussed other ways of judging
linings by the application of cooling devices refractories. It was a text, however, which
to the external surfaces has been demon-
required impressing upon both manufacturers
strated by the application of water-cooling and users- particularly users - of refractories
to the blast furnace and the open hearth in this country. Thè idea of buying refractory

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Match 30, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 349

materials for their initial cost, or even on arch of a furnace when powdered fuel was being
laboratory test, was one which ought to go used.
by He would like to know how one could
the board. tell whether a brick was going to be a good one
What had interested him most was the or not. Supposing one wanted to buy a brick
reference to coke ovens. He had followed for the arch of a furnace in which powdered
the paper very carefully", and had noticed fuel wasthatgoing to be used, what would one go
by in selecting such a brick ? That was a
in every other part of it Mr. Rees had supported,
by data or by lantern slides or tables,problem which he had been up against several
the state-
ment^ which he had made, but scientific times.gentle-
He had been recommended bricks, and
men, when they had not the data with whichthem, but they had proved to be
had bought,
to support their assertions, gave it useless. as theirIf Mr. Rees could tell him any way of
4 4 expressed opinion," and that wassaying whatbeforehand
Mr. that a brick of a certain
Rees had done in connection with the use of definite qualification would be best for the
silica bricks for coke ovens. He was bound job, he would be grateful.
to say that he did not think the data atThe part of the paper which interested him
present
available (and many coke oven managers most inwere
relation to the particular work in which
of the same opinion) justified Mr. Rees' he wasstate-
engaged, was that part of which, unfortu-
ments, particularly in view of Mr. Rees' nately,own
not much had been heard that night,
remarks as to silica bricks containing a high
namely, the part which dealt with the higher
degreé of quartz conversion. It wasrefractories.
rather The fire-brick which* one used in
daring of him to have put slides on the screen
a steel melting furnace, and so on, was what he
Which showed 95 per cent, of tridymite, or melting point material. It used
called a low
even 16 per cent, of tridymite. He did not to be called a high melting point material,
know where Mr. Rees found silica bricks with but now, in dealing 'with metals like tungsten
that high percentage of tridymite. They had which had a melting point of 3200°, or molyb-
denum which had a melting point of 2500°,
been heard about in scientific papers read before
the Ceramic Society and other similar Bodies. one got into a higher range of temperatures,
The members of the Ceramic Society had had and wanted refractories to match. A certain
a very illuminating contribution some years amount of progress had been made, but so far
ago by two scientists mentioned in the paper, we had not been able to get those refractories
namely, Cobb and Holdsworth, in which thoseat all satisfactory. Great results had been
gentlemen stated that they had examined promised some time ago from Zirconia, but
commercial samples of every silica brick in the drawback to that was that it very easily
the country, and that they had been unable to formed carbide. One trouble appeared to be
find any commercial silica brick containing with the bonding. His own experience of
any trace of tridymite. That statement was refractories had been somewhat disappointing.
recorded in the transactions of the Ceramic He had been hung up for a long time for a
Society, and therefore it was not much refractory
use which would obey the conditions
which he required. He wanted a refractory
Mr. Rees, or anyone else, saying that coke ovens
could be successfully constructed with a which class would stand a temperature of 1800°C.
of bricks which did not exist. which would not be porous to metals under a
head of molten metal of one foot, and which
Mb. Charles R. Darling, F.Inst.P., F.I.C., at the same time was not a very good conductor
said one thing which had struck him in theof electricity when hot. Those were, perhaps,
paper had been the very great progress which very exacting conditions for a refractory, but if
had beôn made in the method of attacking theanyone knew of a refractory which would obey
problems connected with refractories. He them, he would very much like to hear of it.
remembered some years ago attending the
Conference on Refractories promoted by the He had been deeply interested in the work
Faraday Society during the war. Some of the which Mr. Rees had been doing on zirconium
methods then suggested as being desirable forsilicate as a refractory which appeared to be
solving refractory problems had evidently free from the tendency to form carbide. He
now become standard laboratory practice, and did not carry in his mind the melting point of
he could not but think that very great value zirconium silicate, but he did know that he had
would result from approaching the problem, tried some small experiments in bonding it
not in the rule-of-thumb manner - not by and he had never been successful in getting a
satisfactory bond. He thought that that might
merely putting a brick into a furnace and seeing
what happened to it - but by going about it have helped him in solving the problem he was
in a proper scientific way. working on, but he had not been able to get a
There was one point about which he wouldsatisfactory bonding. He did not know if
like to ask Mr. Rees a question, and that was Mr. Rees had made experiments on the bonding
of zirconium silicate so as to shape it, not in mere
in regard to the bricks which were covered over
with a glaze and were thereby protected. bricks, but into shaped refractories, such as
That was in connection with bricks subjected tubes or muffles. He should much like to know
to hot dust and ash, such, for example, as the what bond could be used.

