BODY TISSUE

OUTLINE II. MICROSCOPY OF HUMAN TISSUE

I. Histology ● To be viewed under a microscope, tissue must be:
II. Microscopy of Human Tissue
III. Types of Tissue ○ Fixed -Tissue is preserved with solvent
A. Epithelial Tissue ○ Sectioned -Cut into slices thin enough to transmit
i. Functions of Epithelia light or electrons
ii. Classification of Epithelia ○ Stained -To enhance contrast, although artifacts
iii. Types of Epithelial tissue
iv. Major Types of Glands Develop (distortions) detract from what the sample looks like
From Epithelial Sheets in living tissues
B. Connective Tissue ● Light microscopy with used colored dyes
i. Functions of Connective Tissue ● Electron microscopy uses heavy metal coatings.
ii. General Features of Connective Tissue
iii. Connective Tissue Cells
iv. Extracellular Matrix III. TYPES OF TISSUE
v. Classification of Connective Tissue A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
C. Muscle Tissue
i. Types of Muscle Tissue ● Epithelial tissue or epithelium is the lining, covering,
D. Nervous Tissue and glandular tissue of the body.
IV. Tissue Membrane ○ Covering and lining epithelium covers all free body
V. Tissue Damage and Inflammation
VI. Tissue Repair
surfaces, both inside and out, and contains versatile
VII. Aging and Tissues cells.
VIII. Developmental aspects of Cells and Tissue ○ Epithelium forms the boundaries that separate us
I. HISTOLOGY from the outside world, nearly all substances.
● Tissue i. Functions of Epithelia
○ Groups of cells similar in structure that perform ● Protection
common or related tissues ○ Protecting underlying structures.
○ The four primary tissue types epithelial, connective, ● Absorption
nervous, and muscle tissues interweave to form the ○ Absorbing substances.
fabric of the body. ● Filtration
○ Tissues are organized into organs such as the ○ Permitting the passage of substances.
heart, kidneys, and lungs. ● Secretion
○ Secreting substances.
ii. Classification of Epithelia
● Each epithelium is given two names.
○ The first indicates the number of cell layers it has.
Simple epithelium - one layer of cells

Figure 4.2 Simple epithelium

Stratified epithelium - more than one cell layer)

○ The second describes the shape of its cells.

Figure 4.1 Types of tissues

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 1
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

● A single layer of thin squamous cells resting on a

basement membrane.
○ The cells fit closely together, much like floor tiles.
○ This type of epithelium usually forms
membranes where filtration or exchange of
substances by rapid diffusion occurs.
● Simple squamous epithelium is in the air sacs of the
lungs - alveoli.
● It also forms serous membranes or serosae - the slick
membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover
the organs in that cavity.
Figure 4.3 Stratified Epithelium
Squamous - flattened like fish scales

Figure 4.4 Squamous

Cuboidal - cube-shaped like dice
Figure 4.8
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
● One layer of cuboidal cells resting on a basement
membrane, is common in glands and their associated
small tubes called ducts
● It also forms the walls of the kidney tubules and covers
the surface of the ovaries.
Figure 4.5 Cuboidal
Columnar cells - shaped like columns

Figure 4.9
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Figure 4.6 Columnar ● Made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely together.
○ Goblet cells - which produce a lubricating mucus
● Simple columnar epithelium lines the entire length of the
digestive tract from the stomach to the anus.
○ Mucosae or mucous membranes - body
cavities open to the body exterior.

Figure 4.10
Figure 4.7 Epithelial Tissue Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
iii. TYPES OF EPITHELIA ● All of the cells s\of pseudostratified columnar epithelium rest on
Simple Squamous Epithelium a basement membrane.

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 2
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

● Some of them are shorter than others and appear at different ○ Secretion, typically contains protein molecules in an
heights. aqueous (water-based) fluid
○ False (pseudo) impression ● Also indicates an active process in the glandular cells.
● Mainly functions in absorption and secretion.
iv. Major Types Of Glands Develop From Epithelial
Sheets
● Endocrine Glands
○ Lose their ducts, thus they are often called ductless
glands.
○ Their secretions diffuse directly into the blood vessels that
weave through the glands.
○ Examples:
● Thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary.
● Exocrine Glands
○ Retain their ducts.
● Their secretions exit through the ducts to the epithelial
surface.
Figure 4.11
○ Examples:
Stratified Epithelia
● Sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas (Both
● Consist of two or more cell layers.
internal and external)
● More durable than the simple epithelia
● Function primarily in protection.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
● Is the most common stratified epithelium in the body.
○ It usually consists of many cell layers.
○ The cells at the free edge are squamous cells, whereas
those close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or
columnar.
● Found in sites that receive a good deal of abuse or friction.

