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Baker’s yeast production and applications

Introduction
Humans have consumed cereals since prehistoric times. In Mesopotamia, baked pastes of ground
grain were consumed, while, in Egypt, leavened bread was prepared. For thousands of years,
humans were unaware of the existence of yeasts but were able to use them not only for
breadmaking but also for brewing. The fundamental role of yeasts and bacteria in fermentation
processes was only discovered in the last century by Pasteur. Soon after this, Hansen established
the use of pure cultures for brewing and baking. Until that time, bakers used spent brewer’s yeast
for leavening, or seeded the fresh dough with a small part of already leavened dough. The
commercial production of yeast for baking purposes started after about 1850, and since then,
yeast technology has grown into a highly productive and economic industry. ‘Yeast’ in this
article refers solely to the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The Organism
Baker’s yeast is a biotype of S. cerevisiae that can metabolize sugars both aerobically, producing
the end products carbon dioxide and water, and anaerobically, producing ethanol and carbon
dioxide. Thus, baker’s yeast can be propagated in large quantities under aerobic conditions, and
the cell mass added to dough can produce carbon dioxide under various conditions to leaven
bakery products. These are the fundamental properties of baker’s yeast that render it
indispensable to the production of bread. Through this century-old application, many specific
requirements have been imposed by the producer and the user, and strains have been selected
with improved properties to meet these requirements. The strains used today are able to
reproduce rapidly under strong aeration and limited nutrient supply. The yeast cells show
remarkable tolerance to various storage conditions, and survive drying. Baker’s yeast possesses
strong fermentative activity and flavor development in various conditions of processing.
Production
There are at least four major steps in the manufacture of baker’s yeast: preparation,
fermentation, separation, and packaging (Figure 1).
Preparation
The manufacture of baker’s yeast starts in two separate areas: in the laboratory with the
propagation of a pure yeast culture, and in the factory with the preparation of the fermenters and
the nutrient medium.
In the laboratory, where pure stock cultures are maintained, a small flask of sterile fresh culture

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is prepared after one or more subcultivations. This sample is then inoculated into the first pure
culture tank. Two or three tanks of increasing capacity from 50 to 400 l may be applied. The
yeast produced in an earlier stage is used to seed the next stage, while transfer is made under
sterile conditions. In these early stages of propagation, the main concern is to maintain purity.

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The pure culture fermenters are fed with sterile molasses medium supplemented with the
necessary growth factors, but aeration with filtered air is not at full capacity in the first batch
fermentation.

Figure 1. Flow chart for the production of baker’s

yeast.

Before the First World War, grain mash was used for the commercial propagation of yeast.
During the war, shortages of grain led to its replacement by molasses, a relatively cheap
byproduct of cane and beet-sugar production. Since then, molasses has become the traditional
source of carbon and energy for yeast growth. It is usually fortified with a source of nitrogen,
minerals and growth factors. Nitrogen is added in the form of ammonia, its salts, or urea;
phosphorus is supplied in the form of phosphoric acid or ammonium phosphate. Depending on
the composition of the raw molasses, certain growth factors, most frequently biotin, are also
added to the wort. The concentrated molasses is diluted, purified, supplemented with other
nutrients, and sterilized before use.
Fermentation

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Baker’s yeast is usually produced in a multiple-stage process. During scale-up, strong aeration
and incremental feeding are introduced. Full-scale fermentation is conducted in large (100 m 3 or
larger) tanks. There is a great variation in the size and shape of fermenters. However, in their
design, an important requirement is to insure maximum aeration, because it is the oxygen
transfer that is usually the rate limiting factor in yeast propagation. Mechanical and sparger

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aeration systems are generally used. During the aerobic growth of yeast, a considerable amount
of heat is liberated, and an efficient cooling system is also an integral part of the fermenter. The
strict demands for hygiene determine the overall construction of the fermenter and the materials
used therein. Facilities for cleaning in place are always integrated.
After cleaning and disinfection, the fermenter is fed with water, in which the pure seed yeast is
suspended, then mixed with wort, and the propagation starts with vigorous aeration. Baker’s
yeast ‘fermentation’ is a typical fed-batch process in that, after commencing the propagation,
nutrients are fed incrementally, maintaining at all times a very low sugar concentration at full
aeration. The protocols for nutrient feed rate, temperature, pH, and aeration are specifically set
up and strictly controlled to optimize yield, productivity, and product quality. Special attention is
paid to prevent underaeration, which leads to excessive alcohol formation and a decrease in
productivity. Instrumental process control and automation are necessary to produce baker’s yeast
economically. Adequate sensors and computer applications now make it possible to control the
most sophisticated fermenter systems. Baker’s yeast producers, however, have to consider the
baking quality (stability and activity) of the product, which can be attained at the cost of
productivity. As a satisfactory compromise, at the final stage of fermentation, nutrient feeding is
stopped, and aeration is continued for about an hour. During this ripening period, the properties
of baker’s yeast are improved. Nitrogen starvation increases stability, but fermentative activity
decreases. At the end of a typical fermentation, the yeast solid content may vary between 3 and
8%, which means a yield of about 20 000–30 000 kg of fresh yeast in one batch propagation at
28–30 °C for 12–18 h.
Efforts to introduce continuous fermentations on a commercial scale have remained
unsuccessful. Although continuous systems can be maintained at a maximum yield, a good
product quality can be achieved only with propagation regimes that do not easily lend themselves
to continuous culture. Moreover, the problem of preventing contamination raises the cost and
makes the process economically unfeasible.
Separation and Filtration
At the end of each fed-batch propagation period, the yeast cells are recovered from the spent
medium by centrifugation. Water wash is applied between two passages through centrifugal
separators. A yeast cream is obtained with 18–20% dry weight, which can be stored in agitated
tanks at 2–4 °C for a few days without any loss of quality.
The yeast cream is further concentrated by filtration on rotary vacuum filters or filter presses.
Filtration yields a yeast cake of about 27–30% dry matter content.

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Packaging
After filtration, the yeast cake is mixed with oils, emulsifiers, and a small amount of water, then
compressed and extruded into blocks, or granulated for bulk distribution. The oil and emulsifiers
improve product appearance and aid the formation of blocks (extrusion, cutting).

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The Product
Compressed Yeast
This is the form of baker’s yeast produced by the process outlined above. Compressed yeast is
the traditional form of baker’s yeast, which is available to wholesale bakers in 0.5–2.0-kg blocks,
while smaller (10–50 g) blocks are prepared for households. Compressed yeast wrapped with
waxed paper and stored at 4 °C keeps for a few weeks. A granulated pressed cake form of the
same product packed in 10–20-kg bags can also be prepared for large-scale bakeries.
Compressed yeast cells are alive. They use their reserve carbohydrates (glycogen, trehalose) for
energy to survive. Storage under refrigeration retards metabolism, and wrapping inhibits drying
out. Under improper storage conditions, deterioration processes (autofermentation, autolysis)
may start, resulting in heat build-up and loss of yeast activity.

Dried Yeast
In a dried form, baker’s yeast possesses a longer shelflife than compressed yeast. Dried yeast
retains stability even when stored at room temperature. It offers benefits by reducing the cost of
refrigeration, transport and storage, but drying increases the expenses of the manufacturer. The
disadvantage for the user arising from the lower activity of heat stressed cells is compensated by
the ready availability of dried yeast. In all, there is an increasing preference and a growing share
in the market for dried yeast. There are two forms of dried yeast. The first, introduced about 50
years ago, active dried yeast (ADY) needs to be rehydrated in warm water before use. Developed
only in the last decade, instant dried yeast (IDY) does not require rehydration and can be mixed
directly with flour in making dough. The early procedures of yeast propagation for drying are
basically similar to those of the traditional baker’s yeast fermentation. However, specific yeast
strains selected to withstand drying stresses are used, and the final stages of propagation are set
in order to increase yeast resistance to drying. The feeding schedule and maturation period are
controlled to produce yeast with lower protein but higher trehalose and lipid contents.
Preparation of the yeast for drying begins with extrusion of the compressed yeast cake into
slender strands (1–3-mm diameter) that are cut into short pieces. These particles are dried in a
hot air current; the early procedure of tunnel drying has been mostly replaced by tumble or
rotating driers and, increasingly, by fluidized bed driers. Only the latter are suitable for the
production of IDY. Airlift driers employ a blast of hot air at a velocity sufficient to suspend the
yeast particles in a fluidized bed. Air temperatures of 160 °C can be used for quick drying but,
after loss of the free cell water content (at about 35% moisture), temperatures should not exceed

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40 °C in order to minimize cell-membrane damage and reduction of enzyme activity. Cells are
rapidly killed at temperatures exceeding 50 _C.
Themoisture content of ADY ranges from6 to 8%, whereas that of IDY is only between 4 and
6%. ADY possesses only one-third to one-half of the leavening activity of fresh compressed
yeast (Table 1). The instant drying procedure allows the production of yeast with a leavening
activity comparable with that of compressed yeast.

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Table 1 Main characteristics of commercial baker’s yeast products

ADY can be stored without refrigeration. During storage, ADY loses its activity by 1% per
month if packed under vacuum or under nitrogen. On storage in air at ambient temperature, the
loss of activity is faster. In order to restore activity, rehydration of ADY should be carried out by
adding warm (40 °C) water to the yeast in a 4:1 ratio. During rehydration, 20–30% leakage of
intracellular materials occurs, which leads to a loss of fermentation activity. A further
disadvantage of this leaching is that it releases reducing substances, such as glutathione, which
may cause slackening in the dough.
IDY particles are highly porous and easy to rehydrate. This allows immediate use without prior
rehydration. However, air may also access the cells, resulting in rapid oxidation and loss of
activity. Hence, IDY must be packed under vacuum or in a nitrogen atmosphere, and must be
used within a few days after opening the package.
Addition of a variety of agents to the yeast cake prior to drying can improve activity and stability
of dried yeast. Emulsifiers (e.g., 1% sorbitan esters) facilitate rehydration of IDY, and
antioxidants (e.g., 0.1% butylated hydroxyanisole) increase the stability of ADY.

Applications
The application of baker’s yeast is indispensable to the production of leavened baked products,
such as breads, rolls, pastries, doughnuts, etc. Recipes and technologies for these products vary
world-wide, but the essence of the process is the same, in that after mixing flour, water, yeast,
salt, and optional ingredients, the dough undergoes panary fermentation before baking. The
primary role of baker’s yeast in the baking industry will be illustrated using as an example the
predominant product, white bread.
Breadmaking
Conventional breadmaking technology involves sponge dough. This dough comprises about two-
thirds of the total flour mixed with water, salt, and yeast, and is left for a fermentation period of

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4–5h. The sponge is then added to the balance of flour, water, and all remaining ingredients and
thoroughly mixed mechanically until it is transformed into a smooth dough. The characteristic
rheological properties of the dough are due to the structure of gluten, a cross-linked network
formed from wheat proteins and lipids. This allows the elasticity of dough to retain gas evolved
by yeast and thus to leaven.
The dough undergoes a series of mechanical operations (divided into pieces, rounded, and
moulded) while being allowed to rest between these procedures for short periods. During these

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proofing periods, fermentation proceeds, and leavening continues. After the final proof, loaves
are placed into a hot oven for baking. Within the loaf, gas expands, steam and alcohol evaporate
to form holes in the coagulated matrix of gluten, and the characteristic structure of the crumb
sets. While the temperature in the center of the loaf remains below 100 °C, the surface reaches
140 °C, to form a hard, brown colored crust. The baked bread is left to cool before the finishing
operations (slicing, wrapping) and distribution.
The conventional sponge dough technology requires about 8 h to finish, and several alternative
methods have been developed to shorten this period (Table 2). In the straight dough method, all
the ingredients are mixed at the start, and one bulk fermentation period of 2–4 h is allowed for
leavening. In the short-time dough process, only 15–30 min are allotted for the dough to rest,
and intense mechanical working brings about the structure of the dough. Time is also saved by
the continuous mix processes, in which a ferment or brew is first prepared from yeast with little
or no flour (liquid ferment), and after about 2 h of fermentation, the dough is mechanically
developed in a continuous mixer. Bulk fermentation of the dough can be replaced by intense
mechanical working and/or the addition of chemical improvers in other process variants.
Improvements in equipment design have brought about savings in labor, better control and
automation, effective sanitation, and greater processing flexibility of breadmaking technology.
Table 2. Schematic comparison of breadmaking processes

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Role of Yeast
Yeast plays three major functions in the dough: leavening, maturing, and flavor development.
Leavening: The increase of dough volume is due to the production of carbon dioxide during
yeast fermentation of the carbohydrates available in the flour. Dry flour contains approximately
1–8% fermentable sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose), whereas maltose is produced from starch
granules by wheat amylases after wetting the flour.
Yeast has to adapt to the mostly anaerobic environment in the dough as well as to the
fermentation of maltose after depletion of available free sugars. Yeast also has to tolerate a
certain degree of osmotic pressure exerted by salt (and sugars, if added). The concentration of
solutes is higher at the first stage of dough preparation when only half of the regular water is
added. In certain formulae, sucrose or high-fructose syrup is used to sweeten the dough.
Increasing the osmotic stress not only reduces the fermentation rate but also induces glycerol
production.

Maturation: To some extent, both yeast itself and its fermentation activity play important roles
in developing the texture of the dough, called maturation. This involves complex changes,
including the mechanical forces of mixing leading to gluten formation. Carbon dioxide
developed during yeast fermentation would not produce gas cells without the ability of
viscoelastic gluten films to retain the gas. In fact, it is the air bubbles preformed in the dough
during mixing into which the carbon dioxide diffuses. The rheological properties of the dough
are influenced by the fermentation products (ethanol, pH decrease) in a way not yet clearly
understood. Reduced compound (e.g., glutathione) liberated from yeast cells may split the
disulfide bonds between gluten molecules, leading to the cleavage of the gluten structure.

Taste and Flavor: The characteristic and appealing bread aroma would not develop without
yeast. It is difficult to characterize the complex nature of bread aroma and to determine the
precise role of yeast fermentation in its development. More than 200 volatile compounds have
been identified by gas chromatography, and many of these organic esters and acids, alcohols, and
carbonyl compounds are formed as byproducts of yeast fermentation. Other compounds, such as
amino acids, originate from the yeast cells. In addition to fermentation, bread aroma is
determined by the process of baking, which leads to crust browning. This is a Maillard-type
reaction, and its extent is influenced by the fermentation products of
yeast and its cell constituents.

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Sour Dough
Before baker’s yeast was available commercially, part of leavened dough was added as an
inoculum to the fresh dough. Acidification normally took place in this old dough, hence the
name: sour dough. In recent years, consumption of sour-dough breads has greatly increased. The

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use of sour dough is necessary for the development of characteristic properties of rye breads.
Sour doughs contain both heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria and yeasts, and the mixed
population usually comprises several different species of both groups. Unlike baker’s yeast
consisting overwhelmingly of a single yeast species, S. cerevisiae, even commercial sour-dough
starters are not made of defined pure cultures. Lactobacillus brevis and L. sanfrancisco are
characteristic lactic acid bacteria in sour dough, whereas Candida milleri and S. exiguus are the
predominant yeast species.

Yeast Starter Cultures

While about 1.5 million tons of baker’s yeast are produced annually throughout the world, the
estimated production of yeast starter cultures is less then 1000 tons, although these are made
commercially in many countries. Wine starter cultures are used to initiate the fermentation of
must instead of a natural (spontaneous) process. The use of yeast starter cultures in wine-making
has increased strongly over the last decade. Freeze-dried or active dry yeast starters are made of
selected strains of various useful technological properties, such as a tolerance of high
concentrations of ethanol, sugar, and sulfur dioxide, low temperature, etc. Their use is also
advantageous in sparkling-wine production.
The use of dried yeast in breweries is not common, although it may offer advantages such as
yeast availability, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness in particular for producing specialty beers in
small quantities.

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What are the different types of yeast?

When it comes to yeast, there are 5 basic types of yeast ...

 Active Dry (Traditional) Yeast.

 Instant Yeast.
 Bread Machine/Pizza Yeast.
 Rapid Rise (or Quick Rising) Instant Yeast.
 Fresh Yeast.

CHXS OF YEAST
Yeasts are unicellular organisms that evolved from multicellular ancestors, with some species having
the ability to develop multicellular characteristics by forming strings of connected budding cells
known as pseudohyphae or false hyphae.

Why is Baker's yeast important?

Yeast not only leavens dough and gives it a light, sponge-like texture—it provides flavor, aroma and
contributes to the nutritional value of bread. Here's how it functions in bread, and boosts the benefits
of the final baked good.

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How is Baker's yeast made?
The baker's yeast is commercially produced on a nutrient source which is rich in sugar (usually
molasses: by product of the sugar refining). The fermentation is conducted in large tanks. Once the
yeast fills the tank, it is harvested by centrifugation, giving an off-white liquid known as cream yeast.

Baker's yeast
Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used in baking bread and other
bakery products, serving as a leavening agent which causes the bread to rise (expand and become
lighter and softer) by converting the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and
ethanol.

Baker's yeast is available in a number of different forms, the main differences being the moisture
contents. Though each version has certain advantages over the others, the choice of which form to use
is largely a question of the requirements of the recipe at hand and the training of the cook preparing it.
Dry yeast forms are good choices for longer-term storage, often lasting more than a year at room
temperatures without significant loss of viability. In general, with occasional allowances for liquid
content and temperature, the different forms of commercial yeast are considered interchangeable.

Cream yeast 

Cream yeast is the closest form to the yeast slurries of the 19th century, in essence being a suspension
of yeast cells in liquid, siphoned off from the growth medium. Its primary use is in industrial bakeries
with special high-volume dispensing and mixing equipment, and it is not readily available to small
bakeries or home cooks.

Compressed yeast 

Compressed yeast is, in essence, cream yeast with most of the liquid removed. It is a soft solid, beige
in color, and best known in the consumer form as small, foil-wrapped cubes of cake yeast. It is also
available in a larger-block form for bulk usage. [19] It is highly perishable; though formerly widely
available for the consumer market, it has become less common in supermarkets in some countries due
to its poor keeping properties, having been superseded in some such markets by active dry and instant
yeast. It is still widely available for commercial use, and is somewhat more tolerant of low
temperatures than other forms of commercial yeast; however, even there, instant yeast has made
significant market inroads.

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Active dry yeast 
Active dry yeast is the form of yeast most commonly available to non-commercial bakers in the
United States. It consists of coarse oblong granules of yeast, with live yeast cells encapsulated in a
thick jacket of dry, dead cells with some growth medium. Under most conditions, active dry yeast
must first be proofed or rehydrated. It can be stored at room temperature for a year, or frozen for more
than a decade, which means that it has better keeping qualities than other forms, but it is generally
considered more sensitive than other forms to thermal shock when actually used in recipes. A single
grain of active dry yeast. The numbered ticks on the scale are 230 µm apart

Instant yeast 

Instant yeast appears similar to active dry yeast, but has smaller granules with substantially higher
percentages of live cells per comparable unit volumes.[18] It is more perishable than active dry yeast but
also does not require rehydration, and can usually be added directly to all but the driest doughs. In
general, instant yeast has a small amount of ascorbic acid added as a preservative. Some producers
provide specific variants for doughs with high sugar contents, and such yeasts are more generally
known as osmotolerant yeasts. Rapid-rise yeast is a variety of dried yeast (usually a form of instant
yeast) that is of a smaller granular size, thus it dissolves faster in dough, and it provides greater carbon
dioxide output to allow faster rising. There is considerable debate as to the value of such a product;
while most baking experts believe it reduces the flavor potential of the finished product, Cook's
Illustrated magazine, among others, feels that, at least for direct-rise recipes, it makes little difference.
Rapid-rise yeast is often marketed specifically for use in bread machines

Deactivated yeast .

Deactivated yeast is dead yeast which has no leavening value and is not interchangeable with other
yeast types. Typically used for pizza and pan bread doughs, it is used at a rate of 0.1% of the flour
weight, though manufacturer specifications may vary. It is a powerful reducing agent used to increase
the extensibility of a dough. Difference between instant and active dry yeast[edit]

Instant and active dry yeast are essentially the same ingredient, just in slightly different forms and
applications. You should keep sealed packets of both yeast types at room temperature and store
partially used packets in an airtight container in the refrigerator. The main differences between the two
are:

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Active yeast needs rehydration. Instant yeast can be mixed directly into dry ingredients, whereas
active dry yeast must first be dissolved and rehydrated in warm water.

Instant yeast needs less time to rise. Since instant yeast has a finer texture than active dry yeast, it’s
possible to skip the initial rise time and shape loaves immediately after kneading. Loaves made with
active dry yeast require longer rising times for the yeast to work its way through the dough.

Commercial brands

For most commercial uses, yeast of any form is packaged in bulk (blocks or freezer bags for fresh
yeast; vacuum-packed brick bags for dry or instant); however, yeast for home use is often packaged in
pre-measured doses, either small squares for compressed yeast or sealed packets for dry or instant. For
active dry and instant yeast, in general a single dose (reckoned for the average bread recipe of between
500 g and 1000 g of dough) is about 2.5 tsp (~12 mL) or about 7 g (1⁄4 oz), though comparatively lesser
amounts are used when the yeast is used in a pre-ferment. In general, a yeast flavor in the baked bread
is not noticeable when the bakers' percent of added yeast is less than 2.5%.

Notable commercial brands of baker's yeast include Lesaffre's SAF red and SAF gold, Fleischmann's,
and Red Star Yeast.[

Model organism

Because it is readily available and easy to culture, baker's yeast has long been used in chemical,
biological, and genetic research as a model organism. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a facultative
anaerobe and undergoes aerobic fermentation in the presences of oxygen and sugars. In 1996, after 6
years of work, S. cerevisiae became the first eukaryote to have its entire genome sequenced. It has
over 12 million base pairs and around 6000 genes. Since then, it has remained in the forefront of
genetic research. For example, most of our knowledge of the cell division cycle was worked out from
experiments with yeast.

Organic synthesis

Reduction of a carbonyl to a hydroxyl with baker's yeast.

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Baker's yeast contains enzymes that can reduce a carbonyl group into a hydroxyl group in fairly high
yield, thus making it useful for biotransformations in organic syntheses. It is known to
reduce organometallic carbonyl compounds in very high yield. Baker's yeast can also be used to
produce ethanol via fermentation for use in chemical synthesis, although doing so in some places
requires permits.

Industrial production

The baking industry relies on industrial production of its ingredients, including baking yeasts. Much
effort has been put into developing and marketing yeasts that will perform reliably in mass production.
Since the end of the nineteenth century, baker's yeast has been produced by companies that specialize
in its production.

The main ingredients for industrial production are yeast cultures, sugar from cane and sugar beet; but a
number of minerals, nitrogen and vitamins are also needed. Fermentation happens in several phases,
which vary depending on the manufacturer: pure cultures in a laboratory flask for 2 to 4 days, then
batch fermentations for 13 to 24 hours (anaerobic);

 intermediate and stock fermentation with gradual feeding and constant aeration;
 pitch and trade fermentation with large air supplies for up to 15 hours;
 filtration, blending, extrusion, and cutting, drying.

The yeast grows from hundreds kg in the intermediate and stock fermentor to tens of thousands kg in
the trade fermentor, where most yeast is produced. The earlier stages produce more ethanol and other
alcohols, while in the final stages ethanol production is suppressed up to 95% by controlling the
amount of oxygen and sugar, in order to increase the yeast production instead. The industry is highly
concentrated, with 5 companies holding up to 80% of the worldwide market for dry yeast as of 2006.
While dry yeast is exported over long distances and mostly sold in the developing countries, industrial
customers often prefer to supply fresh yeast from local facilities, with a single wholesaler having up to
90% of the liquid yeast market in the UK in 2006. In USA companies like Lesaffre Group, AB Vista,
GB Plange and AB Mauri, produced hundreds of thousands of metric tons of yeast in 2012.

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