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 360 JOURNAL OF THE RÖYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. March 86,

The only other matter to which Withhe would

regard to Mr. Darling's difficulty in
refer was the difficulty that one had
getting inrefractory
a single this made up to a specified
country in getting a refractoryshape,
madehe didup to athe point of view of the
not think
specified shape. One was generally met was
manufacturer withquite appreciated; Manu-
the statement that if a gross were
facturersordered,
were sometimes asked to make impos-
it would be done, but as only one
siblyor two
small werethings for experiment.
and intricate
required for research purposes the manufac-
Only that afternoon a firm in his imftkediate
turers would not look at it. Whenever he had- district in Yorkshire had asked him to make them
been compelled to get a refractory he regretted
some cast-iron pipes in silica ! He had better
to say that he had been driven out of this not mention the name of the firm, because it
country and had had to go abroad to obtain had
it. been before the British public for quite
He did wish that refractory makers in this a long time. They had asked him to quote
country would give a little more help in that for some piping in silica which was absolutely
direction, even if it meant a little sacrifice, the prototype of a cast-iron pipe which was
and thus assist in matters which might proveusually made by Newton Chambers. There was
of very considerable utility. He quite agreed to be a flange similar to that seen in gas pipes ;
with what Mr. Rees had said - that the higherthe diameter inside was to . be 3 to 4 inches ;
refractories might come out cheaper in the endthe pipes were to be 9 ft. long, and were to have
even perhaps than silica bricks. If one found a junction, and probably at the finish the order
a higher refractory which would stand a tem- would have been for about six of those pipes.
perature well over 2,000°, working at 1,600° it The cost of the mould and the work entailed in
would last indefinitely if its other properties making those pipes would have been enormous.
were good. It would have the same type of life If, however, manufacturers were > approached,
which a silica fire-brick now had in a re- heating in the right way, and were told in a straight-
furnace. It therefore did not follow that, forward manner that the things- were required
because those higher refractories might be for experimental purposes, although there
costly to produce, they would really be might be no commercial, advantage in it,
expensive in the end. He was very glad Mr, he was certain that they would be only too
Rees had put that point of view forward. His willing to give every assistance in the matter.
owi^ belief was that the future of all such work
lay with the higher refractories, and not with the Mr. Walter C. Hancock remarked that
ones which would only just stand up to their job. it was about ten years ago since he had had the
pleasure of reading before the Society a paper
Mr. W. J. Gardner said he did not wish to entitled 4 'The Physical Properties of Clay,"
make any criticisms upon the paper, but he did and» it was astonishing to see the enormous
desire rather to attack the Chairman's remarks. advances which had been made since that time
When the Chairman said that it was expected, in the scientific examination of refractory
under the new form, that a brick should be made materials. There were very few points in. the
solely of tridymite, and, as the manufacturers paper on which he could offer any criticism.
could not make it with tridymite, it was there- The paper was extremely sound all through, and
fore a failure, he thought the Chairman was considering the time at his disposal, the author
making a statement which could not be sub- had covered 'a tremendous amount of ground.
stantiated. Mr. Rees had not put forward He noticed in one of the tables which the author
that statement at all. He did not think that gave that there were increasing temperatures
gentleman was so foolish as to imagine that any at which the bricks were re-fired, and 'ie had
manufacturer was out for making a tridymite noticed the increased resistance to compression.
brick, but he believed it was a fact which had That opened up a question of the greatest
already been demonstrated that if the manu- interest in the actual manufacture of refractories,
facturers could make a silica brick, at any ratenamely, whether it was always satisfactory to
with a larger amount of cristobalite in it, with turn out material from the works with a single
the quartz changing from its alpha-beta state firing, and whether it might not be advisable
into anything like 75 or 80 of cristobalite, theyto subject them to a second or even a third,
did get beyond the possibilities of even the verybecause it . was known conclusively that the
best fireclay materials which were on the market properties of the material were widely effected
to-day. by re-heating. The table which the author
With regard to coke ovens, he thought Mr. gave of the effect of the coal ash upon silica
Rees would agree with him when he said that, bricks, was one which, at the present time, should
-if in the walls of a coke oven a lining of silica attract a considerable amount of attention.
materials was placed which was highly converted, It was well-known that coals were now being
anything up to 75 or 80 per cent., which was used in this country with a very mucji higher
not tridymite but cristobalite, results would be proportion of ash than had been the case some
obtained from that lining which would confer years ago, and the whole question of the chemical
much greater benefits than those which would effect of the fuel ash on the refractories concerned
be derived from the very best fireclay lining was one of increasing importance at the present
that bad ever been produced. day. In the particular case which the author