Figure 4.12

Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar

● Stratified Cuboidal
○ Typically has just two cell layers with the surface face cells
being cuboidal in shape.
● Stratified Columnar epithelium
○ Are columnar cells, but its basal cells vary in size and
shape.
● Both of these epithelia are fairly rare in the body, found mainly
in the ducts of large glands.
Transitional Epithelium
● Is a highly modified, stratified squamous epithel;ium that forms
the lining of only a few organs.
○ Urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra.
○ Considerable stretching.
● Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal or columnar.
● When the organ is not stretched, the membrane is many-
layered, and the superficial cells are rounded and domelike.
● The ability of these cells is to slide past one another and
Figure 4.13
change their shape.
Glandular Epithelium B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● A gland consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a ● It binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues.
particular product. ● Protects and insulates internal organs.
● Compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles
● Serves as the major transport system within the body (blood, a

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 3
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY
fluid connective tissue).
● The primary location of stored energy reserves (adipose, or fat,
tissue); and is the main source of immune responses.
i. Functions of Connective Tissue
● Connective tissue performs the following major functions:
1. Enclosing and separating other tissues.
a. Sheets of connective tissue form capsules around
organs, such as the liver and the kidneys.
b. Connective tissue also forms layers that separate
tissues and organs.
c. For example, connective tissues separate muscles,
arteries, veins, and nerves from one another.
2. Connecting tissues to one another.
a. Tendons are strong cables, or bands, of connective
tissue that attach muscles to bone, and ligaments are
connective tissue bands that hold bones together.
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body.
a. Bones of the skeletal system provide rigid support for
the body, and semirigid cartilage supports structures,
such as the nose, the ears, and the surfaces of joints.
Joints between bones allow one part of the body to
move relative to other parts.
4. Storing compounds.
a. Adipose tissue (fat) stores high-energy molecules, and
bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphate.
5. Cushioning and insulating.
a. Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissues it
surrounds and provides an insulating layer beneath the
skin that helps conserve heat.
6. Transporting.
a. Blood transports gases, nutrients, enzymes,
hormones, and cells of the immune system throughout
the body
7. Protecting.
a. Cells of the immune system and blood provide
protection against toxins and tissue injury, as well as
against microorganisms. Bones protect underlying
structures from injury.
ii. General Features of Connective Tissue
● Connective tissue consists of two basic elements: extracellular
matrix and cells.
○ A connective tissue’s extracellular matrix is the material
located between its widely spaced cells.
● The extracellular matrix consists of protein fibers and
ground substance, the material between the cells and
the fibers.
● The extracellular fibers are secreted by the connective
tissue cells and account for many of the functional
properties of the tissue in addition to controlling the
surrounding watery environment via specific
proteoglycan molecules
● The structure of the extracellular matrix determines
much of the tissue’s qualities.
● For instance, in cartilage, the extracellular matrix is firm
but pliable. The extracellular matrix of bone, by
contrast, is hard and inflexible.
iii. Connective Tissue Cells
● Embryonic cells called mesenchymal cells give rise to the cells
of connective tissue.
● Each major type of connective tissue contains an immature
class of cells with a name ending or suffixes: -blast, -cyte, or -
ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT
clast.
○ -blast, which means “to bud or sprout.”
● create the matrix
● Blast cells retain the capacity for cell division and
secrete the extracellular matrix that is characteristic of
the tissue.
● Osteoblasts (osteo-, bone) form bone, osteocytes
maintain it, and osteoclasts break it down.
● Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective
tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
● Chondroblasts form cartilage (chondro-, cartilage),
and chondrocytes maintain it.
○ -cyte
● maintain it
● In cartilage and bone, once the extracellular matrix is
produced, the immature cells differentiate into mature
cells.
● namely, fibrocytes, chondrocytes, and osteocytes.
○ -clast
● break it down for remodeling
● Also found in connective tissue are cells associated with the
immune system.
○ Macrophages (makros - large + phago - to eat) are large
white blood cells that are capable of moving about and
ingesting foreign substances, including microorganisms in
the connective tissue.
○ Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release chemicals, such
as histamine, that promote inflammation.
● Mature cells have reduced capacities for cell division and
extracellular matrix formation and are mostly involved in
monitoring and maintaining the extracellular matrix.
● The types of cells in connective tissue vary according to the
type of tissue and include the following:
1. Fibroblasts (fibro- fibers)
a. are large, flat cells with branching processes.
b. Fibroblasts migrate through the connective tissues,
secreting the fibers and certain components of the
ground substance of the extracellular matrix.
2. Macrophages (macro- large; -phages eaters)
a. develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell.
b. Macrophages have an irregular shape with short