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Starch 90, 1923. JOURNAL OF ТНК ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 351

cited, the effect upon the refractory was

to help mostthe British Research Association
forward
marked under reducing conditions, which was now a very live body. Anyone
and probably
the explanation of that lay in the fact that
interested the
in refractories should take an interest
in thewas
refractory which was more affected Refractories
the Research Association, as
one with the higher content of iron it ;was
and only
under
by an Association of that description
reducing conditions one came up there against
that research men could get what they required,
one of the greatest enemies • of theand refractory
that the industry, which was a basic industry,
manufacturer and user, namely, the could
production
continue to prosper.
of a fusible ferrous-silicate. The whole question
of the relationship between the refractory
Mr, Johnon Armstrong enquired of the author«
the one band and various materials of furnace
with regard to his proposition to line coke-
charge on the other was one which was sufficient
ovens with silica bricks, how did that act when
to tax the ingenuity of almost any chemist
one was using wet sludge from the waeheries ?
who attacked it, because the secondary products
Did it affect those silica bricks in the same way
formed were also extraordinarily complicated
as it did fire-clay bricks ? He remembered
in their гэ- action with the original refractory.
that some years ago he had visited some coke
ovens and had seen some first-class fire-clay
Mb. J. Holland said it struck him that the blocks taken out of the oven, where they . had
been
most important part of the paper was subjected to wet coal, and they had been
that
all cracked on the surface, like a crocodile hide.
in which the author put forward the suggestion
that it would be in the interests of the refractories The cracks were sometimes an inch in depth.
industry if there was closer co-operation betweenThey had been taken out from the bottom of
the user and the manufacturer. He himself the ovens. He had been wondering if the same
«poke purely from a manufacturer's point effect would
of not be produced in course of time
view. It had been said that sufficient progress upon silica bricks. He had been a furnace
had. not been made in the manufacture of designer for the last 30 years, and he had come
refractories. He maintained that the manu- across some badly designed furnaces. He
facturers of refractories had made infinitely thought it was not the manufacturer of the
refractories who was altogether to blame :
more progress than had the users of refractories,
it was sometimes the builder of the furnaces
and that while manufacturers had taken
advantage to a very large extent of the scientific
who used the refractories very badly. One cf
the chief causes of difficulty was the use of an
knowledge which had been placed before them
in thé laöt seven or eight years, users had kind
inferior not of fire-clay for bonding the bricks
availed themselves of that knowledge. What together. He had seen first-class fire-bricks
was required was that the author and his put into a furnace, but they had been practically
washed out of the furnace owing to inferior
colleagues should go round the steel works and
do a little missionary work, and tell the people fire-clay having been used to bond them
how to use the remarkably good stuff which together. He sympathised with Mr. Darling's
they were getting to-day. Mr; Darling had complaint about not being able to get things
made to order. He had found the same difficulty
referred to the bonding of zirconium silicate. He
himself. He remembered having made an
believed there were innumerable patents in .
invention for putting wire inside glass, but he
Germany for the bonding of zirconium silicate,
had not been able to get a specimen made in
but it was not the bonding of ziwohium oxide Great Britain. In the end he had had to take
or . any zirconium bonding that mattered.
That was only part of the matter. The a glass works himself and make the specimen.
One bar to scientific progress in this country
principal thing was the burning. In addition
was the difficulty experienced of manufacturers
to the bonding of the material, it had to be
not helping the scientists.
burned right. There was no difficulty whatever
in bonding zirconium silicate, but there was a
very big difficulty in burning, and there was aMr. G. M. Gill said as a user, of refractory
material, he quite agreed with the author in
bigger difficulty in burning one or two pieces,
because if one was going to bum a few pieces his
of remarks about the need for co-operation
zirconium silicate one had to spoil 19,000 between the manufacturer and the user, but
other pieces in order to do it. There was he must say that in his 20 years' experience
no manufacturer of refractories who was not in gas works he had never had a request
willing to do all he could to help research.madeItby any manufacturer to be allowed to
come and see his material pulled out. Any
was to everybody's interest to help research,
but when a manufacturer was asked to do a manufacturer would be welcome in any gas
•certain thing, from which he would get works in order to see how his material stood
possibly
5s. Öd,, and which might cost him £13 in actual
to do use.
it, For many years the material
he asked himself whether he could possibly used in gas works had not been good
undertake it. No private individual could helpenough for the work it had to do. He did not
research at such a sacrifice as that. Therefore, say that that was the fault of the manufacturer ;
it was up to everybody interested in the subjectbut there was no doubt that in gas works

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 362 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. ^arcfc so, ШЗ.

what was wanted was somethingThe which

Author,would,
in reply, said he had, perhaps,
stand a higher temperature under load.definite
been'rather • Many in his statements with regard
of the tests which had been quoted to thereferred
use of silica bricks
to in coke ovens, but the
refractoriness, and . that was not under practice
American "load, had shown definitely that
which was, he thought, very deceptive, silica brick was a satisfactory material . f ç>r the
because one saw very high figures stated, and building of coke ovens. Recent German experi-
ence had shown conclusively that the silica
the user put the materials in thinking they werè
going to stand his working temperatures, but brick was a satisfactory material for the building
his working temperatures were for refractoriesof coke ovens for coking salty coals, washed
under load, and such refractories would have coals and wet sludges. Experimental work ,
which had been conducted on a large scale
to stand in the modern gas works about 1,370°C.
Quite a lot of material used in gas works to-day
in this country, where repairs had been made in
would not stand up to that ; it shrank greatlyexisting ovens - repairs made in silica^- had
owing to after-contraction and to softeningdemonstrated conclusively that the silica brick
under load. What was wanted was a much did what it was claimed it would do.
larger quantity of material which would Mr.stand
Darling had asked how one would select
working temperatures of 1,370°C under bricksload.
for powdered fuel. The important
Quite three-fourths of a retort setting needed
factors were first of all the design of the particular
that class of material. He would like to ask type of furnace; secondly, the composi-
the author what was the best material for the tion of the fuel ash ; and thirdly, the .exact
linings of furnaces where the material came temperature at which the particular powdered
in contact with clinker tools at reasonably fuel furnace had been working. He had himself
high temperatures and where a good deal of been surprised at the high temperatures which
' clinker formation was experienced. were obtained underneath the arch of an efficient
Babcock boiler. A few : months ago he had
Mr. W. Temple Gardner said the last measured with an optical pyrometer tempera-
speaker had mentioned the question of tures in the arch of a Babcock boiler, and right
refractory
materials under load. He could sayinfrom hisof the arch the temperature of that
the centre
experience that there was hardly efficient a fire-clayfurnace was over 1600°C., and that
brick in this country to-day whichtemperature would stand was maintained continuously. A
a temperature under load of more than about question had been asked as to the melting
1,300° 0. continuously ; that was, when the point of the bonding of zirconium silicate.
whole brick was heated throughout its length, That had already been answered to some
breadth and height. Semi-silica materials would extent. The melting point was well ; over
stand up to aboút 1,400° С., and straight-lined 2,000°C. He himself had found that quite
bond silica materials would stand 1,500° C. satisfactory bonding could be obtained by the -
and above. Mr. Darling had raised the question use of a slightly impure zirconium: silicate.
of the effect of the glaze on the surface of The most satisfactory bonding with zirconium
refractory materials. He thought the special silicate was obtained by bonding with exceed-
reference had been to the use of the ash from ingly finely ground zirconium silicate - quite
powdered fuel. He had had a certain amount an impalpable powder - and then firing at a
of experience in that direction, and he could high temperature. The temperature of the •
say that the two chief factors were the com- firing must be, under those conditions, exceed-
position of the ash and the temperature. He ingly high, ccrtainly over 1700°C. Then
had known straight fire-clay bricks stand mechanically strong articles could be made.
temperatures up to 1,500* C. and 1,600° C. in The question as to coke ovens and wet slack
the presence of fluxed fuel ash, when an elevationhe had answered. Silica bricks were . certainly
of, say, 100° beyond that temperature would not more affected by the water dripping from
result in the complete destruction of the brick wet slack than the best of other types of; coke
due to the solution of the brick in the molten oven brick. In comparing coking conditions
fuel ash, whereas at 100° lower the ash would, in this country and America, in America
form a glaze on the surface of the brick and the coking was mainly all drv coal coking
protect it from further attack. With regard whereas in this country it was mainly wet coal
to the bonding of zirconium silicate, the best coking. So far as observation went, and
bond was the natural impurity in the zirconium experiment indicated, the properly . made silica
silicate, plus a good high temperature for firing. brick withstood those rather severe conditions
If the bricks were fired to a moderate in the coke oven, coking wet slack quite well.
temperature, say, 1,300° C., then the bond It depended altogether upon the constitution
did not fuse or give a strong brick. At 1,400° tof the silica brick. Mr Gill had referred, to
one got a fairly strong brick, but one wantedthe use of material in gas works. There was
to get round about 1,600° before one brought no question at all that for efficient modern gas
out the fluxing properties of the impurities, works practice silica was the ideal r.efraotory,
and then one did really get a strong brick from provided the silica was properly made and
zirconium silicate. properly burned. He had not much hesitation

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 March 30, im. JOURNAL OF THE BOYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 363