branching projections and are capable of engulfing
bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis.
c. Fixed macrophages reside in a particular tissue;
examples include alveolar macrophages in the lungs or
splenic macrophages in the spleen.
d. Wandering macrophages have the ability to move
throughout the tissue and gather at sites of infection or
inflammation to carry on phagocytosis.
3. Plasma cells
a. are small cells that develop from a type of white blood
cell called a B lymphocyte.
b. Plasma cells secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or
neutralize foreign substances in the body.
c. Thus, plasma cells are an important part of the body’s
immune response.
d. Although they are found in many places in the body,
most plasma cells reside in connective tissue,
especially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.
e. They are also abundant in the salivary glands, lymph
nodes, spleen, and red bone marrow.
4. Mast cells
a. are abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply
connective tissue.
4
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY
b. They produce histamine, a chemical that dilates small
blood vessels as part of the inflammatory response, the
body’s reaction to injury or infection.
c. Mast cells can bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria.
5. Adipocytes
a. also called fat cells or adipose cells, are connective
tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats).
b. They are found deep to the skin and around organs
such as the heart and kidneys.
6. Leukocytes (white blood cells)
a. are not found in significant numbers in normal
connective tissue.
b. In response to certain conditions they migrate from
blood into connective tissue.
i. For example, neutrophils gather at sites of
infection, and eosinophils migrate to sites of
parasitic invasions and allergic responses.
2. Ground Substance
Figure 4.14
iv. Extracellular Matrix
● The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has three major
components: (1) protein fibers, (2) ground substance.
● The structure of the matrix is responsible for the functional
characteristics of connective tissues—for example, they enable
bones and cartilage to bear weight, tendons and ligaments to
withstand tension, and the skin’s dermis to withstand
punctures, abrasions, and other abuse.
1. Protein Fibers of the Matrix
● Collagen (glue-producing) fibers
○ which resemble microscopic ropes, are very flexible
but resist stretching, but they are not stiff, which allows
tissue flexibility.
○ Collagen fibers often occur in parallel bundles.
○ The bundle arrangement adds great tensile strength to
the tissue.
○ Chemically, collagen fibers consist of the protein
collagen, which is the most abundant protein in your
body, representing about 25% of the total.
○ Collagen fibers are found in most types of connective
tissues, especially bone, cartilage, tendons (which
attach muscle to bone), and ligaments (which attach
bone to bone).
● Reticular fibers
○ (reticul- net), consisting of collagen arranged in fine
bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, provide support
in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around
the cells in some tissues, such as areolar connective
ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT
tissue (areol = small space), adipose tissue, nerve
fibers, and smooth muscle tissue.
○ Produced by fibroblasts, reticular fibers are much
thinner than collagen fibers and form branching
networks.
○ Reticular fibers are plentiful in reticular connective
tissue, which forms the stroma (supporting framework)
of many soft organs, such as the spleen and lymph
nodes.
○ These fibers also help form the basement membrane.
● Elastic fibers
○ which are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers,
branch and join together to form a fibrous network
within a connective tissue.
○ have the ability to return to their original shape after
being stretched or compressed, giving tissue an elastic
quality.
○ This tissue stretches like a rubber band in response to
force and recoils when relaxed.
○ An elastic fiber consists of molecules of the protein
elastin surrounded by a glycoprotein named fibrillin,
which adds strength and stability.
○ Because of their unique molecular structure, elastic
fibers are strong but can be stretched up to 150% of
their relaxed length without breaking.
○ Elastic fibers are plentiful in skin, blood vessel walls,
and lung tissue.
● is the component of a connective tissue between the cells
and fibers.
● Ground substance consists of non fibrous protein and other
molecules.
● Contains water and an assortment of large organic
molecules, many of which are complex combinations of
polysaccharides and proteins.
○ The polysaccharides include hyaluronic acid,
chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan
sulfate.
Hyaluronic Acid
○ is a viscous, slippery substance that binds cells
together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the
shape of the eyeballs.
○ White blood cells, sperm cells, and some bacteria
produce hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks
apart hyaluronic acid, thus causing the ground
substance of connective tissue to become more
liquid.
○ The ability to produce hyaluronidase helps white
blood cells move more easily through connective
tissue to reach sites of infection and aids
penetration of an oocyte by a sperm cell during
fertilization.
○ It also accounts for the rapid spread of bacteria
through connective tissue.
Chondroitin Sulfate
○ provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage,
bone, skin, and blood vessels.
Dermatan Sulfate
○ The skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves
contain dermatan sulfate.
Keratan Sulfate
○ The bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye
contain keratan sulfate
● Also present in the ground substance are adhesion
5
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