in predicting that within a measurable He did much useful work in the House of Lords,
time
- within the next generation at least - the and in 1909 he was appointed Chairman of the
majority of gas works would be no longer Committee on Indian Emigration to the Crown
«conservative but would have gone over to the Colonies.
«se of that highly efficient material. No one who ever met Lord Sanderson could
fail to be impressed with his unfailing courtesy
and kindness. During his long and varied
OBITUARY. career he had met with many men whose names
are now historical, and his conversation was
Lord Sanderson, G.C.B. - Lord Sanderson,
enriched with graphic descriptions and amusing
-whose death took place on the 21st inst., at theanecdotes of them. Those who had more
age of 82, was a very old member of the Society, intimate acquaintance with him also knew th
haying been elected in 1879 under interesting his benevolence was as great as his courtesy,
and unusual circumstances, which he mentioned
and that he was always ready to help any one
in his first address as Chairman of the Council.in difficulties even at considerable cost and
He could not, he remarked on that occasion, trouble.
refrain from expressing his gratitude to Edward
Henry, fifteenth Earl of Derby, a former Vice-
Tresident, who, knowing the propensity of his MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY
private secretary for science, and being desirous, Ordinary Meetings.
=as he said, of making an additional donation to
the funds of the Society, proposed Mr. Sander- Wednesdays at 8 p.m., except where
son for membership and paid his life sub- otherwise stated : -
scription. Lord Sanderson took a deep
interest in the Society's proceedings. In 1910 April 11 (at 4.30 p.m.). - Edward Par-
he was elected a member ©f the Council ; in nell, " Sarawak : its Resources and Trade."
the following two years he served as Chairman ;Capt. Bertram Brooke, Tuan Muda of
in 1915, as a Treasurer, and thenceforward Sarawak, will preside.
up to the time of his death he continued to be April 18 (at 4.30 p.m.). - Hal Williams,
a Vice-President of the Society, attending theM.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., M.I.Struct.E.,
meetings of the Council as long as the state of
"Modem Abattoir Practice and Methods of
his health permitted him to do so, and fre- Slaughtering." W. PhenÉ Neal, Alderman
quently presiding at meetings of the Society of the City of London, late Chairman of
And taking part in the discussions. the Cattle Markets Committee .of the Cor-