proteins, which are responsible for linking components of

the ground substance to one another and to the surfaces of
cells.
○ The main adhesion protein of connective tissues is
fibronectin, which binds to both collagen fibers and
ground substance, linking them together.

v. Classification of Connective Tissue

Figure 4.16

● Mature connective tissue

○ Connective Tissue Proper
● Loose connective tissue
- Softer, have amore cells and fewer fibers than
other connective tissue .(except blood)
- are loosely arranged between cells.
- consists of relatively few protein fibers that form a
lacy network, with numerous spaces filled with
ground substance and fluid. T
○ Areolar connective tissue
- most widely distributed connective
tissue
● Embryonic connective tissue - Soft, pliable tissue like "cobwebs"
○ Mesenchyme - Location: Beneath all epithelial tissues
- Irregularly shaped mesenchymal cells embedded - Function: Universal packing tissue and
in semifluid ground substances that contain "glue" to hold organs in place.
delicate reticular fibers. - All fiber types form a loose network.
- Location: Under skin and along developing bones
of an embryo. Some in adults connective tissue
and blood vessels.
- Function: Forms almost all other types of
connective tissue.
-

Figure 4.15

○ Mucous connective tissue

- Widely scattered fibroblast embedded in viscous,
jellylike ground substances that contain fine
collagen fibers.
- Location: umbilical cord
- Function: support

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 6
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

cell.
- Location: Liver, spleen,and lymph
nodes.
- Function: Form support( framework)of
soft organs.

Figure 4.17

○ Adipose connective tissue

- Has cells derived from fibroblast called
adipocytes.(Fat cells)
- Location: Under skin and surrounding
organs
- Function: Store lipids for fuel and
thermal insulation; cushioning organs.

Figure 4.19

● Dense connective tissue

- Main matrix element is collagen fiber.
- Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers.

○ Dense regular connective tissue

- Location: Forms ligaments (connects bone to
bone),tendons(connects muscle to
bone),and aponeuroses ( sheet like tendons
that connect muscle to muscle or muscle to
bone).
- Function: Resist pulling forces to attachment
points.

Figure 4.18

○ Reticular connective tissue

- Delicate network of interwoven fibers

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 7
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

- Location: Lungs, trachea, and bronchi

aorta and other elastic arteries.
- Function: Allows respiratory organs to
recoil after inhalation. Recoil of elastic
tissue helps push blood through the
cardiovascular system.

Figure 4.22

○ Supporting Connective Tissue

● Cartilage
- Less hard and more flexible than bone.
- Found in only two places in the body .
- Chondrocyte(cartilage cell) is the major cell type.
- Repair and Growth of Cartilage
Figure 4.20 ○ Metabolically, cartilage is a relatively inactive
tissue that grows slowly.
○ Dense irregular connective tissue ○ When injured or inflamed, cartilage repair
- Location: Skin proceeds slowly, in large part because
- Function: Resist pulling forces from cartilage is avascular.
many different directions that would tear ○ Substances needed for repair and blood cells
skin when skin is stretched. that participate in tissue repair must diffuse or
migrate into the cartilage.
● Interstitial Growth
○ there is growth from within the tissue.
○ The cartilage increases rapidly in size
due to the division of existing
chondrocytes and the continuous
deposition of increasing amounts of
extracellular matrix by the chondrocytes.
○ This growth pattern occurs while the
cartilage is young and pliable, during
childhood and adolescence.
● Appositional Growth
○ there is growth at the outer surface of the
Figure 4.21 tissue.
○ When cartilage grows by appositional
○ Elastic connective tissue growth, cells in the inner cellular layer of

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 8
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

the perichondrium differentiate into - Location: cartilage pads in knee pubic

chondroblasts. symphysis.
○ Appositional growth starts later than Function: cushioning
interstitial growth and continues through - Location: Pubic symphysis
adolescence. - Function: Forms strong, flexible joints
○ Hyaline cartilage between hip bones.
- Location: End of long bones(articular
cartilage)
Function: Smooth surface that is resilient
and reduces friction at joint.
- Location: trachea and bronchi
Function: Provide support and flexibility
to ensure an open airway.
- Location: anterior end of ribs (costal
cartilage)
Function: Connect ribs to sternum with
flexible joint.
- Location: embryonic skeleton
Function: Provides template for bone
formation.

Figure 4.24

○ Elastic cartilage
- Provides elasticity
- Location: External ear, auditory tube,
epiglottis of larynx
- Function: Support and maintain shape of
external ear, support and elasticity to
auditory tube and epiglottis.

Figure 4.23
○ Fibrocartilage
- Location: Intervertebral disc
Function: Provide strength to discs that
form joints between vertebrae and act as
shock absorbers.

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 9
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

Figure 4.25

○ Fluid Connective tissue

● Bone tissue
○ Composed of osteocytes sitting in lacunae.
○ Hard matrix of calcium salts; house red bone
marrow, which produces blood cells; and contain
yellow bone marrow, a storage site for
triglycerides.
○
○ Large numbers of collagen fibers.
○ Function: Support, protection and storage of
minerals.
○ Two types:
● Spongy (Interior of bones)
○ lacks osteons.
○ It consists of columns of bone called
trabeculae is little beams), which contain
lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, and
canaliculi.
○ Spaces between trabeculae are filled
with red bone marrow.
● Compact( Exterior of bones)
○ Is an osteon or haversian system
○ Each osteon has four parts:
1. Lamellae (lamellae = little plates;
singular is lamella)
a. are concentric rings of extracellular
matrix that consist of mineral salts
(mostly calcium and phosphates), Figure 4.26
b. which give bone its hardness and
compressive strength, and collagen ● Liquid connective tissue
fibers, which give bone its tensile ○ Blood
strength. - Blood cells surrounded by a fluid matrix
c. The lamellae are responsible for the known as blood plasma.
compact nature of this type of bone - Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting.
tissue. - Function: Act as the transport vehicle for the
2. Lacunae cardiovascular system, carrying
a. as already mentioned, are small nutrients,waste, respiratory gases.
spaces between lamellae that ● Blood Plasma
contain mature bone cells called ○ is a pale yellow fluid that consists
osteocytes. mostly of water with a wide variety of
3. Canaliculi dissolved substances: nutrients,
a. Little canals wastes, enzymes, plasma proteins,
b. Projecting from the lacunae hormones, respiratory gases, and
c. networks of minute canals ions.
containing the processes of ○ is located in the liquid part of
osteocytes. arteries, veins and capillaries. It
d. Canaliculi provide routes for transports nutrients, blood gases,
nutrients to reach osteocytes and for wastes, chemical messengers,
wastes to leave them. blood cells and platelets.
4. Central Canal Or Haversian Canal ○ Suspended in the blood plasma are
a. contains blood vessels and nerves formed elements—red blood cells
(erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes), and platelets

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 10
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

(thrombocytes) ○ Latin word mus, means "little mouse"

● Red blood cells
○ transport oxygen to body cells and
remove some carbon dioxide from
them.
○ are formed elements of blood in
arteries, veins and capillaries.
○ Transport of blood gases.
● White blood cells
○ Attack pathogens and
substances.
○ Formed element of blood in arteries,
veins and capillaries.
■ Platelets
○ Participate in blood clotting.
○ Formed element of blood in arteries,
veins and capillaries.
● Function
○ To contract or shorten
○ Responsible for all body movements
○ “Machines” of the body
i.Three Types of Muscle Tissue
1. Skeletal Muscle
● Also known as striated stripes (obvious stripes) and as
voluntary muscle (conscious control)
other ● Attached to the skeleton and pulled on bones or skin.
● Produces gross body movements or facial expressions
● It is a multinucleate (more than one nucleus) and it is long
and has cylindrical shape.
Take note:
○ These are the keywords in remembering skeletal
muscle tissue: skeletal, striated, and voluntary
● Important Roles in the Body
○ Produce movement - it responds quickly to every
change.
○ Maintain Posture and Body Position - it maintains an
erect or seated posture.
○ Stabilize joints - especially those with poor articulating
surfaces such as the shoulder and knee joints.
○ Generate Heat - the muscle activity generates heat in
which this heat is vital in maintaining normal body
temperature.

Figure 4.28

2. Cardiac Muscle
● It is striated, uninucleate, and involuntary.
● It is found in the heart, where it forms the bulk of the heart
walls.
● Pumps blood through blood vessels
● Short with branching cells and has intercalated disc that
contain gap junctions to connect cells together
Take note:
Figure 4.27 ○ These are the keywords in remembering cardiac
○ Lymph muscle tissue: cardiac, striated, and involuntary
● is the extracellular fluid that flows in
lymphatic vessels.
● It is a liquid connective tissue that consists of
several types of cells in a clear liquid
extracellular matrix that is similar to blood
plasma but with much less protein.

C. MUSCLE TISSUE
● Muscle

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 11
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

Figure 4.29
3. Smooth Muscle
● It has no striations and is involuntary (we cannot
consciously control it)
● It is found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs
such as the (stomach, urinary bladder, uterus, blood
vessels and respiratory passages.
● Has peristalsis, a wavelike motion to keep the food from
moving
● Has spindle-shaped cells
Take note: Figure 4.31
○ These are the keywords in remembering smooth
muscle tissue: visceral, nonstriated, and involuntary D. NERVOUS TISSUE
● The main components of nervous system are brain,
spinal cord, and nerves
● Function:
○ Regulates and controls body functions
○ Receives and conducts electrochemical impulses to
and from parts of the body
● Irritability - the ability to convert stimulus to a
nerve impulse
● Conductivity - ability to transmit impulse to a
target
● Made up of two specialized cells
○ Neurons: specialized nerve cells that generates and
Figure 4.30 conduct nerve
ii. Common Locations in the Body ○ Neuroglia: supporting cells that insulate,
protect and support neurons

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 12
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

Figure 4.34

Figure 4.32 Nervous tissue
IV. TISSUE MEMBRANE
● a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a
cavity
● Most membranes consist of epithelium and the connective
tissue on which the epithelium rests.
● There are four tissue membranes in the body, one external and
three internal.
○ The external tissue membrane is the skin, or cutaneous
membrane (It is composed of stratified squamous
epithelium and dense connective tissue).
○ The three internal tissue membranes are mucous, serous,
and synovial membranes.
Cutaneous Membranes
● skin covers the entire surface of the body and consists of a
superficial portion called the epidermis and a deeper portion
called the dermis.
● The epidermis consists of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium, which protects underlying tissues.
● The dermis consists of dense irregular connective tissue and
areolar connective tissue.
Figure 4.33 Layer of Skin
Serous Membranes
● Serous - producing watery secretion
● line cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body such
as the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
● Consist of three components: a layer of simple squamous
epithelium, its basement membrane, and a delicate layer of
loose connective tissue.
● Serous membranes do not contain glands, but they secrete a
small amount of fluid called serous fluid, which lubricates the
surface of the membranes.
Figure 4.35
● Serous membranes protect the internal organs from friction,
help hold them in place, and act as a selectively permeable
barrier to prevent large amounts of fluid from accumulating
within the serous cavities.
Synovial Membranes
● line the cavities of freely movable joints.
● They are made up of only connective tissue and consist of
modified connective tissue cells.
● Synovial membranes are either continuous with the dense
connective tissue of the joint capsule or separated from the
capsule by areolar or adipose tissue.
● Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid, which makes the
joint very slippery, thereby reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint

Mucous Membranes
● line cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as
the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
● Consist of epithelial cells, their basement membrane, and a thick
layer of loose connective tissue.
● Contain goblet cells or multicellular mucous glands that secrete
mucus. Figure 4.36
● Function is for protection, absorption, and secretion.
● Mucous membranes also line the nasal passages. When it
becomes inflamed, we experience the “runny nose”
characteristic of the common cold or an allergy.

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 13
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY
Figure 4.37
(a) Mucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside and
often contain mucous glands, which secrete mucus.
(b) Serous membranes line cavities that do not open to the
exterior, do not contain mucous glands, but do secrete serous
fluid.
(c) Synovial membranes line the cavities that surround synovial
joints.
V. TISSUE DAMAGE AND INFLAMMATION
● Inflammation (flamma, flame)
○ occurs when tissues are damaged.
○ For example, when viruses infect epithelial cells of the
upper respiratory tract, inflammation and the symptoms of
the common cold are produced.
○ Inflammation can also result from the immediate and painful
events that follow trauma, such as closing your finger in a
car door or cutting yourself with a knife.
○ Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and isolates
and destroys microorganisms, foreign materials, and
damaged cells so that tissue repair can proceed.
○ Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
● Redness
● Heat
● Swelling
● Pain
● Disturbance of function
ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT
Figure 4.38
1. A splinter in the skin causes damage and introduces
bacteria. Chemical mediators of inflammation are released
or activated in injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels.
Some blood vessels rupture, causing bleeding.
2. Chemical mediators cause capillaries to dilate and the skin
to become red. Chemical mediators also increase capillary
permeability, and fluid leaves the capillaries, producing
swelling (arrows).
Figure 4.39
3. White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils) leave the dilated blood
vessels and move to the site of bacterial infection, where
they begin to phagocytize bacteria and other debris.
● Following an injury, substances called chemical mediators
are released or activated in the injured tissues and adjacent
blood vessels.
● The mediators include histamine and prostaglandins.
● Some mediators cause dilation of blood vessels, which
produces redness and heat.
○ Dilation of blood vessels is beneficial because it
increases the speed with which blood cells and other
infection-fighting and repair-inducing substances are
brought to the injury site.
● Chemical mediators of inflammation also increase the
permeability of blood vessels, allowing materials and blood
cells to move out of the vessels and into the tissue, where
they can deal directly with the injury.
● Edema or swelling, of the tissues
14
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY
○ results when water, proteins, and other substances
from the blood move into the tissues.
● One of the proteins, fibrin, forms a fibrous network that
“walls off” the site of injury from the rest of the body.
○ This mechanism can help prevent the spread of
infectious agents.
● One type of blood cell that enters the tissues is the
neutrophil, a phagocytic white blood cell that fights
infections by ingesting bacteria.
○ Neutrophils die after ingesting a small number of
bacteria; the mixture of dead neutrophils, other cells,
and fluid that can accumulate is called pus.
● Pain
○ associated with inflammation is produced in several
ways.
○ Nerve cell endings are stimulated by direct damage
and by some chemical mediators to produce pain
sensations.
○ In addition, the increased pressure in the tissue caused
by edema and pus accumulation can cause pain.
○ Pain, limitation of movement resulting from edema, and
tissue destruction all contribute to the disturbance of
function, which can be adaptive
● because it warns the person to protect the injured
area from further damage.
Chronic Inflammation
● Chronic, or prolonged, inflammation
○ results when the agent responsible for an injury is not
removed or something else interferes with the healing
process.
○ Prolonged infections, or prolonged exposure to irritants, can
result in chronic inflammation, which could lead to the
replacement of normal tissue by fibrous connective tissue.
○ The loss of normal tissue leads to the loss of normal organ
function.
○ Consequently, chronic inflammation of organs, such as the
lungs, liver, or kidneys, can lead to death.
● When the inflammatory response lasts longer or is
more intense than is desirable, drugs are sometimes
used to suppress the symptoms by inhibiting the
synthesis, release, or actions of the chemical
mediators of inflammation.
● For example, medications called antihistamines
suppress the effects of histamine released in people
with hay fever.
● Aspirin and related drugs, such as ibuprofen and
naproxen, are effective anti-inflammatory agents that
relieve pain by preventing the synthesis of
prostaglandins and related substances.
VI. TISSUE REPAIR
● Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two ways:
1. REGENERATION
● Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
2. FIBROSIS
● Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar tissue)
- Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
A. Type of tissue damaged
B. Severity of the injury
- Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than ragged
tears of the tissue
ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT
- Events of tissue repair
a. Inflammation sets the stage
● Capillaries become very permeable
● Clotting proteins migrate into the area
from the bloodstream
● A clot walls off the injured area
b. Granulation tissue forms
● Growth of new capillaries
● Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and
fibroblasts
● Rebuild collagen fibers
c. Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent
repair
● Scab detaches
● Whether scar is visible or invisible
depends on severity of wound
1. Tissues that regenerate easily
● Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
● Fibrous connective tissues and bone
2. Tissues that regenerate poorly
● Skeletal muscle
3. Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
● Cardiac muscle
● Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
VII. AGING AND TISSUE
● All vital organs begin to lose some function as you age
during adulthood.
AGING CHANGES
● All cells experience changes with aging. They become larger
and are less able to divide and multiply. Among other changes,
there is an increase in pigments and fatty substances inside the
cell (lipids). Many cells lose their ability to function, or they begin
to function abnormally.
● As aging continues, waste products build up in tissue. A fatty
brown pigment called lipofuscin collects in many tissues, as do
other fatty substances.
● Connective tissue changes, becoming more stiff. This makes
the organs, blood vessels, and airways more rigid. Cell
membranes change, so many tissues have more trouble
getting oxygen and nutrients, and removing carbon dioxide and
other wastes.
● Many tissues lose mass. This process is called atrophy. Some
tissues become lumpy (nodular) or more rigid.
● Cell and tissue changes, your organs also change as you age.
Aging organs slowly lose function.
AGING
● Is a complex process that varies as to how it affects different
people and even different organs.
● Most gerontologists (people who study aging) feel that aging is
due to the interaction of many lifelong influences.
● These influences include heredity, environment, culture, diet,
exercise and leisure, past illnesses, and many other factors.
VIII. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND
TISSUES
15
 TRANS: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

● Very early in embryonic development, cells begin to division and multiply wildly, an abnormal mass of
specialize to form the primary tissues, and by birth, proliferating cells
most organs are well formed and functioning. The ○ May benign or malignant
body continues to grow and enlarge by forming new B. Hyperplasia
tissue throughout childhood and adolescence. ○ Certain body tissues (or organs) may enlarge
CELL DIVISION because there is some local irritant or condition that
● Extremely important during the body’s growth period. stimulates the cells.
● Most cells (except neurons and mature red blood C. Atrophy
cells) undergo mitosis until the end of puberty, when ○ Decrease in size
adult body size is reached and overall body growth ○ Can occur in an organ or body area that loses its
ends. normal stimulation.
● After this time, only certain cells routinely divide (are
mitotic)—for example, cells exposed to abrasion that
continually wear away, such as skin and intestinal
cells.
● Liver cells stop dividing, but they retain this ability
should some of them die or become damaged and
need to be replaced.
● Still other cell groups (for example, heart muscle and
nervous tissue) almost completely lose their ability to
divide when they are fully mature; that is they become
amitotic.
● Amitotic tissues are severely handicapped by injury
because the lost cells cannot be replaced by the
same type of cells. This is why the heart of an
individual who has had several severe heart attacks
becomes weaker and weaker.
● Damaged cardiac muscle does not regenerate and is
replaced by scar tissue that cannot contract, so the
heart becomes less and less capable of acting as an
efficient blood pump.
AGING PROCESS
● The aging process begins once maturity has been REFERENCES
reached. ➢ Notes from the discussion by Mr. Dan David Vale Cruz
● No one has been able to explain just what causes ➢ Gerard J. Tortora, (2014), Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology, 14th Edition
aging, but there have been many suggestions.
➢ Notes from the discussion by Ms. Annie M. Ramos RMT, RN.
● There is no question that certain events are part of MD
the aging process. For example, with age, epithelial ➢ Marieb, E., (12th Edition) .Essentials of Human Anatomy and
membranes thin and are more easily damaged, and Physiology
the skin loses its elasticity and begins to sag. ➢ Aging changes in organs, tissues, and cells. (n.d.).
● The exocrine glands of the body (epithelial tissue) MedlinePlus. Retrieved March 26, 2021, from
become less active, and we begin to “dry out” as less https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004012.htm
oil, mucus, and sweat are produced.
● Some endocrine glands produce decreasing amounts
of hormones, and the body processes that they
control (such as metabolism and reproduction) slow
down or stop altogether.
● Connective tissue structures also show changes
with age.
● Bones become porous and weaken, and tissue repair
slows.
● Muscles begin to waste away.
● Although a poor diet may contribute to some of these
changes, there is little doubt that decreased efficiency
of the circulatory system, which reduces nutrient and
oxygen delivery to body tissues, is a major factor.
A. Neoplasm
○ When cells fail to honor normal controls on cell

ABAD, ABUEG, AGRAMON, ALGO, DULDULAO, EVANGELISTA, MOJICA, DE OCAMPO, OGENEA, SARMIENTO, SELENDRON | LEVEL 1 MT 16