Thomas Henry Sanderson was born in
1841 and educated at Eton. At the age of poration, will preside.
18, he entered the Foreign Office as a junior April 26 (at 4.30 p.m.). - Conference on
•clerk. He soon attracted the notice of his 4 4 The Milk Question." Short papers will
•superior officers by his conscientious devotionbe read as follows : - (1) Professor R.
-to his duties, by his sound judgment, his diplo-Stenhouse Williams, M.B., B.Sc., L.R.C.P.
matic Bkill, and the reputation for Foreign
•Office lore which he soon began to acquire.
and S.E., D.P.H., 4 'The Arguments for
In consequence of these gifts he was selected Maintaining an Open Market for Fresh
rfor much special work ; thus he was attachedMilk ; " (2) Professor J. Cecil Drummond,
-to Lord Wodehouse's Special Mission to the D.Sc., F.I.C., 4 'Changes in the Digestibility
King of Denmark in 1863-4 ; he was Assistantand Nutritive Value of Milk induced by
Protoč olis t for conferences on the AffairsHeating;" (3) S. S. Zilva, Ph.D., D.Sc.,
•of Denmark, and on the Black Sea ; he was F.I.C., " The Effect of Heat on some
"private secretary to Sir Henry Layard in 1866; Physiological Principles in Milk." A Demon-
Assistant Agent of H.M. Government at Genevastration of some of the Chemical Changes in
in the arbitration on the Alabama claims
Milk on Heating to various Temperatures
in 1871, and private secretary successively to
the then Earl of Deťby and the late Earl Gran- will be given by Captain John Golding,
D.S.O., F.I.C. and Mrs. A. T. R. Mattick.
ville whilst they were Secretaries of State
M.Sc. The Right Hon. F. D. Acland,
-for Foreign Affairs. In 1885 he was appointed
Senior Clerk of the Foreign Office, and in M.P., will preside.
1894 permanent Under-Secretary of State May 2. - Maurice Drake, 4 4 The Four-
teenth Century Revolution in Glass Paint-
■for Foreign Affairs, which post he held until
his retirement in 1906. • _ > î
mg. _
In recognition of his public services, Mr. MAy 9. - William Arthur Bone, D.Sc.,
Sanderson was made K.C.M.G. in 1887, K.C.B, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemical
in 1893, G.C.B, in 1900, while in 1905 he was
Technology, Imperial College of Science and
raised to the peerage as Baron Sanderson
«f Armthorpe. In 1907 the University ofTéchnology, South Kensington, 4 'Recent
Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L.Developments in Surface Combustion."

This content downloaded from

182.255.0.242 on Wed, 09 Mar 2022 09:39:55 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms