Polymer Composites Sustainability: Environmental Perspective, Future Trends and Minimization of Health Risk

2011 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Development
IPCBEE vol.4 (2011) © (2011) IACSIT Press, Singapore
Polymer Composites Sustainability: Environmental Perspective, Future Trends and

Minimization of Health Risk
V.P. Sharma, V. Agarwal, S. Umar and A. K. Singh

Developmental Toxicology Division
Indian Institute of Toxicology Research
(Council of Scientific & Industrial Research),
Lucknow, India
E mail ID: vpsitrc1@rediffmail.com
Abstract—Polymer science is an interdisciplinary field as it force driving the development of composites. They are made
involves the synthetic polymers, biopolymers, polymer up of two components namely the matrix or binder, which
characterization, designing and fabrication of new innovative surrounds and binds together a cluster of fibers or fragments
products related to safer and sustainable environment. of another component which is the reinforcing material or
Polymeric composite materials have the base matrix of filler. Composite materials are being used in a wide array of
polymers containing the reinforcement fillers and additives. applications viz. spacecrafts, defense products, biomedical
They have a wide array of applications ranging from implants [1], alternate building and construction materials [2]
packaging, spacecrafts, smart or specialized polymers to nano by virtue of their strength, stiffness and lightness. The in-
based textile material and biological implants. Different
service properties of the composite are largely dependent
polymers used as matrix material to prepare composites with
improved mechanical, thermal and electrical properties
upon the combination and the relative ratio of the matrix and
includes plastics of different constitution like polyester, the filler. By the proper selection of reinforcement and
polyamide etc. Growing public concern about environmental matrix material, manufacturers can produce properties that
pollution has led to development and design of biodegradable can exactly fit the requirements for a particular purpose. The
composite materials. Knowledge and implementation of novel material behavior, which for example combines a gain
relevant regulatory guidelines are vital from safety and in hardness with additional toughness, is based on the large
environmental viewpoint. New methods are being devised for proportion of inner boundary present in these materials.
polymerization using super critical CO2 along with additives. Polymer composite have replaced a variety of traditional
They have potential market applications along with the materials in different sectors by virtue of the desired
elimination of toxic moieties generated in conventional properties like light weight, durability, heat resistance,
manufacturing techniques. Green chemistry concepts may be reduced wear & tear, flexibility, chemical resistance and
utilized for eco-friendly materials and to minimize the toxic longer shelf life that can be achieved by making minor
implications of organic chemicals such as toluene, methylene alterations in their compositions.
chloride which pose potential risks to human health. The For long term benefits, the principles of sustainability
holistic and concerted efforts are needed for the development should be brought into action in the day-to-day operations
of new composites and requires a considerable commitment of effort and
for minimization of environmental impact of polymer resources. It is a comprehensive approach that balances
composite production. The life cycle assessment is of
financial, environmental and social considerations.
paramount importance at every stage of a product’s life from
initial synthesis to final disposal for a sustainable environment.
Innovative green products should be promoted that meet the
The regulatory assessment and monitoring procedures as per specific requirements of markets and consumers. The
the National/International guidelines are required to be modern sustainability parameters include use of renewable
reviewed wherever needed. They must be updated periodically resources, waste prevention, biodegradability, percent
depending upon the composition, intended usage conditions in recycled, transportation, price, health hazards, and energy
order to promote clean processing, applications, use. The modification of polymer composites by using nano
biodegradation, recycling and reprocessing. scale particles opens the door to new and extremely efficient
nanocomposites. Therefore the development of stable
Keywords: Polymer Composite; Environmental Sustainability; nanocomposites which can be easily processed is a
Green Chemistry; Regulatory Requirements; Biodegradation. preeminent task for the future. These technologies shall not
only fulfill our ecological but also our economic and social
I. INTRODUCTION needs. Their development is intrinsically tied to new
Plastic industry has a vast and yet unused potential for technologies which are made possible by advance research.
the sustainable formation of our economic, social and
ecological environment. Polymer composites mark the II. BIOBASED POLYMER COMPOSITES: A NEED FOR
beginning of a new era of the polymer industry towards the ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
sustainable development. In fact, the current demand for Polymers composites from renewable resources have
materials that are both light and strong has been the main attracted an increasing amount of attention over the last two
259
decades due to environmental concerns and rapidly depleting materials, furniture, electrical equipments etc. The level of
conventional energy resources [3]. Several studies have concentration may vary and thus there is a need of complete
reported the migration of polymer additives, unreacted understanding of mechanism of toxicity of such chemicals
monomers, catalyst remnants, polymerization solvents of low and the potential for additives and synergistic effects. The
molecular mass fractions from the synthetic composites in to R&D organizations around the globe are experimenting with
the packaged food materials with consequent toxic health plant based plastics with different properties, as alternatives
implications to the consumers. Polyvinyl based composites to lower the CO2 emissions and to reduce the use of
may release dioxin and furans on combustion. Fiber glass has petroleum as the oil stocks are rapidly decline. The
increased in popularity since the discovery due to its low integrated waste management of plastic products is desirable
toxicity. The rapidly increasing environmental pollution for managing the waste in an economically sustainable
demands for novel biodegradable polymers especially for environment. For e.g. 5- Hydroxy Methyl Furfural (HMF) is
food packaging applications. Biocomposites are new light being converted into Furan Di Carboxylic Acid (FDCA) to
weight environmentally friendly structural materials where serve as petroleum based precursor for the fabrication of
either/both the polymer matrix and the reinforcement plastic bottles. Biocomposites based on poly(3-
originate from biomass. The natural fibres and plant based hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB), poly(4-hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB),
resins have been shown to combine the low cost composite and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) (P3/4HB)
with good mechanical properties [4]. The use of natural are suggested as a scaffold for critical biomedical
fibers as a replacement for synthetic fibers has received applications such as heart valve tissue engineering or direct
global attention. The hard fiber quality is the most commonly implantation [9]. Studies show that biodegradable
used in composite applications. Natural fiber reinforcements polymer/hydroxyapatite (HA) composites have potential
could considerably lower the price of bio-based composites application as bone graft substitutes [10]. The practices are to
that is still the higher barrier for their widespread application. be adopted for efficient disposal or collection of solid waste
Moreover, since they are derived from renewable sources, to avoid adverse effect on public health.
they can represent environmental friendly alternatives to
conventional reinforcing fibers (glass, carbon, Kevlar) [5]. III. NANOCOMPOSITES- THE FUTURE TRENDS
The natural fibers possess excellent tensile strength, modulus, New formulation of polymers and nanoparticles is
high durability, low bulk density, good mouldability and opening new research pathways for engineering flexible
recyclability. These fibers have an advantage over synthetic composites that exhibit advantageous electrical, optical or
fibers in being less expensive, easily available and having a mechanical properties. The mixing of nanoparticles with
high specific strength [6]. The high stiffness and strength of polymers to form composite materials has been practiced for
these materials makes them suitable for numerous decades [11]. Nanotechnology provides considerable
applications including industrial and domestic sectors. It is opportunities for the development of sustainable innovative
anticipated to have potential applications with elimination of materials for agriculture, water treatment, food production,
the toxic by- products generated in conventional polymer processing, preservation and packaging applications.
manufacturing. Principles of green chemistry can be useful However, our knowledge towards the nanomaterials toxicity
to achieve the objective of cleaner processing, applications is limited so there is a vital need for the beforehand
and disposal. consideration of the food contact safety implications of this
In future manufacturers may be able to utilize green vast technology. The superlative mechanical properties of
nanotechnology for eco friendly composite production and carbon nanotubes make them the filler material of choice for
control the use of hazardous volatile organic compounds and composite reinforcement [12].Nano materials exhibit novel
solvents viz. Toluene, Methylene Chloride, which presents functionalities due to much larger surface to mass ratio in
risk to human health and biodiversity. Exposure to these contrast to other conventional materials Nowadays
organics may cause cancer, eye, nose and throat irritation, biodegradable nanocomposites are being developed using
headaches, loss of coordination, nausea, damage to liver, Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Media as a sustainable and eco
kidney, and central nervous systemSupercritical carbon friendly technology promoting the concept of green
dioxide (scCO2) is promoted nowadays as a processing chemistry [13]. Homogeneous carbon nanotube/polymer
solvent in the formation of polymer composites in order to composites achieve the electrical conductivity levels required
avoid the use of hazardous conventional organic solvents [7]. for various electrical applications without compromising the
The new methods are being devised for polymerizing host polymer’s other preferred physical properties and
conventional monomers using super critical CO2 along with processability [14]. Nanoclay polymer composites of
added stabilizers. Supercritical CO2 is a highly pressurized polyamides, polyethylene, polystyrene, nylons and
form of chemically benign gas that has properties of a liquid. polyethyleneterephthalate are applied in multilayer film
Though conventional wood composites have a high degree packaging [15]. Nowadays, nano particles of metals and
of customer acceptance and market demand, there are reports metal oxides are used as fillers in certain composites by
indicating that Poly Brominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) virtue of their biocidal properties in order to preserve the
and Hexa Bromo Cyclo Decanes (HBCDs) present as bio packaged food. The discovery of antimicrobial properties of
accumulative products in the environment [8]. They are used nanozinc oxide and nanomagnesium oxide provide a new
as additives in synthesis of conventional polymer based class of materials as fillers for effective food packaging
products, foams, electronics, fabrics, building insulation composites [16].
260
There is a critical need for establishing processing particularly in low energy consumption during manufacture,
techniques that are effective on the nano scale yet are construction and subsequent building operation. The
applicable to economically viable processing. Major hurdle suitability assessment of the finished products is of
to the commercial use of nanocomposites is the absence of paramount importance at every stage from initial synthesis to
detailed structure-property relationships and effective final disposal for a sustainable environment. This includes
processing techniques effective at both the nanoscale as well green synthesis, processing, applications, recycling and bio-
as at the microscopic levels. There is a need of multi-layered degradation. Although there are environmental problems
structured composites in which each sublayer contributes a associated with material manufacture, particularly resins, a
distinct function to yield a mechanically integrated, number of farsighted manufacturers are already improving
multifunctional material. Nanocrystals with polymers has this aspect significantly. Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
attracted great interest mainly due to the wide potentials of requires relatively low energy during manufacture compared
nanocrystal-polymer composites in optical displays, with metal structures; it has much lower thermal conductivity
nonlinear optical devices and biological encoding. and is more durable. The current use of advanced polymer
composites in the foreseeable future is likely that the main
IV. CONCLUSION utilization of these materials will be in conjunction with the
There is a worldwide realization of the damage that a more conventional materials. The plastic products should be
rapidly rising indiscriminate industrial processes can do to manufactured as per the regulatory guidelines, evaluated for
the ecology and environmental balance of the planet. There their characteristics and ensure to minimize the adverse
is general agreement that future technology development will effect on human health and biodiversity. Combination of
need concepts such as biological sustainability, minimum use nanotechnology with biocomposites can be promising tool to
of energy and renewable raw materials that will probably be achieve the target of environmental sustainabity.
set internationally. Current R&D needs emphasizes on the
development of high-value and safer products. Advanced
composite materials are being seen to have benefits
compared with traditional materials in many of these areas,
[9] C. Stamm, A. Khosravi, N. Grabow, K. Schmohl, N. Treckmann, A.
Drechsel, M. Nan, K. P. Schmitz, A. Haubold and G. Steinhoff,
“Biomatrix/Polymer Composite Material for Heart Valve Tissue
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[1] S. Ramakrishna, J. Mayer, E. Wintermantel and K.W. Leong,

[10] S. C. Rizzi, D. Heath, A.G.A. Coombes, N. Bock, M. Textor and S.
“Biomedical applications of polymer-composite materials: a review,’’
Downes, “Biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite composites: surface
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analysis and initial attachment of human osteoblasts,” Journal of
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[2] L.C. Hollaway, “The evolution of and the way forward for advanced
[11] A. C. Balazs, T. Emrick and T.P. Russell,”Nanoparticle Polymer
polymer composites in the civil infrastructure,” Construction and
Composites: Where Two Small Worlds Meet,” Science, vol 314, pp.
Building Materials, vol 17(6), pp. 365–37, October 2003.
1107-1110, November 2006.
[3] M. Avella, A. Buzarovska, M. E. Errico, G. Gentile and A.
[12] J. N. Coleman, U. Khan, W. J. Blau and Y. K. Gun’ko, “Small but
Grozdanov, “Eco-Challenges of Bio-Based Polymer Composites,"
strong: A review of the mechanical properties of carbon nanotube–
Materials, vol 2(3), pp. 911-925, August 2009.
polymer composites,” Carbon, vol. 44, pp. 1624-1652, August 2006.
[4] L. Yu, K. Dean and Lin Li, “Polymer blends and composites from
[13] J. D. Clapper and C. A. Guymon, “Nanostructured Biodegradable
renewable resources,” Progress in Polymer Science, vol. 31(6), pp.
Composites Generated Using Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Media,”
576-602, June 2006.
Macromolecules, vol. 40 (22), pp 7951-7959, September 2007.
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[14] R. Rajagopal, C. Jian and L. Haiying, “Homogeneous carbon
Composites from Renewable Resources: Opportunities and
nanotube/polymer composites for electrical applications,” Applied
Challenges in the Green Materials World,” Journal of Polymers and
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the Environment, vol. 10(1/2), pp.19-26, May 2002
[15] FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on the Application of Nanotechnologies
[6] K. Oksman, M. Skrifvars and J. F. Selin, “Natural fibres as
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Implications: Meeting Report, Rome, pp.104 ,2009
Science and Technology, vol. 63 (9), pp. 1317-1324, July 2003.
[16] L. Zhang, Y. Jiang, Y. Ding, M. Povey and D. York, “Investigation
[7] S. P. Nalawade, F. Picchioni and L.P.B.M. Janssen,
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362, March 2010.
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Unit-IV: Plastics Processes
Manufacturing Processes
Dr.B.S.Rathod
[Ph.D(Mech), ME(Prod), BE(Mech), AMIE(Mech), DME]
babarao.rathod@viit.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
BRACT’S, Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune-48

(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
(NBA and NAAC accredited, ISO 9001:2015 certified)
Review of Unit III: Joining & Assembly Processes
(Addition group)
➢Physics of welding
➢ Features of a fusion welded joint
➢ Arc welding, Resistance welding, Oxy-fuel gas welding.
➢Other fusion welding processes- Solid state welding
➢ Weld quality, Weldability
➢Design considerations in welding, Brazing, soldering
➢Adhesive Bonding
➢Mechanical Assembly: Threaded fasteners, rivets and Eyelets.
Applications of Welding:Shipbuilding,marine,Aerospace &Automotive
industries,Construction industries,Mechanical industries,sheet metal
industries.Fabrication,Maintenance&Assembly work.
Faculty Name(optional), Department of ______Engineering, VIIT, Pune-48 2
Objective of this session
1. To familiarize students with major manufacturing processes
2. To correlate the material type with the possible fabrication
processes
3. To interpret the knowledge about manufacturing processes,
parameters and their effects on performance.
Learning Outcome/Course Outcome
• Differentiate various shaping processes for plastics, polymer matrix composites
and rubber in terms of their merits, demerits and applications
Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 3

Unit-IV: Plastics Processes
➢Plastics and Composite Standards,
➢Polymer Composites Sustainability: Environmental
Perspective, Future Trends and Minimization of Health Risk.
➢Shaping Processes for Plastics: Extrusion,
➢Production of sheet, film,
➢Injection moulding,
➢Compression and transfer moulding,
➢Blow moulding,
➢Thermoforming Injection moulding.
Introduction:What is Plastic?
Plastics are organic materials, just like wood,
paper or wool. The raw materials used to
produce plastics are natural products such
as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and crude
oil. The term ‘’plastic’’ is derived from the
Greek word ''plastikos'', meaning fit for
moulding. This refers to the material’s
malleability, or plasticity during
manufacture, which allows it to be cast,
pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes
- such as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles,
boxes, and much more.
20-Dec-21 5
ASTM Standards
ASTM stands for the American Society for Testing and Materials and
has created six types of standards that relate to manufacturing
processes such as testing, materials classification and operation. The
six types are test method, specification, classification, practice,
guide and terminology standards.
What is the purpose of ASTM Standards?
Over 12,000 ASTM standards are used all over the world to improve
product quality, enhance health and safety, strengthen market
access and trade, and to let customers know they can count on
products. ASTM serves many industries, such as metals,
construction, petroleum, consumer products and more.
20-Dec-21 6
Plastic Standards
ASTM’s plastics standards are instrumental in specifying, testing, and
assessing the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of a wide
variety of materials and products that are made of plastic and its
polymeric derivatives. During processing, these synthetic or
semisynthetic organic solids have a very malleable characteristic that
allows them to be molded into an assortment of shapes, making
them very suitable for the manufacture of various industrial
products. These plastic standards allow plastic manufacturers and
end-users to examine and evaluate their material or product of
concern to ensure quality and acceptability towards safe utilization.
20-Dec-21 7
Composite Standards
ASTM’s composite standards are instrumental in the evaluation and determination of
the physical, shear, tensile, flexural, and compressive properties of various forms of
composite materials used in structural applications. These composites can be in the
form of sandwich core materials, honeycomb core materials, polymer matrix
composite materials and their laminates, fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composite
plates and bars, fibre reinforced metal matrix composites, carbon fiber-epoxy
prepress, continuous filament carbon and graphite fiber tows, hoop wound polymer
matrix composite cylinders, sandwich beams, flat composite panels, simply
supported sandwich composite plates, and fabric-reinforced textile composite
materials. These composite standards are also helpful in guiding manufacturers and
users of such materials in their proper fabrication and testing for the
assurance of their quality.
20-Dec-21 8
Plastic and Composite Standards
Composite material of glass fiber base is very promising material for future structures. Due to
increasing demand and widespread application of Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP’s)
composites, they have been used in wide applications like aerospace, automotive,
ships and constructional work. The present research work is to study about the mechanical
and physical behavior of GFRP composites. The Glass fibre reinforced polymer composites are
manufactured by both pultrusion and sheet molding compound process where E-glass
fiber is used as reinforcing agent with the continuous phase of epoxy matrix. The mechanical
properties are tested based on both ASTM plastic and composite standards. Different
mechanical tests like tensile, compressive, flexural and shear are experimentally carried
out. The tested result shows that the pultruded bar possess good mechanical than smc bar
when20-Dec-21
tested based on ASTM plastic standards. 9
Polymer Composites Sustainability: Environmental Perspective,
Future Trends and Minimization of Health Risk
Polymer science is an interdisciplinary field as it involves the synthetic polymers, biopolymers, polymer-
characterization, designing and fabrication of new innovative products related to safer and sustainable
environment. Polymeric composite materials have the base matrix of polymers containing the
reinforcement fillers and additives. They have a wide array of applications ranging from packaging, space
crafts, smart or specialized polymers to Nano based textile material and biological implants. Different
polymers used as matrix material to prepare composites with improved mechanical, thermal and electrical
properties includes plastics of different constitution like polyester, polyamide etc. Growing public concern
about environmental pollution has led to development and design of biodegradable composite materials.
Knowledge and implementation of relevant regulatory guidelines are vital from safety and environmental
viewpoint. New methods are being devised for polymerization using super critical CO2 along with additives.
They have potential market applications along with the elimination of toxic moieties generated in
conventional
20-Dec-21 manufacturing techniques. 10
Green chemistry concepts may be utilized for eco-friendly materials
and to minimize the toxic implications of organic chemicals such as
toluene, methylene chloride which pose potential risks to human
health. The holistic and concerted efforts are needed for the
development of new composites for minimization of environmental
impact of polymer composite production. The life cycle assessment
is of paramount importance at every stage of a product’s life from
initial synthesis to final disposal for a sustainable environment. The
regulatory assessment and monitoring procedures as per the
National/International guidelines are required to be reviewed
wherever needed. They must be updated periodically depending
upon the composition, intended usage conditions in order to
promote clean processing, applications, biodegradation, recycling
20-Dec-21 11
and reprocessing.
Plastic industry has a vast and yet unused potential for the sustainable formation of our
economic, social and ecological environment. Polymer composites mark the beginning of a
new era of the polymer industry towards the sustainable development. In fact, the current
demand for materials that are both light and strong has been the main force driving the
development of composites. They are made up of two components namely the matrix or
binder, which surrounds and binds together a cluster of fibers or fragments of another
component which is the reinforcing material or filler. Composite materials are being used in
a wide array of applications viz. space crafts, defence products, biomedical implants ,
alternate building and construction materials by virtue of their strength, stiffness and
lightness. The in service properties of the composite are largely dependent upon the
combination and the relative ratio of the matrix and the filler. By the proper selection of
reinforcement and matrix material, manufacturers can produce properties that
can exactly fit the requirements for a particular purpose. The novel material behaviour,
which for example combines a gain in hardness with additional toughness, is based on the
large proportion of inner boundary present in these materials.
20-Dec-21 12
Polymer composite have replaced a variety of traditional materials in different sectors by
virtue of the desired properties like light weight, durability, heat resistance, reduced
wear & tear, flexibility, chemical resistance and longer shelf life that can be achieved by
making minor alterations in their compositions. For long term benefits, the principles of
sustainability should be brought into action in the day-to-day operations and requires a
considerable commitment of effort and resources. It is a comprehensive approach that
balances financial, environmental and social considerations. Innovative green products
should be promoted that meet the specific requirements of markets and consumers.
The modern sustainability parameters include use of renewable resources, waste
prevention, biodegradability, percept recycled, transportation, price, health hazards, and
energy use. The modification of polymer composites by using nano scale particles opens
the door to new and extremely efficient nano composites. Therefore the development
of stable nano composites which can be easily processed is a preeminent task for the
future. These technologies shall not only fulfil our ecological but also our economic and
social needs. Their development is intrinsically tied to new technologies which are made
possible by advance research.
20-Dec-21 13
BIO-BASED POLYMER COMPOSITES: A NEED FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Polymers composites from renewable resources have attracted an increasing amount of
attention over the last two decades due to environmental concerns and rapidly depleting
conventional energy resources . Several studies have reported the migration of polymer
additives, unreacted monomers, catalyst remnants, polymerization solvents of low molecular
mass fractions from the synthetic composites in to the packaged food materials with
consequent toxic health implications to the consumers. Polyvinyl based composites may release
dioxin and furans on combustion. Fiber glass has increased in popularity since the discovery due
to its low toxicity. The rapidly increasing environmental pollution demands for novel
biodegradable polymers especially for food packaging applications. Bio-composites are new light
weight environmentally friendly structural materials where either/both the polymer matrix and
the reinforcement originate from biomass. The natural fibres and plant based resins have been
shown to combine the low cost composite with good mechanical properties . The use of natural
fibers as a replacement for synthetic fibers has received global attention. The hard fiber quality
is the most commonly used in composite applications.
20-Dec-21 14
Natural fiber reinforcements could considerably lower the price of bio-based
composites that is still the higher barrier for their widespread application.
Moreover, since they are derived from renewable sources, they can represent
environmental friendly alternatives to conventional reinforcing fibres (glass,
carbon, Kevlar) .The natural fibres possess excellent tensile strength, modulus,
high durability, low bulk density, good mouldability and recyclability. These
fibers have an advantage over synthetic fibres in being less expensive, easily
available and having a high specific strength . The high stiffness and strength of
these materials makes them suitable for numerous applications including
industrial and domestic sectors. It is anticipated to have potential applications
with elimination of the toxic by- products generated in conventional polymer
manufacturing. Principles of green chemistry can be useful to achieve the
objective of cleaner processing, applications and disposal.
20-Dec-21 15
In future manufacturers may be able to utilize green nanotechnology for eco
friendly composite production and control the use of hazardous volatile organic
compounds and solvents viz. Methylene Chloride, which presents risk to human
health and bio-diversity. Exposure to these organics may cause cancer, eye, nose
and throat irritation, headaches, loss of co-ordination, nausea, damage to liver,
kidney, and central nervous system Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2)
is promoted now a days as a processing solvent in the formation of polymer
composites in order to avoid the use of hazardous conventional organic solvents
.The new methods are being devised for polymerizing conventional monomers
using super critical CO2 along with added stabilizers. Supercritical CO2 is a highly
pressurized form of chemically benign gas that has properties of a liquid. Though
conventional wood composites have a high degree of customer acceptance and
market demand, there are reports indicating that Poly Brominated Diphenyl
Ethers (PBDEs)and Hexa Bromo Cyclo Decanes (HBCDs) present as bio
accumulative products in the environment . They are used as additives in
synthesis of conventional polymer based products, foams, electronics, fabrics,
20-Dec-21 16
materials, furniture, electrical equipment's etc. The level of concentration may vary and thus there
is a need of complete understanding of mechanism of toxicity of such chemicals and the potential
for additives and synergistic effects. The R&D organizations around the globe are experimenting
with plant based plastics with different properties, as alternatives to lower the CO2 emissions and
to reduce the use of petroleum as the oil stocks are rapidly decline. The integrated waste
management of plastic products is desirable for managing the waste in an economically sustainable
environment. For e.g. 5- Hydroxy Methyl Furfural (HMF) is being converted into Furan Di Carboxylic
Acid (FDCA) to serve as petroleum based precursor for the fabrication of plastic bottles. Bio-
composites based on poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB), poly(4-hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB),and poly(3-
hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) (P3/4HB)are suggested as a scaffold for critical biomedical
applications such as heart valve tissue engineering or direct implantation [9]. Studies show that
biodegradable polymer/hydroxyapatite (HA) composites have potential application as bone graft
substitutes [10]. The practices are to be adopted for efficient disposal or collection of solid waste to
avoid adverse effect on public health.III)NANOCOMPOSITES- THE FUTURE TRENDS New formulation
of polymers and nanoparticles is opening new research pathways for engineering flexible
composites that exhibit advantageous electrical, optical or mechanical properties. The mixing of
nanoparticles with8 polymers to form composite materials has been practiced for decades .
20-Dec-21 17
Nanotechnology provides considerable opportunities for the development of sustainable
innovative materials for agriculture, water treatment, food production, processing,
preservation and packaging applications. However, our knowledge towards the
nanomaterial's toxicity is limited so there is a vital need for the beforehand consideration of
the food contact safety implications of this vast technology. The superlative mechanical
properties of carbon nanotubes make them the filler material of choice for composite
reinforcement .Nano materials exhibit novel functionalities due to much larger surface to
mass ratio in contrast to other conventional materials Nowadays biodegradable nano-
composites are being developed using Lipotropic Liquid Crystalline Media as a sustainable and
eco-friendly technology promoting the concept of green chemistry . Homogeneous carbon
nanotube/polymer composites achieve the electrical conductivity levels required for various
electrical applications without compromising the host polymer’s other preferred physical
properties and processability . Nano clay polymer composites of polyamides, polyethylene,
polystyrene, nylons and polyethylene terephthalate are applied in multilayer film packaging .
Nowadays, nano particles of metals and metal oxides are used as fillers in certain composites
by virtue of their bio-cidal properties in order to preserve the packaged food. The discovery of
antimicrobial properties of nanozinc oxide and Nano magnesium oxide provide a new class of
materials
20-Dec-21 as fillers for effective food packaging composites. 18
materials, furniture, electrical equipment's etc. The level of concentration may vary
and thus there is a need of complete understanding of mechanism of toxicity of such
chemicals and the potential for additives and synergistic effects. The R&D
organizations around the globe are experimenting with plant based plastics with
different properties, as alternatives to lower the CO2 emissions and to reduce the use
of petroleum as the oil stocks are rapidly decline. The integrated waste management
of plastic products is desirable for managing the waste in an economically sustainable
environment. For e.g. Hydroxy Methyl Furfural (HMF) is being converted into Furan Di
Carboxylic Acid (FDCA) to serve as petroleum based pre-cursor for the fabrication of
plastic bottles. Bio-composites based on poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB), poly(4-
hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB),apoly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) (P3/4HB)are
suggested as a scaffold for critical biomedical applications such as heart valve tissue
engineering or direct implantation . Studies show that bio-degradable
polymer/hydroxyapatite (HA) composites have potential application as bone graft
substitutes . The practices are to be adopted for efficient disposal or collection of solid
waste20-Dec-21
to avoid adverse effect on public health. 19
NANOCOMPOSITES- THE FUTURE TRENDS -New formulation of polymers and nanoparticles is
opening new research pathways for engineering flexible composites that exhibit advantageous
electrical, optical or mechanical properties. The mixing of nanoparticles with polymers to form
composite materials has been practiced for decades . Nanotechnology provides considerable
opportunities for the development of sustainable innovative materials for agriculture, water
treatment, food production, processing, preservation and packaging applications. However, our
knowledge towards the nanomaterial's toxicity is limited so there is a vital need for the before hand
consideration of the food contact safety implications of this vast technology. The superlative
mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes make them the filler material of choice for composite
reinforcement .Nano materials exhibit novel functionalities due to much larger surface to mass ratio
in contrast to other conventional materials Now a days biodegradable Nano composites are being
developed using Lipotropic Liquid Crystalline Media as a sustainable and eco-friendly technology
promoting the concept of green chemistry . Homogeneous carbon nanotube/polymer composites
achieve the electrical conductivity levels required for various electrical applications without
compromising the host polymer’s other preferred physical properties and process ability . Nano clay
polymer composites of polyamides, polyethylene, polystyrene, nylons and polyethylne
terephthalate are applied in multilayer film packaging . Nowadays, nano particles of metals and
metal oxides are used as fillers in certain composites by virtue of their biocide properties in order to
preserve the packaged food. The discovery of antimicrobial properties of Nano zinc oxide and Nano
magnesium oxide provide a new class of materials as fillers for effective food packaging
20-Dec-21 20
composites .
Contd.
particularly in low energy consumption during manufacture, construction and
subsequent building operation. The suitability assessment of the finished products is
of paramount importance at every stage from initial synthesis to final disposal for a
sustainable environment. This includes green synthesis, processing, applications,
recycling and bio-degradation. Although there are environmental problems
associated with material manufacture, particularly resins, a number of farsighted
manufacturers are already improving this aspect significantly. Glass Fibre Reinforced
Plastic requires relatively low energy during manufacture compared with metal
structures; it has much lower thermal conductivity and is more durable. The current
use of advanced polymer composites in the foreseeable future is likely that the main
utilization of these materials will be in conjunction with the more conventional
materials. The plastic products should be manufactured as per the regulatory
guidelines, evaluated for their characteristics and ensure to minimize the adverse
effect on human health and biodiversity. Combination of nanotechnology with bio-
composites can be promising tool to achieve the target of environmental
20-Dec-21 21
sustainabity.
Extrusion
20-Dec-21 22
Production of Sheets
Plastic sheets are defined as a continuous form of
plastic material thicker than .010″ (.25mm) and
usually wound on a core, but mostly cut into sheets.
Anything thinner is considered plastic film.
There is a HUGE universe of plastic film materials,
from those made of a simple single plastic material,
to complex structures made of different materials
and coatings designed to meet the needs of specific applications. Plastic sheets can
be manufactured out of different plastic resins, each of which has its own unique
physical properties. In addition to all the different materials plastic sheets can be
made out of, they can also be clear, colored, smooth, rough, functionally embossed,
opaque, or semi-transparent, depending on the needs of the application.

Production of Sheet
Sheet extrusion
Sheet extrusion is used to extrude plastic sheets that are too thick to be blown. There are two
types of dies used: i) T-shaped ii) Coat hanger. The purpose of these dies is to reorient and
guide the flow of polymer melt from a single round output from the extruder to a thin, flat
planar flow. In both die types ensure constant, uniform flow across the entire cross sectional
area of the die. Cooling is typically by pulling through a set of cooling rolls (calender or "chill"
rolls). In sheet extrusion, these rolls not only deliver the necessary cooling but also determine
sheet thickness and surface texture. Often co-extrusion is used to apply one or more layers on
top of a base material to obtain specific properties such as UV-absorption, texture, oxygen
permeation resistance, or energy reflection.
A common post-extrusion process for plastic sheet stock is thermoforming, where the sheet is
heated until soft (plastic), and formed via a mold into a new shape. When vacuum is used,
this is often described as vaccum forming. Orientation (i.e. ability/ available density of the
sheet to be drawn to the mold which can vary in depths from 1 to 36 inches typically) is highly
important and greatly affects forming cycle times for most plastics.
Production of Film
Plastic film is a thin continuous polymeric
material. Thicker plastic material is often called a
"sheet". These thin plastic membranes are used
to separate areas or volumes, to hold items, to
act as barriers,or as printable surfaces.
Application: Video tape, photographic film, film

stock for movies, packaging, plastic bags, labels,
building construction, landscaping, electrical
fabrication.

Materials Used:
Almost all plastics can be formed into a thin film. Some of the primary ones are:
➢Polyethylene – The most common plastic film is made of one of the varieties of polyethylene:
low-density polyethylene, medium-density polyethylene, high-density polyethylene, or linear
low-density polyethylene.
➢Polypropylene – Polypropylene can be made a cast film, bi-axially oriented film (BOPP), or as a
uni-axially oriented film.
➢Polyester – BoPET is a bi-axially oriented polyethylene terephthalate polyester film
➢Nylon:
➢Polyvinyl chloride – film can be with or without a Plasticizer
➢Cellulose acetate - an early bio-plastic
➢Cellophane - made of regenerated cellulose
➢A variety of bio-plastics and biodegradable plastics are available.
➢Semi-embossed film – Semi-embossed film can be used as a liner to the calendered rubber to
retain the properties of rubber and also to prevent dust and other foreign matters from sticking
to the rubber while calendering and during storage

Processes:
➢Plastic films are usually thermoplastics and are formed by melting for forming the film.
➢Cast – Plastics extrusion can cast film which is cooled or quenched then wound up on a roll.
➢Extruded film can be stretched, thinned, or oriented in one or two directions. Blown or
tubular process forces air into an extruded ring to expand the film. Flat tenter frames stretch
the extruded film before annealing.
➢Calender rolls can be used to form film from hot polymers
➢Solution deposition is another film forming process.
➢Skiving is used to scrape off a film from a solid core (sometimes used to make
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) thread seal tape)
➢Coextrusion involves extruding two or more layers of dissimilar polymers into a single film
➢Lamination combines two or more films (or other materials) into a sandwich.
➢Extrusion coating is used to form a film onto another film or substrate

Injection Moulding
➢Injection molding is little bit similar to die casting
but the difference is in raw material used. In die
casting we use metals which require extremely high
temperature for melting but injection molding is
mainly done on glasses, elastomers and most
commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting
polymers but this technique is widely used for
fabrication of thermoplastic materials.
➢This process is done by heating of raw material
and injecting them into the mold cavity by applying
pressure at a specific temperature without any
change in their chemical composition .

Advantages, Disadvantages &Application
Advantages:
1. The main advantage of this process is that complex shapes components having small wall thickness
(5-15 mm) can be easily molded and removed from the die without damage.
2. Parts which are made by injection molding have good dimensional tolerance.
3. The major advantage of this technique is that the scrap produced by this is very less as compare to
some other processes.
4. Parts made by injection molding process are competing with parts made by investment casting and
complex machining parts.
5. This process is having high production rate as compare to other techniques.
Disadvantage:
1. Initial cost/ setup cost of this process is very high due to design, testing and tooling of the whole
equipment.
2. Investment molding is generally limited to some special kind of materials like thermoplastic
materials or some polymers only.
3. High tooling cost i.e. the mould used is made by several processes and testing the overall cost of
making a single mold is very high. For different parts different kind of molds are required.

Application

Compression and Transfer Moulding
1) Compression Moulding is a method of moulding in which the moulding material,
generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mould is closed
with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with
all mould areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the moulding material has
cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the
form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.
Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastic can
also be compression molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented
fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of compression molding is its ability to mold
large, fairly intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods compared
with other methods such as transfer moulding and injection moulding ; moreover it wastes
relatively little material, giving it an advantage when working with expensive compounds

Advantages of Compression Moulding
Advantages:
1. Lower cost Tooling
2. Good for small production runs
3. No gates, sprues or runners
4. Good for large parts
Disadvantages
1. Greater waste
2. Higher labour cost
3. Slower process times
4. Not suitable for complex moulds.
Disadvantages of Compression Moulding
(1)The whole molding cycle is long and the efficiency is low. The time required to
start and repeat the operation sequence is between 1-6 minutes.
(2)At present, it is not suitable for molding complex products with depressions,
side slopes or small holes.
(3)When burrs occur, they must be trimmed manually, which will not only reduce
productivity, but also increase labor costs and material waste.
(4)The disadvantages of compression molding are that the mold manufacturing is
complicated, the investment is large, and the compression machine is limited,
which is most suitable for mass production of small and medium composite
products.
(5)For thermosetting plastics, when the molded products have slight defects, they
are often unable to be recycled, which requires high mold surface and material
filling requirements.
2) Transfer Moulding
Transfer molding is a manufacturing process in which material is
forced into a mould. Transfer molding is different from compression
moulding in that the mold is enclosed rather than open to the fill
plunger resulting in higher dimensional tolerances and less
environmental impact. Compared to injection, transfer molding uses
higher pressures to uniformly fill the mold cavity. This allows thicker
reinforcing fiber matrices to be more completely saturated by
resin.Furthermore, unlike injection molding the transfer mold casting
material may start the process as a solid. This can reduce equipment
costs and time dependency. The transfer process may have a slower
fill rate than an equivalent injection molding processes.
Materials used for Transfer Moulding
The material most commonly used for transfer molding is a thermoset polymer. This type of
polymer is easy to mold and manipulate, but upon curing, hardens into a permanent form. For
simple homogeneous transfer molded parts, the part is simply made of this plastic substrate.
On the other hand, resin transfer molding allows for a composite material to be made by
placing a fiber within the mold and subsequently injecting the thermosetting polymer.
Defects known as voids and dry resin (in the case of resin transfer molding) are possible in
transfer molding and often created problem by high viscosity materials. This is because a high
viscosity plastic flowing through a thin mold may miss entire vacated areas, leaving air
pockets. When air pockets are left in the presence of fiber, this creates a “dry” area, which
prevents load from being transferred through the fibers in the dry area.
Materials used for the plastic are often polyurethanes or epoxy resins. Both of these are soft
and malleable before curing, becoming much harder after setting. Materials used for fibers
vary extensively, although common choices are carbon or Kevlar fibers, as well as organic
fibers, such as hemp.

Blow Moulding
Blow molding is a manufacturing process for forming and joining together hollow
plastic parts. It is also used for forming glass bottles or other hollow shapes.
There are 3 main types of blow molding: i) Extrusion blow molding ii) Injection blow
molding iii) Injection stretch blow molding.
The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a
parison or, in the case of injection and injection stretch blow molding (ISB), a
preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through
which compressed air can pass.
The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is blown into it. The air pressure
then pushes the plastic out to match the mold. Once the plastic has cooled and
hardened the mold opens up and the part is ejected. Water channels are curved
inside the mold for cooling purpose.

Blow Moulding

Type: i) Extrusion Blow Moulding
In extrusion blow molding (EBM), plastic is melted and extruded into a hollow tube (a
parison). This parison is then captured by closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is then
blown into the parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container, or part.
After the plastic has cooled sufficiently, the mold is opened and the part is ejected.
Parts made by the EBM process: most polyethylene hollow products, milk bottles,
shampoo bottles, automotive ducting, watering cans, and hollow industrial parts such as
drums.
Advantages
i)Low tool and die cost ii)Fast production rates iii)Ability to mold complex parts
iv) Handles can be incorporated in the design
Disadvantages
i)Limited to hollow parts ii)Low strength iii)Parisons are often made of mixed (multilayer)
materials , to increase their barrier properties and are thus not recyclable.
iv) To make wide neck jars spin trimming is necessary.

ii) Injection Blow Moulding
The process of injection blow molding (IBM) is used for the production of hollow glass and plastic objects in
large quantities. In the IBM process, the polymer is injection molded onto a core pin; then the core pin is
rotated to a blow molding station to be inflated and cooled. This is the least-used of the three blow molding
processes, and is typically used to make small medical and single serve bottles. The process is divided into
three steps: injection, blowing and ejection.
The injection blow molding machine is based on an extruder barrel and screw assembly which melts the
polymer. The molten polymer is fed into a hot runner manifold where it is injected through nozzles into a
heated cavity and core pin. The cavity mold forms the external shape and is clamped around a core rod
which forms the internal shape of the preform. The preform consists of a fully formed bottle/jar neck with a
thick tube of polymer attached, which will form the body. similar in appearance to a test tube with a
threaded neck.
The preform mold opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow, chilled blow mold. The
end of the core rod opens and allows compressed air into the preform, which inflates it to the finished
article shape. After a cooling period the blow mold opens and the core rod is rotated to the ejection
position. The finished article is stripped off the core rod and as an option can be leak-tested prior to packing
The preform and blow mold can have many cavities, typically three to sixteen depending on the article size
and the required output. There are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection, blow
molding and ejection.Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 39
Advantages & Disadvantages of IBM
Advantages
➢It produces an injection molded neck for accuracy.
Disadvantages
➢Only suits small capacity bottles as it is difficult to control the base centre during blowing.
➢No increase in barrier strength as the material is not biaxially stretched.
➢Handles can't be incorporated.

iii) Injection Stretch Blow Moulding
Injection Stretch Blow Molding has two main different methods, namely Single-stage and Double-stage
process. The Single-stage process is then again broken down into 3-station and 4-station machines.
A) Single-Stage
In the single-stage process both preform manufacture and bottle blowing are performed in the same
machine. The older 4-station method of injection, reheat, stretch blow and ejection is more costly than
the 3-station machine which eliminates the reheat stage and uses latent heat in the preform, thus saving
costs of energy to reheat and 25% reduction in tooling. The process explained: Imagine the molecules are
small round balls, when together they have large air gaps and small surface contact, by first stretching the
molecules vertically then blowing to stretch horizontally the biaxial stretching makes the molecules a cross
shape. These "crosses" fit together leaving little space as more surface area is contacted thus making the
material less porous and increasing barrier strength against permeation. This process also increases the
strength to be ideal for filling with carbonated drinks.
Advantages
Highly suitable for low volumes and short runs. As the preform is not released during the entire process
the preform wall thickness can be shaped to allow even wall thickness when blowing rectangular and non-
round shapes.
Disadvantages:Restrictions on bottle design – only a champagne base can be made for carbonated bottles.
Contd…
B) Two-Stage :In two-stage injection stretch blow molding process, the plastic is first molded
into a "preform" using the injection molding process. These preforms are produced with the
necks of the bottles, including threads (the "finish") on one end. These preforms are
packaged, and fed later (after cooling) into a reheat stretch blow molding machine. In the
ISBM process, the preforms are heated (typically using infrared heaters) above their glass
transition temperature, then blown using high-pressure air into bottles using metal blow
molds. The preform is always stretched with a core rod as part of the process.
Advantages
➢Very high volumes are produced. Little restriction on bottle design. Preforms can be sold as
a completed item for a third party to blow. Is suitable for cylindrical, rectangular or oval
bottles.
Disadvantages
➢High capital cost. Floor space required is high, although compact systems have become
available

Stretch Blow Moulding

Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable
forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a
usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain
material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to
be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. There are two main
Types of thermoforming: 1)vacuum forming 2) pressure forming. Vacuum forming
uses heat and pressure to draw plastic sheets into its final configuration. Once a sheet
is heated and placed over a mold, a vacuum is used to manipulate it into its desired
shape.In its simplest form, a small tabletop or lab size machine can be used to heat small cut
sections of plastic sheet and stretch it over a mold using vacuum. This method is often used for
sample and prototype parts. In complex and high-volume applications, very large production
machines are utilized to heat and form the plastic sheet and trim the formed parts from the
sheet in a continuous high-speed process and can produce many thousands of finished parts
per hour depending on the machine and mold size and the size of the parts being formed
Vaccum Forming

Pressure Forming
Pressure forming is an advanced plastic manufacturing process whereby a plastic
sheet is molded to a complex and detailed shape utilizing a single-sided mold to
create the formed shape using vacuum & pressure on opposing sides of the sheet.
Pressure forming is an enhancement to the vacuum forming process.
Difference between Vaccum forming & Pressure forming-
1) Vacuum forming is taking a sheet of thermoplastic and heating it up to soften it
in preparation for molding. The softened sheet is positioned over the mold in
preparation to be sucked down onto the surface of a mold. Afterwords, the
formed sheet is removed from the mold, allowed to cool and then readied for
further finishing. The product is trimmed and any secondary operations are
completed prior to shipment.

Contd..
In pressure forming, the sheet is heated and positioned the same
as in vacuum forming, but a second piece of tooling (or box as
some call it) with positive pressure is used in addition to the
vacuum to push the sheet into the shape. Secondary trimming
and additional operations are the same as in vacuum
forming. The softened sheet prior to shaping may be stretched
prior to the operation in order to get a better wall thickness
distribution particularly in areas where the sheet will be stretched
over the mold.

Pressure Forming

Advantages of Thermoforming
Thermoforming is the only viable process that allows for the creation of packages of larges sizes
from plastic sheets.
1) Thermoforming companies usually find the machinery used to carry out these processes to be
quite cheap. In fact, if you consider the capital expenditure one shall have to make for setting up
an injection molding plant, you will find thermoforming machines to be as much as 30% cheaper.
2) The process of thermoforming allows for easy customization of product packages. Machines
can be set in accordance with product requirements to create a container that is custom made to
store the material. This flexibility and versatility happens to be a major advantage.
3) Thermoforming as a technology has been around for quite some time now. It is a tried, tested
and safe process and skilled engineers for operating these machines is also easily available in the
market. You will not face any difficulties in setting up a thermoforming plant.
4) The containers fashioned through thermoforming happen to be much more durable, strong
and resilient to the effect of elements. They are ideally suited to store all kinds of products and
can provide adequate protection to the contents inside.
biodegradable plastics is the very foundation of this process.

Disadvantages of Thermoforming
Disadvantages
1) The process of thermoforming requires the use of large size plastic sheets that will have
to be fed into the machine over and over again. Because of the very nature of the process,
increased extrusion happens to be a big problem.
2) The plastic sheet is stretched in the under pressure in this method. Hence the products
formed using thermoforming break at a certain temperature.
3) Thermoforming uses more plastic than other methods. Nearly 10 to 20% more plastic is
used to make any product in this method. This adds to cost and creates extensive wastage
too.
4) If you are in need of an environment friendly format of packaging, thermoform
containers might not be the right option for you.
Application: The thermoforming process is used to create durable parts that can cope with
a range of stresses imposed on them by the demands of the construction industry. In
particular, it is commonly used to create larger parts for use in vehicles like backhoe
loaders, wheeled & tracked loaders and telehandlers.
Thank You

Composite Material
➢A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often ones that
have very different properties. The two materials work together to give the composite
unique properties.
➢Typical engineered composite materials :
➢Reinforced concrete and masonry.
➢Composite wood such as plywood.
➢Reinforced plastics, such as fibre-reinforced polymer or fiberglass.(PMC)
➢Ceramic matrix composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)(CMC)
➢Metal matrix composites.(MMC)
➢Other advanced composite materials.
➢Why Use Composites? The primary reason composite materials are chosen for
components is because of weight saving for its relative stiffness and strength. For example,
carbon-fibre reinforced composite can be five times stronger than 1020 grade steel while
having only one fifth of the weight.
Types of Composite Material
➢Three basic types - Polymer, Ceramic, Metal Matrix Composites
1) PMC 2) CMC 3) MMC
Why MMC? Due to high strength, stiffness, excellent mechanical properties

➢Common Metal Matrix-Al, Ti, Mg, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn and Si
➢Reinforcement Material-Al2O3,SiC,TiC, B4C, ZrB2
➢Most popular and widely used metal matrix -Al, Ti and Mg
Overview of Polymer Matrix Composites
A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a
composite material composed of a variety of
short or continuous fibers bound together by
an organic polymer matrix. PMCs are
.
designed to transfer loads between fibers of
a matrix
Aadvantages -lightweight, high stiffness and
their high strength along the direction of
their reinforcements, good abrasion
resistance and good corrosion resistance.
Also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics) – these composites are
the most common and use a polymer-based resin as the matrix, and a variety of
fibres such as glass, carbon and Aramid as the reinforcement.
The function of the matrix in PMCs is to bond the fibers together and transfer loads
between them. PMCs matrices are typically either thermosets and thermoplastics.
Thermosets are by far the predominant type in use today. Thermosets are subdivided
into several resin systems including epoxies, phenolics, polyurethanes, and polyimides.
Of these, epoxy systems currently dominate the advanced composite industry.
Dispersed Materials
Fibers
Fiber-Reinforced PMC contain about 60 % reinforcing fiber by volume. The fibers that
are commonly found and used within PMCs include fiberglass, graphite and aramid.
Fiberglass has a relatively low stiffness at the same time exhibits a competitive tensile
strength compared to other fibers. The cost of fiberglass is also dramatically lower
than the other fibers which is why fiberglass is one of the most widely used fiber.The
reinforcing fibers have their highest mechanical properties along their lengths rather
than their widths. Thus, the reinforcing fibers maybe arranged and oriented in
different forms and directions to provide different physical properties and advantages
based on the application.

Rubber Processing
Rubber processing consists of 4 basic steps:
(1) Mastication, when the elastomer is sheared and
the molecules are broken down to give easier flow,
(2) Mixing, usually carried out immediately after
mastication, when additives are incorporated,
(3) Shaping of the viscous mass, for example, by
extrusion or molding, and
(4) Curing, when the polymer molecules become
interlinked and the shape is fixed.

i) Mastication
Mastication and softening are usually carried out in batches. The
operation is done either in large enclosed mixing machines or on
rubber mills. The preeminent example of an enclosed machine is the
Banbury (registered trademark) mixer, consisting of heavy steel
counterrotating paddles in an hourglass-shaped chamber, holding up
to one-half ton of rubber. Rubber mills have two large horizontally
opposed, closely spaced steel cylinders, up to 3 metres (10 feet) long,
that are rotated slowly in opposite directions and at somewhat
different speeds. Rubber is sheared and softened in the gap between
the paddles and wall of the Banbury mixer and in the gap between
the two cylinders in the roll mill.
ii)Mixing
•Mixing is carried out on machines similar to those used in
mastication, sometimes immediately after softening. Reactive
materials, fillers, oils, and protective chemicals of various kinds, as
described above, are incorporated into the base elastomer by a
combined shearing and mixing action. An enclosed Banbury-type
mixer can produce up to one-half ton of mixed compound in a few
minutes. The compound is then sheeted out, coated with a release
soap to prevent sticking, and stored until use on steel pallets that
can hold up to one ton of rubber.

iii) Shaping
Shaping of the mixture into the desired form takes place in several
ways. Extruders are used to produce long continuous products such
as tubing, tire treads, and wire coverings. They are also used to
produce various profiles that can later be cut to length. Multi-roll
calenders are used to make wide sheeting. In transfer and injection
molds, the rubber mix is forced through channels into a mold
chamber of the required shape, where it is cured under pressure.
Tires are made of several components: bead wire, sidewall
compound, inner liner, cord plies, belt package, and tread; these are
brought together and assembled as a complete tire before being
transferred to the curing press.
iv) Curing
Curing is carried out in pressurized steel molds, which are heated by steam or
electricity to temperatures at which the interlinking reaction takes place.
Typical cure conditions are several minutes at a temperature of 160 °C (320 °F).
Because heat penetrates rubber slowly, thick articles must be allowed longer
curing times, up to several hours, at lower temperatures. Pressures of 1
megapascal (145 pounds per square inch) or more are normally imposed in
order to maintain the desired shape and to force trapped air to dissolve in the
compound. Other methods of curing the rubber mix after it has been shaped
include steam heating in autoclaves, microwave irradiation, and passage
through a heated bath of molten metal salts or a fluidized bed. In these cases
curing is carried out at near-atmospheric pressure.

Open and Closed Mould Processes
1)Open Moulding: In open molding, raw materials (resins
and fiber reinforcements) are exposed to air as they cure or
harden. Open molding utilizes different processes, including
hand lay-up, spray-up, casting and filament winding.
2) Closed Moulding: In closed molding, dry reinforcements
are laid into the base mold, the mold is closed and resin is
introduced into the closed cavity using a pressure pump or
vacuum. When the laminate is cured, the mold is opened
and the part removed.
Thank You

Chapter 1
Faculty Name(optional), Department of ______Engineering,

1
VIIT,Pune-48
Plastics Molding Processes
Mr. Mahendra G. Gadge

mahendra.gadge@viit.ac.in

Introduction
• Polymers: It is a compound consisting of long chain
molecules, each made up of repeating units connected
together
• Poly means many and meros means many parts
• Most polymers based on carbon and considered as
organic chemicals
Polymers
Plastics Rubbers
Thermoplastics Thermosetting
Elastomers
(TP) (TS)
20-Dec-21 4
Introduction
• Thermoplastic Polymer (TP): It is a solid materials at room temperature and
become viscous liquids when heated to temperature to few hundred degrees.
Eg: Polyethylene, PVC, Polypropylene, polystyrene and nylon.
• TP consist of linear macromolecules that do not cross-linked when heated
• TP at room temperature characterised by much lower stiffness, lower strength,
much lower hardness and greater ductility.
• TP products include molded and extruded items, fibres, films, sheets, packaging
materials, paints and varnishes
• Thermosetting Polymer (TS): When initially heated they soften and flow for
moulding, but at elevated temperature it produce chemical reaction that
hardens the material into infusible solid. If reheated, TS degrade and char rather
than soften. Eg: Phenolics, Epoxies and certain polyesters
• TS are more rigid, brittle, less soluble in common solvent, capable of higher
service temperature, not capable of being remelted-instead they degrade or
burn.
• Elastomers (E): Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic extensibility when
subjected to relatively low mechanical stress.
20-Dec-21 5
Extrusion : Polymer
• Extrusion Process and Equipment:
• Feedstock in pellet or powder form is fed into an extrusion barrel when it
is heated and melted and forced through a die opening by rotating screw
• Barrel and the extruder are two main components of the extruder.
• Die is special tool that is fabricated for particular profile to be produced
and not a part of extruder.
20-Dec-21 6
Extrusion
• Internal diameter of extrude barrel ranges from 25 to 150 mm.
• Barrel is long relative to its diameter, with L/D is in between 10 to 30.
• The higher L/D ratio is used for thermoplastic materials and low L/D for
Elastomers.
• Hopper containing feedstock is located at he end of barrel opposite to
the die.
• Pallets are fed by gravity on to rotating screw whose turning moves the
material along the barrel.
• Electric heaters are used melt the solid pallets, subsequent mixing and
mechanical working of material generate additional heat which maintain
the melt.
• Material is conveyed through barrel toward die opening by screw which
rotates at 60 rpm.
• The screw perform several function and divided into three section, 1)
Feed section, 2) Compression section 3) Metering section
20-Dec-21 7
Extrusion
• 1) Feed section: in which the stock is moved from the hopper port nd preheated
• 2) Compression Section: Polymer is transformed into liquid consistency and air
entrapped amongst the pellets is extracted from the melt and the material is
compressed
• 3) Metering section: The melt is homogenized and sufficient pressure is developed to
pump it through the die opening.
• The increase in pressure applied to polymer melts in three section of the barrel is
determined by channel depth Dc.
• In feed section, Dc is large to allow large amount of granular polymer to be admitted
into barrel
• In compression section, Dc is gradually reduced applying increased pressure on
polymer as it melts
• In metering section Dc is small and pressure reaches to maximum as flow is
restrained at die end of barrel.
• Three section having equal length is appropriate for polymer which melts gradually
like Low density Polyethylene (LDPE)
• For Crystalline polymers like nylon, wherein melting occurs abruptly at a specific
melting point, short compression section is appropriate
• Amorphous Polymers like PVC melts slowly than LDPE, Compression zone is almost
the entire length of the screw.
20-Dec-21 8
Extrusion
• Progress of polymer along the barrel leads to die zone.
• Before reaching the die, melt passes through the screen pack- series of
wire meshes supported by stiff plate (breaker plate) containing small
axial holes.
• Screen pack functions to filter contaminants and hard lumps from the
melt, build pressure in the metering zone, straighten the flow of polymer
melt and remove the its “memory” of circular motion imposed by the
screw.
20-Dec-21 9
Production of sheet and film
20-Dec-21 10
Injection molding process
20-Dec-21 11
Unit-V: Sheet Metal Working
Dr.B.S.Rathod

Plastic & Composite Materials
(No addition group & No subtraction group)
➢Extrusion, Production of sheet, film, Injection moulding, Compression and transfer
moulding, Blow moulding, Thermoforming, Overview of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
and Rubber processing, Open and closed mould processes, Rubber processing and shaping.
➢Application of plastics: Plastics is versatile, hygenic, lightweight, flexible and highly

durable. It accounts for the largest usage of plastics world wide and is used in numerous
packaging applications including containers, bottles, drums, trays, boxes, cups and vending
packaging, baby products and protection packaging.
➢Composites are ideal for applications in corrosive environments, such as chemical
processing plants, pulp and paper converting, oil and gas refineries and water
treatment facilities. Common applications include fans, grating, tanks, ducts,
hoods, pumps and cabinets,aerospace,marine,automobile industries

1. To familiarize students with major manufacturing processes
2. To describe the operations and tools for major manufacturing processes
3. To interpret the knowledge about manufacturing processes, parameters and their effects on
performance.

• Analyze bulk deformation processes in terms of power requirement and causes for defects occurring
during these processes.
• Design sheet metal working processes for various applications.
• Differentiate various shaping processes for plastics, polymer matric composites and rubber in terms
of their merits, demerits and applications. .

Unit V: Sheet Metal Working
(No addition group & No subtraction group)
➢Sheet metal working:
➢Cutting and bending operations, drawing,
➢Dies and presses for sheet metal processes,
➢Engineering analysis of sheet-metal cutting, bending and drawing,
➢Stretch forming, Roll bending and forming, Spinning and
➢High-energy rate forming.
➢Environmental aspects of sheet metal forming,
➢Recent trends in sheet metals and their
➢ formability in manufacturing automotive panels

Introduction
Application:Sheet metal is used in a variety of industries
namely car manufacturing, aircraft parts, tools, agriculture,
mining, catering, shipping, medical, electronic parts, and
construction.
1. Sheet metal processes involve plane stress loadings and
lower forces than bulk forming
2. Almost all sheet metal forming is considered to be secondary
processing
3. The main categories of sheet metal forming are
• Shearing
• Bending
• Drawing
• Merits
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• Demerits
• Wrinkling and tearing are typical limits to drawing operations
• Different techniques can be used to overcome these limitations
• Draw beads
• Vertical projections and matching grooves in the die and
blank holder
• Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions
• Applications
• Roofings
• Ductings
• Vehicles body buildings like 3 wheelers, 4 wheelers, ships,
aircrafts etc.
• Furnitures, House hold articles and Railway equipment

Applications- Automobile Parts
Furniture

Applications in Aircraft

Applications

Different Types of Sheet Metal Operations
1) Shearing Operation.
2) Blanking Operation.
3) Punching Operation.
4) Piercing Operation.
5) Perforating Operation.
6) Slotting Operation.
7) Notching Operation.
8) Bending Operation.
Shearing
Shearing is a sheet metal cutting operation along a
straight line between two cut-ting edges by means of a
power shear.

Blanking and punching
• Blanking and punching are similar sheet metal cutting operations that involve cutting
the sheet metal along a closed outline. If the part that is cut out is the desired product,
the operation is called blanking and the product is called blank. If the remaining stock
is the desired part, the operation is called punching. Both operations are illustrated
on the example of producing a washer

Bending
Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal
around a straight edge

Drawing
• Drawing is a sheet-metal operation to make hollow-shaped parts from a sheet blank

Deep Drawing

Deep Drawing

Stretch Forming
Stretch forming is the process of
forming extrusions and brake
metal by the combined application
of tensile and bending forces.
Stretch forming keeps the
extrusion under constant tension
while wrapping it around a form,
or die, to make parts into simple or
complex contoured curves.

Roll Bending
The workpiece is placed on top of the two lower
rolls [1]. An upper roll [2] presses the tube down
between the two rollers. This causes plastic
deformation, bending of the workpiece. The rolls
are often shaped to fit the tube diameter to prevent
deformation of the cross-section. The tube is then
fed through the process by the driven rolls and
bent in this way continuously. To achieve the
desired radius the process is repeated.
Forming
• Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing
industries wherein materials (mostly metals) undergo plastic
deformations and acquire required shapes and sizes by
application of suitable stresses such as compression, shear and
tension. In the forming process, no material is removed; it is
completely displaced and deformed into the required shape.
Some of the commonly used forming processes in the
manufacturing industry are:
• Forging
• Rolling
• Extrusion
• Thread rolling
• Rotary swaging
• Explosive forming
• Electromagnetic forming
Spinning
Metal spinning is a method of
forming rotationally symmetrical
sheet metal parts. In spinning, the
sheet metal discs are formed into
rotationally symmetrical hollow
shapes. The blank is clamped
between the shaped spinning
mandrel and the tailstock of the
spinning machine and rotated by
the main drive.
HERF
High energy rate forming
(HERF) is the shaping of
materials by rapidly conveying
energy to them for short time
durations. There are a number
of methods of HERF, based
mainly on the source of energy
used for obtaining high
velocities

Equipments
Mechanical Press - The ram
is actuated using a flywheel.
Stroke motion is not uniform.

Hydraulic Press - Longer strokes than
mechanical presses, and develop full
force throughout the stroke. Stroke
motion is of uniform speed, especially
adapted to deep drawing operations.

Dies and Punches
Simple Die- single operation with a single stroke
Compound Die- two operations with a single stroke
Combination Die- two operations at two stations
Progressive Die- two or more operations at two or more stations

with each press stroke, creates what is called a strip development

Simple Die
Simple Dies: Simple dies or single
action dies perform single operation for
each stroke of the press slide. Such dies
are considered as cutting tools since, only
cutting operations are carried out. Figure
shows a simple compound die in which a
washer is made by one stroke of the
press.

Compound Die
Compound Die Stamping is the
process where the die separates
or blanks the part from a steel
strip in one stroke. A Compound
Die will perform multiple cuts or
punches in one stroke, as
compared to multiple strokes.

Combination Die
Combination dies are used
for operations involving more
than one operation on a work
station. The major difference
between compound dies and
combination dies is that in
these dies a cutting operation
is combined with with a
bending or drawing
operation, and hence the
name “combination dies”
Progressive dies & Punches

Tools and Accessories
Marking and measuring tools
Steel Rule : It is used to set out dimensions.
Try Square: Try square is used for making and testing angles of 90degree
Scriber : It used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces.
Divider : This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out

perpendicular lines, bisecting lines, etc

Thank You

Cutting Tools
• Straight snip - They have straight jaws and used for
straight line cutting.
• Curved snip - They have curved blades for making circular
cuts.
Straight snip Curved snip

Striking Tools
• Mallet - It is wooden-headed hammer of round or rectangular
cross section. The striking face is made flat to the work. A
mallet is used to give light blows to the Sheet metal in
bending and finishing.
Types of Mallets
Environmental aspects of sheet metal forming
Industrial emissions must be dramatically reduced to avoid the potentially dangerous
effects of climate change. In order to contribute to the necessary cuts. The processes
considered include traditional methods, such as drawing and stretch forming, and newer
technologies developed in recent decades such as hydroforming (fluid cell forming),
superplastic forming, and incremental sheet forming.The case studies have been
conducted by Denial R.Cooper(2017) which include electrical power measurements on
the forming machines and also consider the impacts of making the dies, sheet metal,
and lubricant. Cradle-to-gate energy demands and environmental impacts are modeled
in Sima Pro using data based on eco-invent database values. The results show that idling
consumes significant electricity; however, other than for incremental forming, the
impacts of press electricity are small compared to the impacts of making the sheet
metal. The case studies inform generalized models for each process that allow per part
impacts to be estimated based only on final part material, size (surface area, thickness,
and depth), and the number of parts produced over the die-set life span.

Contd.
The models are used to investigate the potential to reduce cradle-to-gate
energy requirements by using incremental forming instead of drawing to form
parts. It is found that there are significant potential savings for small
production runs, consistent with part development/prototyping. However,
these savings vary depending on the part size and the relative buy-to-fly ratio
(material yield) of the two processes.
The results of this study highlight that for small production numbers over the
die life span the impacts of die-making are important. However, as production
numbers increase above one hundred parts per die-set, the impacts of making
the sheet metal become dominant. It is therefore concluded that researchers
interested in reducing the environmental impacts of sheet metal forming
concentrate on innovations that would reduce sheet metal blanking and post-
forming trimming losses.

Recent trends in sheet metals and their formability in
manufacturing automotive panels
The social demands to performance and function of automobile have been become strict,
that is, natural resource saving, energy saving, countermeasures for environmental
pollution and driving safety have been highlighted from the viewpoint of global
environment. In order to solve these problems newly-developed materials as the following
have been applied to auto body parts; high strength steel sheets for weight reduction and
ensuring safety, aluminum alloy sheets for weight lightening, coated steel sheets for
improvement of anti-corrosion and steel-plastic sandwiched sheets for weight reduction
and vibration-damping. The practical application of these materials to auto body increased
year by year in Japan. The forming characteristics of these materials are, nevertheless,
generally inferior to those of such a conventional material as mild steel. In Journal of
material processing Technology(Hisashi Hayashi- volume -46)the authors introduce the
present status of the application of these materials to auto body parts and discuss the
problems on forming these materials from the point of material characteristics and forming
techniques.
Q.1) A square washer with 10 mm internal hole and 25 mm outer square is to be made from 1.5 mm thick
strip of 0.2 % carbon sheet on progressive die.
Given:
Ultimate shear strength =250 N/mm2
Penetration = 60 % of sheet thickness
Clearance = 6% of sheet thickness
Find
I. Find cutting force without staggering(forcing out) and no shear
II. Cutting force with staggering and no shear
III. Cutting force with staggering and with full shear(i.e.1.5 mm shear)
IV. Comment on above answers.
V. Punch and die size at blanking station.
Q.2) Washers of 30 mm 0D and 15 mm I.D. are to be made by press work from a PCS sheet of 1 mm thickness.
Considering elastic recovery of material, find:
(i) Clearance
(ii) Piercing die and punch sizes
(iii) Blanking die and punch sizes.

Q.3)A hole of 50 mm is to be produced in a steel plate of 2 mm thickness. The ultimate shear strength of
material is 440 N/mm2. If punching force is to be reduced to half the force using a punch without shear,
estimate amount of shear on punch. Take percentage of penetration as 35%.
Q-4) Find the total pressure, dimensions of tools to produce a washer 50 mm outside diameter with a 24 mm
hole from material 4 mm thick having a shear strength of 360 N/mm2.
Q-5) The symmetrical cup workpiece shown in fig.is to be made from cold rolled steel 0.8 mm thick. Make the
necessary calculations for designing the drawing die for this part.
Q-6)Calculate bending force for channel bending for the following data:
Thickness of blank = 3.2 mm
Bending length = L=900 mm
Die radius = punch radius = 9.5 mm
Ultimate tensile strength of the material = 400 N/mm2
K = 0.67 for channel bending.
Q-7) Estimate the blanking force to cut a blank 25mm wide and 30 mm long from a 1.5mm thick metal strip if
the ultimate shear stress of the material is 450 N/mm2. Also determine the workdone if the percentage
penetration is 25% of the metal thickness.

Q.8) A cup 5 cm in diameter and 7.5 cm deep is to be drawn from 1.5 mm thick drawing sheet with a tensile
strength of 315 N/mm². The corner radius is negligible. Determine :
(i) Blank diameter
(ii) Number of drawing operations
(iii) Force and energy for the first draw with 40% reduction.

Thank You

SHEET METAL WORKING
1. Introduction
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless
everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary significantly, although
extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are
considered plate.
2. Sheet metal processing
The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of the rolling process.
Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size. If the sheets are thin and
very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore the first step in any sheet metal process is to cut
the correct shape and sized ‘blank’ from larger sheet.
3. Sheet metal forming processes

Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major classifications and one minor
classification
● Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or separate
the material.
● Forming processes -- processes which cause the metal to undergo desired shape changes
without failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes bending and stretching.
● Finishing processes -- processes which are used to improve the final surface
characteristics.
3.1 Shearing Process
1. Punching: shearing process using a die and punch where the interior portion of the sheared
sheet is to be discarded.
2. Blanking: shearing process using a die and punch where the exterior portion of the shearing
operation is to be discarded.
3. Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet
4. Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces
5. Notching: removing pieces from the edges
6. Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material
Fig.1Shearing Operations: Punching, Blanking and Perforating
3.2 Forming Processes

● Bending: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by
bending without failure. Ref fig.2 & 2a
● Stretching: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change
by stretching without failure. Ref fig.3
● Drawing: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by
drawing without failure. Ref fig.4
● Roll forming: Roll forming is a process by which a metal strip is progressively bent as it
passes through a series of forming rolls. Ref fig.5
Fig.2 Common Die-Bending Operations

Fig.2a Various Bending Operations
Fig.3 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process.

Fig.4 Schematic of the Drawing process.
Fig.5 Eight-roll sequence for the roll forming of a box channel
3.3 Finishing processes

Material properties, geometry of the starting material, and the geometry of the desired final
product play important roles in determining the best process
4. Equipments
Basic sheet forming operations involve a press, punch, or ram and a set of dies
4.1 Presses
● Mechanical Press - The ram is actuated using a flywheel. Stroke motion is not uniform.
Ref fig.6
● Hydraulic Press - Longer strokes than mechanical presses, and develop full force
throughout the stroke. Stroke motion is of uniform speed, especially adapted to deep
drawing operations. Ref fig.7
Fig.6 Mechanical Press
Fig.7 Hydraulic Press

4.2 Dies and Punches
● Simple- single operation with a single stroke
● Compound- two operations with a single stroke
● Combination- two operations at two stations
● Progressive- two or more operations at two or more stations with each press stroke,
creates what is called a strip development
Fig 8 Progressive dies Punches
5. Tools and Accessories

The various operations such as cutting, shearing, bending, folding etc. are performed
by these tools.
5.1 Marking and measuring tools

● Steel Rule - It is used to set out dimensions.
● Try Square - Try square is used for making and testing angles of 90degree
● Scriber – It used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces.
● Divider - This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines, bisecting
lines, etc
Fig.9
Marking and measuring tools
5.2 Cutting Tools

● Straight snip - They have straight jaws and used for straight line cutting. Ref fig.10
● Curved snip - They have curved blades for making circular cuts. Ref fig.10a
Ref fig.10 Straight snip
Ref Fig.10a Curved Snip

6. Striking Tools
● Mallet - It is wooden-headed hammer of round or rectangular cross section. The
striking face is made flat to the work. A mallet is used to give light blows to the
Sheet metal in bending and finishing. Ref fig.11
Fig.11 Types of Mallets
6. Merits
● High strength
● Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
● Relatively low cost
7. Demerits
● Wrinkling and tearing are typical limits to drawing operations
● Different techniques can be used to overcome these limitations
o Draw beads
o Vertical projections and matching grooves in the die and blank holder
● Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions
8. Applications
● Roofings
● Ductings
● Vehicles body buildings like 3 wheelers, 4 wheelers, ships, aircrafts etc.
● Furnitures, House hold articles and Railway equipment
9. Questions:
Part A
1. What is sheet metal work?
2. Write down any four sheet metal characteristics
3. What is meant by clearance?
4. What is stretching?
5. Define the term “spring back”
6. How force exerted on the form block is calculated
7. What are the formability test methods?
8. What is super plasticity of metals?
9. What is metal spinning process?
10. What is sheet metal?
Part B
11. What are Punching, Nibbling, Blanking, Piercing, tools/machines are needed for these
processes?
12. What is deep drawing? Provide a few examples of products/parts made using deep
drawing operations.
13. What is progressive die stamping?
14. Describe shearing operations in a sheet metal work with a neat sketch
15. Describe various types of bending operations with its neat sketches
16. Explain any one method of stretch forming operation with a neat sketch
17. Explain hydro forming process with its neat sketches. State their advantage and
applications
18. Explain the power spinning process with a neat sketch .give their applications
19. How magnetic pulse forming process is carried out on sheet metal?Explain peen forming
process with a neat sketch
20. What is super plastic of metal? How this process is carried out on sheet metals?
END
11. References
Book
● Manufacturing Technology by Hajra choudry
● Sheet metal working by Robert cook
Website
● www.efunda.com
● www.esnips.com
Chapter 2
Unit-5
Sheet Metal Working Process

Introduction
• Metals having thickness usually less than 5 mm is called “Sheet”.
• Metals having thickness more than 5 mm called “Plate”.
• Cutting of sheet metal is done by thermal cutting
• Operations in sheet metal working is performed on a press
• Operations carried out in sheet metal working is called ‘Press Working’ or “Stamping”
• Gauge number of sheet gives its thickness. e.g-Gauge 10 has thickness 3.2 mm, as gauge number increases,
thickness of sheet decreases.
• Tooling that performs sheet metal works is called Punch and Die
Cutting Operations
 Cutting is done by shearing operation between two sharp cutting edges.

 Upper cutting edge seeps down past the stationary lower cutting edge.
 As punch begins to push into work, plastic deformation occurs in the surface of the sheet.
 As the punch move downward, penetration occurs where punch compress the sheet and cut into metal.
 Fracture initiated at two cutting edges and if the clearance between punch and die is correct, two fracture line
meets resulting in clean separation of work into two pieces
Characteristics features
1. Rollover- This is the region at the top of cut surface. It corresponds to the depression made by the punch in the work
prior to cutting
2. Burnish- It is a smooth region and results from penetration of punch into the work before fracture begins.
3. Fractured Zone- It is rough surface of cut edge downward movement of punch cause the fracture of the metal
4. Burr- Sharp corner on the edge caused by elongation of metal during final separation of the metal into two pieces
Punching and Blanking Operations
Analysis
• Clearance can be calculated by the following formula:
c = Ac * t
where Ac is clearance allowance and recommended for three metals groups (Al
alloy- 0.045), soft cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel (0.060) and stainless steel, half- hard,
cold rolled (0.075)
Clearance values can be applied to conventional blanking and hole punching operations to determine the
proper punch and die sizes. The die opening must always be larger than the punch size. Whether to add
the clearance value to the die size or subtract it from the punch size depends on whether the part being
cut out is a blank or a slug.
Analysis of Punch and Blank sizes
Punch and die sizes for a round blank of diameter Db are determined as:
Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
Punch and die sizes for a round hole of diameter Dh are determined as:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
Estimates of cutting force to
determines the size (tonnage)
of the press needed.
Cutting force F in sheet metalworking
F = S *t *L
Numerical
A round disk of 150 mm diameter is to be blanked from a strip of 3.2-mm, half-hard cold
rolled steel whose shear strength is 310 MPa. Determine (a) the appropriate punch and die
diameters, and (b) blanking force
Solution- The clearance allowance for half-hard cold-rolled steel is Ac = 0.075.
c = 0:075 * 3.2 mm = 0.24 mm
The blank is to have a diameter = 150 mm, and die size determines blank size. Therefore,
Die opening diameter = 150 mm
Punch diameter = 150 - 2 * 0.24= 149:52 mm
(b) To determine the blanking force, we assume that the entire perimeter of the part is
blanked at one time.
The length of the cut edge is L =  * Db = 150 *  = 471.2 mm and
Force is F = 310 * (471.2 ) * 3.2 = 467469 N
= 53 ton
Strip Layout
T= stock thickness
A= distance between edge of strip and blank, called front or back scrap
B= distance between nearest point of blanks called scrap bridge
c-= die advance or lead of the die
H= height of the blank or diameter for circular blank
W= width of the strip =h+2a
L= length of the strip
a = t + 0.015 h
• In the given figure, strip thickness is 3.2 mm, and dimension h of
blank is 10 cm and width is 2.5 cm. Calculate back scrap, scrap bridge,
width of the strip and length of the one piece of stock needed to
produce one part
Drawing and Deep Drawing
• Punch forces a flat sheet metal blank into die cavity
• Shallow drawing- Depth of drawn cup is upto half of diameter (h<d/2)
• Deep drawing- Depth of formed cup exceeds diameter (h>d)
Stresses in drawing-
As punch forces the blank in die cavity, blank diameter decreases and the
causes the blank to become thicker in outer portion
To avoid wrinkle due to high stresses blank holder is used
Portion between die wall and punch surface is subjected to pure tension and
tend to stretch and become thinner
Deep Drawability
• Drawing ratio = Maximum blank diameter/ Diameter of cup drawn= D/d
• Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) = Punch makes the hole instead of drawing that ration is called limiting drawing
ratio (LDR). This ratio is 1.6 to 2.3
• Design of Die:
Radius of die- Die edges have smooth radius. If it too small, results in cutting tearing. If it is too large, it may cause
wrinkle in metals
Radius of die (rd) = (4 to 10) * Blank thickness(t)

Punch Radius (rp) = 4 * Stock thickness (t)
Draw Clearance = Clearance between punch and die should be more than stock thickness
C= 1.25 * Stock thickness(t)
So, Punch Diameter = Die Diameter – 2.5 (t)
• Number of draws required in Drawing:
In deep drawing operation, depth of cup is more.
The ratio of blank diameter ‘D’ to cup (shell) diameter ‘d’ is known as drawing coefficient.
K = D/d and it should not exceeds 1.5 to 2.0
Degree of deformation or draw ratio = d/D * 100
It is also defined as h/D, where h is height of the shell
h/D Upto 0.7 0.7 to 1.5 1.5 to 3 3.4 to 7
No. of draws 1 2 3 4
required
Determination of Blank Size for Drawing
• Cylindrical shell without flange- A circular blank is used
Unit-VI:Lathe Machine
Dr.B.S.Rathod

Review of Unit V: Sheet Metal Working
➢Sheet metal working: cutting and bending operations, drawing,
➢Dies and presses for sheet metal processes,
➢ Engineering analysis of sheet-metal cutting, bending and drawing,
➢Stretch forming,
➢Roll bending and forming,
➢ Spinning and
➢High-energy rate forming.
➢Applications of Sheet Metal Working:
Shipbuilding,marine,Aerospace &Automotive industries,construction
industries,Mechanical industries,sheet metal industries,fabrication.
1. To familiarize students with major manufacturing processes.
2. To describe the operations and tools for major manufacturing processes.
3. To interpret the knowledge about manufacturing processes, parameters and their
effects on performance.
4. To interpret the knowledge about manufacturing processes, parameters and their
effects on performance.
• Evaluate machining processes (force, energy, machining time and tool life)
and thread cutting and taper turning operations .

Unit VI: Lathe Machine
(Substraction group)
➢Lathe,
➢types of lathe,
➢ construction of lathe machine,
➢accessories and attachments of lathe,
➢specification of lathe,
➢ taper and taper turning,
➢ thread cutting,
➢drilling on lathe,
➢cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and machining time.
What is Lathe Machine
A lathe is a machine tool that removes the unwanted material from a rotating
workpiece in the form of chips with the help of a tool that is traversed across the
work and can be fed deep into the work.

Types of Lathe Machine
1) Centre lathe or engine lathe
2) Speed lathe
3) Capstan and turret lathe
4) Tool room lathe
5) Bench lathe
6) Automatic lathe
7) Special lathe
8) CNC lathe machine
9) DNC Lathe machine
The most common machine tool is a lathe, which can be divided into different
types according to different processing conditions for the turning process.

1. Center Lathe Or Engine Lathe
This type of lathe is currently widely used and can perform operations such as turning, end face,
grooving, knurling, and threading. The feed mechanism of the engine lathe can operate the
cutting tool in both longitudinal and lateral directions.
The center lathe can be divided into belt drive, motor drive, and reducer depending on the drive
source. This type of lathe is widely used these days, capable of performing such operations as
turning, grooving, knurling, end face, and threading.
The feed mechanism of the engine lathe can operate the cutting tool in both longitudinal and
lateral directions. The center lathe can be divided into belt drive, motor drive, and reduction gear
depending on the drive source
2. Speed Lathe/Wood Lathe
These lathes can be of the table type or have the support legs cast and attached to the bed. These
lathes have most of the attachments that carry the other types of lathes but do not have power
provision.The high-speed lathe can also be called a wood lathe which can be operated at high
speed and operated manually. The speed range for high-speed lathes is between 1200 and 3600
RPM. This lathe is used for turning, centering, polishing, and processing wood.
You have no gear, no slide, and no lead screw. The tool is thus fed and operated by hand. Usually,
the tool is either mounted on a tool stand or supported on T-shaped support. Such lathes are
commonly used for turning, polishing, centering and metal spinning, etc.

3. Capstan And Turret Lathe
Capstan and turret lathes are improvements in engine lathes that can be used for high-
volume production and large jobs. The head of the machine tool is a hexagonal head, which
can be rotated to change the operation without manual change, including turning, end face,
boring, and reaming.
4. Toolroom Lathe
It’s nothing but the same power lathe, but with some extra attachments to make it suitable
for a relatively more accurate angle of speeds and feeds. The usual attachments that are
made available on a machine tool lathe are tapered turning attachments, driver support,
collets, chucks, etc.
This lathe has a comparatively smaller bed longer than the usually motorized lathe. The
most common lengths are 135 to 180 cm.
5. Bench Lathe
It is a very small lathe and is mounted on a separately prepared workbench or cupboard. It
is used for small and precise work as it is very accurate. It is typically equipped with all of the
attachments that a larger lathe will carry and can perform almost any larger lathe operation.

6. Automatic Lathe
These lathes go a long way towards improving both the quality and quantity of production. They are designed in
such a way that all work and order processing movements of the entire manufacturing process for an order are
carried out automatically.
No operator involvement is required during operation. Another variant of this type of lathes is the semi-automatic
lathes, in which the operator puts the work on and takes off, while all operations are carried out automatically by
the machine.
Automatic lathes are available with a single or multi-spindle version. They fall into the category of high-performance
high-speed lathes, which are mainly used in mass production.
7. Special Lathe
Special lathes are used to perform special operations that are not possible with the rest of the lathe. Special lathes
include vertical lathes, wheeled lathes, T-type lathes, multi-axis lathes, production lathes, duplex or tracer lathes,
etc., which are known for their heavy-duty production of the same parts.
8. CNC Lathe
The CNC lathe is used to control the operation of the machine tool through a computer program. Once the program
is input in steps, mass production can be performed with high precision and high speed, and once the operation
code is set, it can be produced without re-entering the next time.
CNC lathes are the most advanced types of lathes available today, and the tolerances of the parts they produce are
extremely precise.
9. DNC Lathe : Direct numerical control

What is NC Machines ?
NC means numerical Control machines:
The process of controlling the machine and its operations by means
of prepared programmes. It consists of blocks or series of
numbers. (control by nos.)
• What is CNC?
• CNC means Computer Numerical Control.
• A form of programmable automation.
• Typical program containing coded alphanumeric data, such as
G01 X30 Z 80 D0.5 F10 S2000 M03 etc.
The data represent relative positions between a cutting tool and a
workpiece
20 December 2021 B.S. Ra thod 12

3.Generation of CNC Lathe
1st generation - Capstan and Turret lathe
2nd generation - Single spindle Automat lathe
3rd generation - Multispindle Automat lathe
4th generation - NC lathe
5th generation – CNC lathe
6th generation – DNC lathe

Parts of a lathe
• The main parts of the lathe are
1. Headstock
The headstock is usually located on the left side of the lathe and is equipped with gears,
spindles, chucks, gear speed control levers, and feed controllers. The headstock is usually
on the left side of the lathe and is equipped with gears, spindles, chucks, gear speed
control levers, and feed control
2. Tailstock
The workpiece is usually on the right side of the lathe and supported by Tailstock at the
end.
3. Bed
The main parts of the lathe, all parts are bolted to the bed. It includes the headstock,
tailstock, carriage rails, and other parts.
4. Carriage
• The carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock and contains an apron,
Dr.B.S.Rathod,
saddle, composite Department
support, of Mechanical
cross slide, and toolEngineering,
holder. VIIT , Pune-48 15
Construction of Center Lathe
• 5. Lead Screw
• The lead screw is used to move the carriage automatically during threading.
• 6. Feed Rod
• It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.
• 7. Chip Pan
• It’s on the bottom of the lathe. The chip pan is used to collect the chips generated during
the lathe operation.
• 8. Hand Wheel
• The wheel is hand-operated to move a cross slide, carriage, tailstock, and other parts with a
handwheel.
• 9. Chuck
• It allows the mounting of difficult workpieces that are not round, square, or triangular.
• 10. Cooling Device
The cooling device mainly uses a cooling water pump to suppress the slotted liquid in the water
tank, spray it on the cutting point, wash the chips, and lower the cutting temperature. Smooth
the surface to improve tool and tool life. Surface processing quality of the workpiece.
11. Legs
They are supports that carry the entire weight of the machine over them. The prevailing method
is to use cast legs. Both feet are firmly secured to the floor through foundation spots to prevent
vibration in the machine.
12. Slide Box
This is the control box for the feed movement of the lathe. It is furnished with a mechanism that
turns the rotary motion of the light rod and the lead screw to the linear motion of the tool post.
13. Spindle
The hole through the headstock to which bar stock can be fed, which allows shafts that are up to
2 times the length between lathe centers to be worked on one end at a time.
14. Cross Slide
Mounted on the traverse slide of the carriage, and uses a handwheel to feed tools into the
workpiece.
15. Apron
Attached to the front of the carriage, it has the mechanism and controls for moving the carriage
and cross slide
Major Components of a Lathe M/c
• The six(6) major
components of an engine
lathe are:
• Bed
• Headstock
• Tailstock
• Carriage
• Feed mechanism
• Thread cutting mechanism
1) Bed
• The foundation of a lathe
is the bed. The bed
provides the main rigid
part and is the primary
source to the alignment
of the other major
components of the lathe.
2) Headstock
• The headstock is
permanently mounted
on the bed of the lathe.
It contains all
arrangements which
rotate the work piece.
3) Tailstock
• The tailstock is an assembly
of components that is
mounted to the lathe bed.
The tailstock mounting
differs from the headstock
mounting, in that, the
tailstock is free to move
along the guide ways of the
bed.
4) Tailstock
• The primary function of the tailstock is to provide
support to the work piece and holding tools such as
drills and reamers.
5) Carriage
• The Carriage assembly

composed of:
1. A Saddle, which is an
"H" shaped casting
machined to fit the
guide ways of the bed.
Cross slide
2. A Cross slide, which can
be moved
perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the
spindle
Compound slide
3. A Compound rest is
mounted on the cross
slide. The compound
rest supports the cutting
tool and provides
adjustment for the tool
into a variety of
positions.
Tool post
4. Tool Post
Why Machining is Important
• Variety of work materials can be machined
− Most frequently applied to metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometry
features possible, such as:
− Screw threads
− Accurate round holes
− Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining
• Wasteful of material
− Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
• Time consuming
− A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence
• Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
− Other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart
− Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create

Machining Operations
• Most important machining operations:
− Turning
− Drilling
− Milling
• Other machining operations:
− Shaping and planing
− Broaching
− Sawing

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges

Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative to
work to generate plane or straight surface
• Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling

Contd…
(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and
(b) A helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges

Cutting Conditions for Turning
Fig.Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning operation

Lathe Tools
For general purpose work, the tool used is a single point tool, but for special operations,
multipoint tools may use. Watch the below-mentioned video to get understand lathe
machine operation.
In lathe machine work, different operations require different types of lathe cutting tools,
according to the process of using the lathe cutting tools. which are as follow,
Types Of Lathe Cutting Tools
Different Types of Lathe Cutting Tools:
1. Turning Tool.
2. Boring Bar
3. Chamfering Tool
4. Knurling Tool
5. Parting Tool
6. Thread Cutting Tool
7. Facing Tool
8. Grooving Tool
There is a wide range of lathe tools that can be classified according to materials, structures,
and purposes or Dr.B.S.Rathod,
uses. Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 38
1. Turning Tool: Turning tools are designed for removing the materials from the stock, a rough turning tool is used to
remove the maximum amount of material and the finishing turning tool is serve for good surface quality, just
remove a small amount, to make the piece more accurate.
2. Boring Bar: A boring bar is required when you want to make an existed hole bigger, a boring bar can easily bore
into the hole that is already drilled, and widen its diameter. It can enlarge the hole quickly and process it in the
proper size to fit other components correctly.
3. Chamfering Tool: Chamfer is a transitional edge between two faces of an object, also defined as a form of the
bevel. The chamfering tool is used to create a bevel or furrow on the part. A chamfer can be used to smooth sharp
or hazardous edges on a workpiece.
4. Knurling Tool: Knurling tools are used to produce knurled lathe parts, through creating or pressing a pattern onto
a round section, used as a grip for a handle, also usually created on fasteners like nuts. A knurling tool is designed
with a specific pattern.
5. Parting Tool: A parting tool refers to a narrow-bladed tool used in turning or planing or for cutting a piece in two,
or defined as a tool used for cutting off pieces from the main body of stock being machined, it is manufactured in
many forms.
6. Thread Cutting Tool: Thread cutting tools are used to cut a thread on the lathe part. In external thread cutting, the
piece can be held in a chuck or mounted between two centers, in internal thread cutting, the part is held in a
chuck, the tool moves across the part linearly, taking chips off the workpiece with each pass.
7. Facing Tool: A facing tool is used for facing operation on the lathe to cut flat surface perpendicular to the piece’s
rotational axis, the tool is mounted into a tool holder that rests on the carriage of the lathe, during the process,
the facing tool will feed perpendicularly across the rotational axis of the part.

8. Grooving Tool: A grooving tool is usually a carbide insert mounted in a special tool holder, it’s
designed to an insert with multiple tips, often ground to the dimensions and shape required for a
particular job, including cutting a slot and complete other work.
9.Forming Tool: Forming tools are made flat or circular in shape when used in the lathe. Simple
forming tools have cutting edges ground to the shape of the groove, undercut, or thread to be
cut.
10.Shoulder Turning Tool: A square shoulder is turned by a knife-edge turning tool or facing tool.
A beveled shoulder may be turned by a straight turning tool having a side cutting edge angle and
zero nose radius. A filleted shoulder is turned by a straight turning tool with a nose radius
corresponding to the fillet radius of the work.
11.Counterboring Tool: The counterboring operation can be performed by an ordinary boring
tool. The tool cutting edge is so ground that it can leave a shoulder after turning. A counterbore
having multiple cutting edges is commonly used.
12.Undercutting Tool: Undercutting or grooving tool has a point and form of the cutting edge
exactly similar to the form of the required groove. Clearance angle is given at all the sides of the
tool. For the recessing groove cutting edge, the longitudinal feed is employed. The front
clearance angle depends upon the bore of the work.
Lathe Tools

Lathe Operations
A lathe is a tool that rotates the work-piece on its axis to perform various
operations such as cutting, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with
tools that are applied to the work-piece to create an object with symmetry about
an axis of rotation.
To operate the lathe first, we must know the feed rates, cutting speed, depth of
cut, and how the tool is used. Each lathe operation has its own factors that must
be considered before starting work.
The factors should be used properly so that mishandling and mishaps are avoided
in any type of lathe operation. With every cut desired the speed, depth, and feed
of the lathe are changed for reasons of precision.
The working of the lathe machine changes with every operation and cut desired.
There is a lot of operation used for using the lathe machine. Some of the common
lathe operations are:
Lathe Operations
1) Turning
Turning is the most common lathe machining operation. During the turning process, a cutting tool removes material
from the outer diameter of a rotating workpiece. The main objective of turning is to reduce the workpiece diameter
to the desired dimension. There are two types of turning operations, rough and finish.
A. Rough Turning: Rough turning aims to machine a workpiece to a predefined thickness by removing the
maximum amount of material in the shortest possible time without taking into account the accuracy and
surface quality. The finish turning produces a smooth surface finish and the workpiece with the final, exact
dimensions.
B. Step Turning: Step turning creates two surfaces with an abrupt change in diameters between them. The final
feature resembles a step.
C. Taper Turning: With taper turning, the inclined movement between the workpiece and the cutting tool creates
a ramp transition between the two surfaces with different diameters.
D. Contour Turning: During contour turning, the cutting tool follows the path axially with a predefined geometry.
Several passes of a contour tool are required to create the desired contours in the workpiece. However,
molding tools can produce the same contour shape in a single pass.
E. Champer Turning: Similar to step turning, bevel turning creates an angled transition of an otherwise right-
angled edge between two surfaces with different turning diameters.
F. Form turning: In this method, a specially shaped tool is used. The tool is inserted radially. Feed for forming:
Radial. Diagram for lathe machine operation which involves facing, forming, and contour turning.
2. Facing
During machining, the workpieces are slightly longer than the finished part should be. Facing is the machining of the
end of a workpiece that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. When facing, the tool moves along the workpiece
radius to create the desired part length and a smooth face by removing a thin layer of material.
3. Parting
Parting is a machining operation that results in a part cut-off at the end of the machining cycle. The process uses a
tool with a specific shape to enter the workpiece perpendicular to the rotating axis and make a progressive cut while
the workpiece rotates.
After the edge of the cutting tool reaches the center of the workpiece, the workpiece drops off. A part catcher is
often used to catch the removed part.
4. Grooving
Grooving is a turning process that creates a narrow cut, a “groove”, in the workpiece. The size of the cut depends on
the width of a cutting tool. Multiple tool passes are required to machine wider grooves.
There are two types of grooving operations, external and face grooving. A tool moves radially laterally into the
workpiece with external grooving and removes the material along the cutting direction. With face grooving, machine
tools pierce the face of the workpiece.
5. Threading
Threading is a turning process in which a tool moves along the side of the workpiece and cuts threads on the outer
surface. A thread is a uniform spiral groove with a specific length and pitch. Deeper threads require multiple passes
of a tool.

6. Knurling
The knurling process creates serrated patterns on the surface of a part. Knurling increases the gripping friction and the
visual appearance of the machined part. This machining process uses a unique tool made up of one or more cylindrical
wheels (knurls) that can rotate in the tool holders.
The knurls contain teeth that are rolled against the surface of the workpiece to form serrated patterns. The most
common knurled nib is a diamond pattern.
7. Boring
When boring, a tool penetrates the workpiece axially and removes material along the inner surface to either create
different shapes or to enlarge an existing hole.
8. Drilling
During the drilling process, the material is removed from the interior of a workpiece. The result of drilling is a hole with
a diameter equal to the size of the drill used. Drills are typically positioned on either a tailstock or a lathe tool holder.
9. Reaming
Reaming is a calibration process that enlarges the hole in the workpiece. When reaming, the reamer penetrates axially
through the end into the workpiece and expands an existing hole to the diameter of the tool.
Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often done after drilling to achieve both a more accurate
diameter and a smoother internal finish.
10. Tapping
Tapping is the process by which a thread cutting tool penetrates axially into the workpiece and cuts the thread into an
existing hole. The whole corresponds to a corresponding bit size that the desired thread cutting tool can accommodate.
Tapping is also the process of making threads on nuts.

Lathe Operations

Lathe Operations
1) Turning Operations
To produce straight, conical, formed, or grooved
workpieces such as shafts, spindles and pins
Lathe Operations
2) Facing Operations
To produce flat surface at the end of the part, which are
useful for parts that are attached to other components.
Lathe Operations
3) Boring Operations
To enlarge hole or cylindrical cavity made by a previous
process or to produce circular internal grooves
Boring
Lathe Operations
4) Drilling
To produce a hole, which may be followed by boring to
improve its accuracy and surface finish
Lathe Operations
5) Threading
To produce external or internal threads
Lathe Operations
6) Knurling Operations
To produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical
surfaces
Lathe Operations
7) Parting or Cutting off Operations
To cut a piece from the end of a part
Drilling
• Drills are mounted into the tail stock. The drill may initially turn with the
part until enough pressure is applied to tighten the drill in the holder. If the
drill does not stop rotating under pressure a "dog leg" may be used to stop
its rotation.
Grooving & Thread Cutting

Taper Turning Methods

Machining of screw threads
Screw threads are cut with the lathe for accuracy and for
versatility. Both inch and metric screw threads can be cut using
the lathe. A thread is a uniform helical groove cut inside of a
cylindrical wor-kpiece, or on the outside of a tube or shaft.

Thread Cutting on a Lathe

Thread Cutting Mechanism

Thread angle gauge
Thread Pitch gauge

Gear Train Calculation

Thread Cutting setup

Lathe Applications
The Applications of Lathe Machine are :
1. Lathe use to make round or partially round parts.
2. Use for cut-off material.
3. Lathe machine uses in Bore and drill holes or Knurl a knob.
4. Polish a surface of a round part and Taper a shaft.
5. Face or dress rough stock.
6. Bevel an edge.
7. Producing external & internal threads.
8. Keyways.
9. Drill holes
10. Milling operations
11. Grinding Operations etc.

Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Of Lathe
1. The accuracy is very high in the case of CNC lathes compared to Normal Machining lathes.
2. The production rate is high.
3. No need for highly skilled operators.
4. Full automation, allowing for easier, quicker work.
5. The machining in the lathe and CNC lathe was very fast.
6. Highly versatile, allowing for use in the creation of all kinds of products and parts.
Disadvantages Of Lathe
1. If maintenance was not good, it would damage the parts of the machine by not using
lubrication.
2. The device also wears off rapidly, if the operator is not good enough to handle the experiment.
3. Due to the speed of the bite, the smell will be very high in the atmosphere which also affects
health.
4. These machines were more expensive than other conventional machines as you can perform
almost all operations on a lathe.

Cutting Conditions in Machining
• The three dimensions of a machining process:
− Cutting speed,v(m/min) – primary motion
− Feed, f(mm/rev) – secondary motion
− Depth of cut, d(mm) – penetration of tool below
original work surface
• For certain operations, material removal rate can be
found as
MRR = v x f x d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
Lathe Specifications

Lathe Accessories
1) Chuck- 3jaw,4 jaw chucks,magnetic chuck,hydraulic chuck,pneumatic chuck
2) Centres-Dead centre,half dead centre,revolving centre,pipe centre
3) Dogs or carrier- Straight tail carrier, bend tail carrier
4) Driving plate-
5) Face plate-
6) Angle plate-
7) Mandrel-
8) Rests- Steady rest, follower rest
9) Taper turning attachment-
10) Grinding attachment-

Lathe Accessories
3 jaw chuck 4 Jaw chuck

Lathe Centers
2) Half dead Centre
1) Revolving Centre & Plain Centre 3) Pipe Centre

Face Plate

Steady Rest & Follower Rest
1) Steady Rest 2) Follower Rest

Dogs & Carriers
1) Straight Tail Carrier 2) Bend Tail Carrier

Problems on Taper Turning
Prob.1) Calculate the tailstock set over for turning a taper on a job whose
diameters are 80 mm and 60 mm. The length of job is 350 mm and length of
tapered portion is 250 mm.(Ans:14 mm)
Prob.2) Find the setting required for turning a taper of Ø85 mm to Ø75 mm over
a length of 200 mm, while the length of the job is 300 mm between centres.
Tailstock offset is used for generating the prescribed taper. (Ans: h= 7.5 mm)
Prob.3) Calculate the amount of offset of tailstock for turning taper on full length
of a job 10 mm long to have its two diameters as 50 mm & 40 mm.(Amount of
offset: 1:10)
Prob.4) Find the angle at which the compound rest should be set upto turn taper
on the workpiece having a length of 200 mm, larger dia.45 mm and smaller dia.
30 mm. (α = 20 9’)

Problems On Thread Cutting
Prob.5) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch. It has
double start right handed threads on lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw available gears
are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth. (Ans:D/d=3/6=30/60)
Prob.6) Calculate change gears for cutting LH threads of 2 mm pitch on a lead screw 6 mm
pitch. Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth.
(Ans:D/d=2/6=20/60)
Prob.7) A screw of 1.5 mm pitch is to be cut on a lathe machine having a lead screw of 4
TPI. Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth
(Ans:D/d=2/6=20/60)
Prob.8) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch it has double
start RH threads on a lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw. Available change gears are 20
teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth. What modification is required for cutting left hand
threads? (Ans:D/d=1/2=20T/40T)
Problems on Machining Time
Prob.9) Calculate the required RPM of workpiece of 100 mm diameter to provide a C.S. of 50 m/min. Also find
machining time if length of workpiece is40 mm and feed is 0.4 mm/rev. (Ans: T=6.283 min)
Prob.10) The hollow workpiece of 60 mm O/S dia.and 160 mm length is held on mandrel between centers and turn all
over in 3 passes. If the approach length is 30 mm. Over travel is 10 mm, cutting speed is 50 m/min.and average feed is
0.6mm/rev.then calculate machining time. (Ans: T=2.8275 min)
Prob.11) A part of 25 mm dia.and 50 cm length is to be turned down to 23.5 cm for length. Assume feed as 1mm/rev
and C.S as 235 m/min.The max.allowable depth of cut is 5 mm.What are the speed,spindle rpm and cutting time.Take
overtravel is 12.5 mm. (Ans: T=5.863 min)
Prob.12) Calculate time required for one complete cut on a workpiece of 300 mm long and 60 mm dia. The C.S. is 28
m/min and feed is 0.05 mm/rev. (Ans: T=40.39 min)
Prob.13) Calculate machining time for workpiece of dia.90 mmand 130 mm length turned in 2 passes. If approach
length is 12 mm and over travel of 5 mm. Given C.S=30 m/min and feed 0.3 mm/rev.
(Ans: T=9.2362 min)
Prob.14) Calculate machining time required to reduce 60 mm dia.shaft to 50 mm dia. For a length of 1300 mm with
depth of cut 2 mm for rough cut and 1mm fir finish cut. Cutting speed = 30 m/min, feed 0.7 mm/rev, approach length =
6mm, overrun length=5 mm, no.of passes = 3 (2 rough cut + 1 finish cut)
(Ans: T=35.30 min)
Prob.15) In turning operation following operation is observed.
D=100 mm, l=400 mm, C.S,V=800 mm/sec, feed, f =0.4 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time.
What will be effect on machining time of C.S is increased by 60 %?(Ans: T=0.8841 min)
Thank You

LATHE MACHINE
Working Pinciple of Lathe : : Lathe is a machine used to remove the material with single point
cutting tool to give required shape and size to the workpiece by rotating the workpiece and
giving the feed to the tool.
Types
● Speed Lathes
● Engine Lathes
● Tool Room Lathes and
● Turret Lathes
● Capstan Lathe Single spingle autpmat Lathe
● Multispindle Automat
● NC Lathe
● CNC Lathe
● DNC Lathe
Speed Lathes
It is very simple is design. It only has headstock, tailstock and a very simple tool post. It can
operate in 3-4 speeds. The spindle speed is very high. It is used for light machine works like
wood turning, metal spinning and metal polishing.
Engine Lathes
Engine lathes are the most common types of lathe machine. It is designed for low power
operations as well as high power operations. Various lengths of the machine is available. The
length can be up to 60 feet. Engine lathe is commonly seen in every machine shop. Various
metals can be machines. The machine can operates at a wide range of speed ratios.
Tool room Lathes

It is a very versatile lathe machine. It can give better accuracy and finishing . It has wider range
of speeds . It can give different types of feeds. It can be a great device to manufacture die.
Turret Lathes
It is a great machine for quick operations. It has various types of tool posts mounted on a single
structure. As a number of tools are set up on machine, the job can be completed very quickly
with the help of a single setup. A capstan wheel is used to position the next tool. A sequential
machining process can be done by using the turret lathe without moving the workpiece. It
eliminates the error that occurs due to misalignment.
Lathe machine: Main Parts, Operation and Working

We have briefly discussed about parts and working of lathe machine in upper section of this article.
Now we will describe it.
Parts of Lathe Machine:
The lathe consist following parts.
1) BED
The bed of the lathe provides the foundation for the whole machine and holds the headstock,
tailstock and carriage in alignment. The surfaces of the bed that are finely machined - and upon
which the carriage and tailstock slide - are known as "ways".
Some beds have a gap near the headstock to allow extra-large diameters to be turned. Sometimes
the gap is formed by the machined ways stopping short of the headstock, sometimes by a piece
of bed that can be unbolted, removed--and lost.
Some very large lathes have a "sliding bed" where the upper part, on which the carriage and
tailstock sit, can be slid along a separate lower part - and so make the gap correspondingly larger
or smaller.
2) Head stock
The head stock is the part of the lathe which serves as a housing for the driving pulleys and back
gears, provides bearing for the machine spindle and keeps the latter in alignment with the bed. It
is a fixed part which will present on the left side of the lathe bed. Head stock will consists of a
hollow spindle and drives unit like main spindle, feed reverse lever, live center cone pulley etc.,
The tapered bar with pointed or projected end is going to grip the work piece between two
centers of lathe bed.
3) Tail stock
It is also sometimes called the LOOSE HEAD- STOCK or PUPPET HEAD. It is rested on right
side of the bed such that it is capable of sliding along the latter maintaining its alignment with the
head stock can be fixed at the required position with help of clamp and nut bolt with the base.
The main function of the tail stock is---
1)To support to the workpiece at free end for longer taper which is being worked between centre
2)Used for drilling ,reaming and tapping operation
3)Used for taper turning by tailstock offset method
4) Carriage
The lathe carriage serves the purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the job
during the operation of the lathe. The carriage will present between head stock and tail stock
which will slides on the bed ways of the lathe bed. The carriage will give feed to the tool and it
holds the tool, for taper turning the feed is cross feed, for turning it is longitudinal feed. The
carriage consists of the following parts:-
a) Saddle
b) Cross-slide
c) Compound Rest
d) Tool post
e) Apron
a) Saddle
It is the part of the carriage which slides along the bed way and support the Cross-
slide,compound rest and Tool post.
b) Cross-slide
The cross-slide function is to provide cutting action to the tool and the action of cutting tool will
be perpendicular to lathe axis, can either be operated by hand, by means of the cross-feed screw,
or may be given power feed through the Apron Mechanism.
c) Compound Rest
The compound Rest is placed over the cross slide and it consists of a graduated circular base(0-
45-0 deg.) which is having swiveling base required for taper turning by compound slide method.
d) Tool post
It is the top most part of the carriage and is used for holding the tool or tool holder in position.
e) Apron
Apron houses the feed mechanism, clutch mechanism split half nut, gears, leavers, The apron
wheel can be rotated by hand for longitudinal motion of the carriage.
6) Lead Screw
It is a long threaded rod normally found running along the front of the bed or, on some early
examples running between the bed ways down the bed's centre line. By using a train of gears to
connect the lathe spindle to the leadscrew - and the leadscrew to the lathe carriage - the latter,
together with its cutting tool, could be forced to move a set distance for every revolution of the
spindle used for thread cutting operation.
7) Spindle
It is the main part of lathe supported by bearings in housing which holds and rotates the chuck.
8) Legs
They are the supports which carry the entire load of the machine over them.The prevailing
practice is to use cast legs. Both the legs are firmly secured to the floor by means of foundation
blots in order to prevent vibrations in the machine. One of these legs, usually the one on the left
hand side of the operator, serves as a housing for the electric motor and counter shaft etc., Both
these legs should be of robust construction.
Lathe Machine Operation & Working:

Lathe machine is used to cut the metal from cylindrical work piece, and convert it into desire shape.
It turns the cylindrical work piece, and during turning a sharp edge cutting tool introduce, which
cuts the metal. Its working can be described as follow. 1. A cylindrical work piece fixed to the
chuck. A chuck may have three jaw or for jaw according to the requirement. The work piece is at
the center or some eccentric according to the process perform.
2. The spindle starts to rotate and set it at desire speed. The spindle speed plays a huge role during
cutting. The spindle rotates the chuck and work piece.
3. Now check the work piece is turning properly. If it not set the work piece using dial gauge.
4. Now set the tool at desire feed by moving the tool post and carriage. The feed also play main
role during cutting. Large feed may cause unwanted temperature increase.
5. After it tool is introduce between moving work piece at desire feed rate. It cut the metal from
work piece. The feed rate is set at the cutting condition.
6. Now all unwanted metal is removed by moving the carriage form horizontally and vertically as
desire according to the job requirement. After complete all process we got a well finished job.
7. Lathe can perform turning, boring, chamfering, shaping, facing, drilling knurling, grooving as
shown in figure. Machining operations that can be performed on a lathe:
Machining operations that can be performed on a lathe

Lathe machines are highly versatile and capable of some machining processes that produce a
wide variety of shapes as the following list indicates:
Figure 3: Various machining operations that can be performed on a lathe
● Turning: [Fig. 3. (a-d)] to produce straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpieces, such
as shafts, spindles, and pins.
● Facing: [Fig. 3 (f)] to produce a flat surface at the end of the part and perpendicular to
its axis [Fig. 3 (e)], useful for parts that are assembled with other components. Face
grooving produces grooves for applications such as O-ring seats.
● Cutting with form tools: [Fig. 3 (g)] to produce various axisymmetric shapes for
functional or aesthetic purposes.
● Boring: [Fig. 3 (h)] to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made by a previous process or
to produce circular internal grooves.
● Drilling: [Fig. 3 (i)] to produce a hole, which may be followed by boring to improve its
dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
● Parting: [Fig. 3 (j)] also called cutting off, to cut a piece from the end of a part, as is done
in the production of slugs or blanks for additional processing into discrete products.
● Threading: [Fig. 3 (k)] to produce external or internal threads.
● Knurling: [Fig. 3 (l)] to provide a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical surfaces, as
in making knobs and handles.
TAPER TURNING METHODS :
There are five methods of taper turning
1. Form tool method
2. Tailstock set over method
3. Compound rest method
4. Taper turning attachment method
5.Taper turning by double hand feed
1) Form tool method
This is one of the simplest methods to produce short taper. This method is shown in the above
figure. To the required angle the form is grounded. The tool is fed perpendicular to the lathe axis,
when the work piece rotates.
The tool cutting edge length must be greater than the taper length. Since the entire cutting edge
removes the metal, it will produce a lot of vibration and hence a large force is required. It is done
in slow speed.
2) Tailstock set over method
Generally, when the angle of taper is very small and taper length is more this method will be
employed. The work piece be placed in the live centre and dead centre. Now, the tailstock will be
moved in a cross wise, that is perpendicular to the lathe axis by turning the set over method. This
process is known as tail stock set over method
Hence here the job is inclined to the required angle. When the work piece rotates the tool is
moved parallel to the lathe axis. So that the taper will be generated on the work piece.
Compound rest method
Generally short and steep taper will be produced will be produced using this method. In this
method the work piece will be held in the chuck and it will be rotated about the lathe axis. The
compound rest is swiveled to the required angle and then it will be clamped in position.
The angle is determined using the formula, tanɵ = D-d/2l
Then by using the compound rest hand wheel the tool will be fed. Both the internal and external
taper can be done using this method. The important feature is that the compound rest can be
swiveled up to 45° on both sides. Only with the help of the hand the tool should be moved.
Taper turning attachment method
In this method by using bottom plate or bracket, a taper turning attachment is attached to the rear
end of the bed. It has a guide bar which is usually pivoted as its center. The guide bar has the
ability to swing and it can be set in any required angle. It has graduations in degrees. On either
side, the guide bar can be sweivelled to a maximum angle of 10°. It has a guide block which
connects to the rear end of the cross slide and it moves on the guide bar. The binder screw is
removed, before connecting the cross slide, hence the cross slide is free from the cross slide
screw.
Usually during taper turning, the job will be held in the chucks or in the centers. To the required
angle the guide bar turned.
The angle is calculated using the formula, tanα = (D-d)/2l x L
When the division is given in mm instead of degree, then the angular distance of the guide bar to
be tilted is given by
Using the compound rest hand wheel the depth of cut will be given. At an half taper angle the
guide will be set. Using this method any taper turning method can be done.
3) Compound rest method
Generally short and steep taper will be produced will be produced using this method. In this
method the work piece will be held in the chuck and it will be rotated about the lathe axis. The
compound rest is swiveled to the required angle and then it will be clamped in position.
The angle is determined using the formula, tanα = (D-d)/2*l
Then by using the compound rest hand wheel the tool will be fed. Both the internal and external
taper can be done using this method. The important feature is that the compound rest can be
swiveled up to 45° on both sides. Only with the help of the hand the tool should be moved.
4) Taper turning attachment method
In this method by using bottom plate or bracket, a taper turning attachment is attached to the rear
end of the bed. It has a guide bar which is usually pivoted as its center. The guide bar has the
ability to swing and it can be set in any required angle. It has graduations in degrees. On either
side, the guide bar can be sweivelled to a maximum angle of 10°. It has a guide block which
connects to the rear end of the cross slide and it moves on the guide bar. The binder screw is
removed, before connecting the cross slide, hence the cross slide is free from the cross slide
screw.
Usually during taper turning, the job will be held in the chucks or in the centers. To the required
angle the guide bar turned.
The angle is calculated using the formula, tanα = (D-d)/2*l
When the division is given in mm instead of degree, then the angular distance of the guide bar to
be tilted is given by
Using the compound rest hand wheel the depth of cut will be given. At an half taper angle the
guide will be set. Using this method any taper turning method can be done.
4) Taper turning double hand feed method
In this method taper is produced by giving longitudinal and cross feed at a time manualy.This
method is used for rough taper turning
SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE
1) Height of centers over bed-

2) Maximum swing over bed-
3) Maximum swing over carriage-
4) Maximum swing over Gap--
5) Maximum distance b/w centers-
6) Length of bed-
7) No. of speeds and feeds-
8) Pitch of the lead screw-
9) Max.weight of machine-
10) Space occupied by the machine etc.
QUESTIONS
1) Using block diagram explain principle parts of a centre lathe machine
2) List the operation performed on a lathe and explain any two with figure
3) What are different type of taper turning methods.Explain taper turning by compound slide
method
4) How lathe machine specified?
Parts Of A Lathe
The Main Parts of the Lathe Machine are:
• Head Stock
• Tailstock
• Bed and
• Carriage
• Lead screw
• Feed rod
• Chip pan
• Hand Wheel
The main parts of the lathe are:
1. Headstock
The headstock is usually located on the left side of the lathe and is equipped with gears,
spindles, chucks, gear speed control levers, and feed controllers. The headstock is usually on
the left side of the lathe and is equipped with gears, spindles, chucks, gear speed control
levers, and feed controls.
2. Tailstock
The workpiece is usually on the right side of the lathe and supported by Tailstock at the end.
3. Bed
The main parts of the lathe, all parts are bolted to the bed. It includes the headstock, tailstock,
carriage rails, and other parts.
4. Carriage
The carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock and contains an apron, saddle,
composite support, cross slide, and tool holder.
5. Lead Screw
The lead screw is used to move the carriage automatically during threading.
6. Feed Rod
It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.
7. Chip Pan
It’s on the bottom of the lathe. The chip pan is used to collect the chips generated during the
lathe operation.
8. Hand Wheel
The wheel is hand-operated to move a cross slide, carriage, tailstock, and other parts with a
handwheel.
9. Chuck
It allows the mounting of difficult workpieces that are not round, square, or triangular.
10. Cooling Device

The cooling device mainly uses a cooling water pump to suppress the slotted liquid in the
water tank, spray it on the cutting point, wash the chips, and lower the cutting temperature.
Smooth the surface to improve tool and tool life. Surface processing quality of the workpiece.
11. Legs
They are supports that carry the entire weight of the machine over them. The prevailing
method is to use cast legs. Both feet are firmly secured to the floor through foundation spots
to prevent vibration in the machine.
12. Slide Box

This is the control box for the feed movement of the lathe. It is furnished with a mechanism
that turns the rotary motion of the light rod and the lead screw to the linear motion of the tool
post.
13. Spindle
The hole through the headstock to which bar stock can be fed, which allows shafts that are up
to 2 times the length between lathe centers to be worked on one end at a time.
14. Cross Slide

Mounted on the traverse slide of the carriage, and uses a handwheel to feed tools into the
workpiece.
15. Apron
Attached to the front of the carriage, it has the mechanism and controls for moving the
carriage and cross slide.
Types Of Lathes
Following are different types of lathe machines:
• Center lathe or engine lathe

• Speed lathe
• Capstan and turret lathe
• Toolroom lathe
• Bench lathe
• Automatic lathe
• Special lathe
• CNC lathe machine
The most common machine tool is a lathe, which can be divided into different types
according to different processing conditions for the turning process.
1. Center Lathe Or Engine Lathe

This type of lathe is currently widely used and can perform operations such as turning, end
face, grooving, knurling, and threading. The feed mechanism of the engine lathe can operate
the cutting tool in both longitudinal and lateral directions.
The center lathe can be divided into belt drive, motor drive, and reducer depending on the
drive source. This type of lathe is widely used these days, capable of performing such
operations as turning, grooving, knurling, end face, and threading.
The feed mechanism of the engine lathe can operate the cutting tool in both longitudinal and
lateral directions. The center lathe can be divided into belt drive, motor drive, and reduction
gear depending on the drive source
2. Speed Lathe/Wood Lathe

These lathes can be of the table type or have the support legs cast and attached to the bed.
These lathes have most of the attachments that carry the other types of lathes but do not have
power provision.
The high-speed lathe can also be called a wood lathe which can be operated at high speed and
operated manually. The speed range for high-speed lathes is between 1200 and 3600 RPM.
This lathe is used for turning, centering, polishing, and processing wood.
You have no gear, no slide, and no lead screw. The tool is thus fed and operated by hand.
Usually, the tool is either mounted on a tool stand or supported on T-shaped support. Such
lathes are commonly used for turning, polishing, centering and metal spinning, etc.
3. Capstan And Turret Lathe

Capstan and turret lathes are improvements in engine lathes that can be used for high-volume
production and large jobs. The head of the machine tool is a hexagonal head, which can be
rotated to change the operation without manual change, including turning, end face, boring,
and reaming.
• Read More about; What are Capstan and Turret lathe?

4. Toolroom Lathe
It’s nothing but the same power lathe, but with some extra attachments to make it suitable for
a relatively more accurate angle of speeds and feeds. The usual attachments that are made
available on a machine tool lathe are tapered turning attachments, driver support, collets,
chucks, etc.
This lathe has a comparatively smaller bed longer than the usually motorized lathe. The most
common lengths are 135 to 180 cm.
5. Bench Lathe
It is a very small lathe and is mounted on a separately prepared workbench or cupboard. It is
used for small and precise work as it is very accurate. It is typically equipped with all of the
attachments that a larger lathe will carry and can perform almost any larger lathe operation.
6. Automatic Lathe
These lathes go a long way towards improving both the quality and quantity of production.
They are designed in such a way that all work and order processing movements of the entire
manufacturing process for an order are carried out automatically.
No operator involvement is required during operation. Another variant of this type of lathes is
the semi-automatic lathes, in which the operator puts the work on and takes off, while all
operations are carried out automatically by the machine.
Automatic lathes are available with a single or multi-spindle version. They fall into the
category of high-performance high-speed lathes, which are mainly used in mass production.
7. Special Lathe
Special lathes are used to perform special operations that are not possible with the rest of the
lathe. Special lathes include vertical lathes, wheeled lathes, T-type lathes, multi-axis lathes,
production lathes, duplex or tracer lathes, etc., which are known for their heavy-duty
production of the same parts.
8. CNC Lathe
The CNC lathe is used to control the operation of the machine tool through a computer
program. Once the program is input in steps, mass production can be performed with high
precision and high speed, and once the operation code is set, it can be produced without re-
entering the next time.
CNC lathes are the most advanced types of lathes available today, and the tolerances of the
parts they produce are extremely precise.
Lathe Operations
A lathe is a tool that rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as
cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied
to the workpiece to create an object with symmetry about an axis of rotation.
To operate the lathe first, you must know the feed rates, cutting speed, depth of cut, and how
the tool is used. Each lathe operation has its own factors that must be considered before
starting work.
The factors should be used properly so that mishandling and mishaps are avoided in any type
of lathe operation. With every cut desired the speed, depth, and feed of the lathe are changed
for reasons of precision.
The working of the lathe machine changes with every operation and cut desired. There is a lot
of operation used for using the lathe machine. Some of the common lathe operations are:
1. Turning
Turning is the most common lathe machining operation. During the turning process, a cutting
tool removes material from the outer diameter of a rotating workpiece. The main objective of
turning is to reduce the workpiece diameter to the desired dimension. There are two types of
turning operations, rough and finish.
• Rough Turning: Rough turning aims to machine a workpiece to a predefined

thickness by removing the maximum amount of material in the shortest possible time
without taking into account the accuracy and surface quality. The finish turning
produces a smooth surface finish and the workpiece with the final, exact dimensions.
• Step Turning: Step turning creates two surfaces with an abrupt change in diameters
between them. The final feature resembles a step.
• Taper Turning: With taper turning, the inclined movement between the workpiece
and the cutting tool creates a ramp transition between the two surfaces with different
diameters.
• Contour Turning: During contour turning, the cutting tool follows the path axially
with a predefined geometry. Several passes of a contour tool are required to create the
desired contours in the workpiece. However, molding tools can produce the same
contour shape in a single pass.
• Champer Turning: Similar to step turning, bevel turning creates an angled transition
of an otherwise right-angled edge between two surfaces with different turning
diameters.
• Form turning: In this method, a specially shaped tool is used. The tool is inserted
radially. Feed for forming: Radial. Diagram for lathe machine operation which
involves facing, forming, and contour turning.
2. Facing
During machining, the workpieces are slightly longer than the finished part should be. Facing
is the machining of the end of a workpiece that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. When
facing, the tool moves along the workpiece radius to create the desired part length and a
smooth face by removing a thin layer of material.
3. Parting
Parting is a machining operation that results in a part cut-off at the end of the machining
cycle. The process uses a tool with a specific shape to enter the workpiece perpendicular to
the rotating axis and make a progressive cut while the workpiece rotates.
After the edge of the cutting tool reaches the center of the workpiece, the workpiece drops
off. A part catcher is often used to catch the removed part.
4. Grooving
Grooving is a turning process that creates a narrow cut, a “groove”, in the workpiece. The
size of the cut depends on the width of a cutting tool. Multiple tool passes are required to
machine wider grooves.
There are two types of grooving operations, external and face grooving. A tool moves
radially laterally into the workpiece with external grooving and removes the material along
the cutting direction. With face grooving, machine tools pierce the face of the workpiece.
5. Threading
Threading is a turning process in which a tool moves along the side of the workpiece and cuts
threads on the outer surface. A thread is a uniform spiral groove with a specific length and
pitch. Deeper threads require multiple passes of a tool.
6. Knurling
The knurling process creates serrated patterns on the surface of a part. Knurling increases the
gripping friction and the visual appearance of the machined part. This machining process uses
a unique tool made up of one or more cylindrical wheels (knurls) that can rotate in the tool
holders.
The knurls contain teeth that are rolled against the surface of the workpiece to form serrated
patterns. The most common knurled nib is a diamond pattern.
7. Boring
When boring, a tool penetrates the workpiece axially and removes material along the inner
surface to either create different shapes or to enlarge an existing hole.
8. Drilling
During the drilling process, the material is removed from the interior of a workpiece. The
result of drilling is a hole with a diameter equal to the size of the drill used. Drills are
typically positioned on either a tailstock or a lathe tool holder.
9. Reaming
Reaming is a calibration process that enlarges the hole in the workpiece. When reaming, the
reamer penetrates axially through the end into the workpiece and expands an existing hole to
the diameter of the tool.
Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often done after drilling to achieve
both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.
10. Tapping
Tapping is the process by which a thread cutting tool penetrates axially into the workpiece
and cuts the thread into an existing hole. The whole corresponds to a corresponding bit size
that the desired thread cutting tool can accommodate. Tapping is also the process of making
threads on nuts.
Lathe Tools
For general purpose work, the tool used is a single point tool, but for special operations,
multipoint tools may use. Watch the below-mentioned video to get understand lathe machine
operation.
In lathe machine work, different operations require different types of lathe cutting tools,
according to the process of using the lathe cutting tools. which are as follow,
Types Of Lathe Cutting Tools

• Turning Tool.
• Boring Bar
• Chamfering Tool
• Knurling Tool
• Parting Tool
• Thread Cutting Tool
• Facing Tool
• Grooving Tool
There is a wide range of lathe tools that can be classified according to materials, structures,
and purposes or uses.
• Turning Tool: Turning tools are designed for removing the materials from the stock,
a rough turning tool is used to remove the maximum amount of material and the
finishing turning tool is serve for good surface quality, just remove a small amount, to
make the piece more accurate.
• Boring Bar: A boring bar is required when you want to make an existed hole bigger,
a boring bar can easily bore into the hole that is already drilled, and widen its
diameter. It can enlarge the hole quickly and process it in the proper size to fit other
components correctly.
• Chamfering Tool: Chamfer is a transitional edge between two faces of an object,
also defined as a form of the bevel. The chamfering tool is used to create a bevel or
furrow on the part. A chamfer can be used to smooth sharp or hazardous edges on a
workpiece.
• Knurling Tool: Knurling tools are used to produce knurled lathe parts, through
creating or pressing a pattern onto a round section, used as a grip for a handle, also
usually created on fasteners like nuts. A knurling tool is designed with a specific
pattern.
• Parting Tool: A parting tool refers to a narrow-bladed tool used in turning or planing
or for cutting a piece in two, or defined as a tool used for cutting off pieces from the
main body of stock being machined, it is manufactured in many forms.
• Thread Cutting Tool: Thread cutting tools are used to cut a thread on the lathe part.
In external thread cutting, the piece can be held in a chuck or mounted between two
centers, in internal thread cutting, the part is held in a chuck, the tool moves across the
part linearly, taking chips off the workpiece with each pass.
• Facing Tool: A facing tool is used for facing operation on the lathe to cut flat surface
perpendicular to the piece’s rotational axis, the tool is mounted into a tool holder that
rests on the carriage of the lathe, during the process, the facing tool will feed
perpendicularly across the rotational axis of the part.
• Grooving Tool: A grooving tool is usually a carbide insert mounted in a special tool
holder, it’s designed to an insert with multiple tips, often ground to the dimensions
and shape required for a particular job, including cutting a slot and complete other
work.
• Forming Tool: Forming tools are made flat or circular in shape when used in the
lathe. Simple forming tools have cutting edges ground to the shape of the groove,
undercut, or thread to be cut.
• Shoulder Turning Tool: A square shoulder is turned by a knife-edge turning tool or
facing tool. A beveled shoulder may be turned by a straight turning tool having a side
cutting edge angle and zero nose radius. A filleted shoulder is turned by a straight
turning tool with a nose radius corresponding to the fillet radius of the work.
• Counterboring Tool: The counterboring operation can be performed by an ordinary
boring tool. The tool cutting edge is so ground that it can leave a shoulder after
turning. A counterbore having multiple cutting edges is commonly used.
• Undercutting Tool: Undercutting or grooving tool has a point and form of the cutting
edge exactly similar to the form of the required groove. Clearance angle is given at all
the sides of the tool. For the recessing groove cutting edge, the longitudinal feed is
employed. The front clearance angle depends upon the bore of the work.
Application Of Lathe
The Applications of Lathe Machine are as follows:
• Lathe use to make round or partially round parts.

• It uses to cut male and female threads.
• Use for cut-off material.
• Lathe machine uses in Bore and drill holes or Knurl a knob.
• Polish a surface of a round part and Taper a shaft.
• Face or dress rough stock.
• I use my mill for milling, but it is possible to mill small parts on a lathe. Chuck up a
cutter and clamp the part on your tool post.
• Power things like a hydraulic pump that have no motor. I can set the direction and
speed of any shaft that fits in my chucks.
• I work strictly in metal, plastic, and wood, but there are few practical limits to
materials that could be worked on a lathe.
• Align 2 pieces of a broken shaft prior to repair.
• Bevel an edge.
Advantages Of Lathe
The Advantages of Lathe Machine are as follows:
• The accuracy is very high in the case of CNC lathes compared to Normal Machining
lathes.
• The production rate is high.
• No need for highly skilled operators.
• Full automation, allowing for easier, quicker work.
• The machining in the lathe and CNC lathe was very fast.
• Highly versatile, allowing for use in the creation of all kinds of products and parts.
Disadvantages Of Lathe
The limitations of the lathe machine are as follows:
• If maintenance was not good, it would damage the parts of the machine by not using
lubrication.
• The device also wears off rapidly, if the operator is not good enough to handle the
experiment.
• Due to the speed of the bite, the smell will be very high in the atmosphere which also
affects health.
• These machines were more expensive than other conventional machines as you can
perform almost all operations on a lathe.
What is Lathe?
A lathe is a machine tool that rotates a workpiece about an axis of rotation to perform various
operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, deformation, facing, and turning, with
tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object with symmetry about that axis.
What is Lathe Machine?

A lathe machine is a machine tool that removes the unwanted material from a rotating
workpiece in the form of chips with the help of a tool that is traversed across the work and
can be feed deep into the work.
What Are the Parts of a Lathe?

Different parts of a lathe:
1. Head Stock
2. Tailstock
3. Bed and
4. Carriage
5. Lead screw
6. Feed rod
7. Chip pan
8. Hand Wheel
What are the types of lathes?

Different types of the lathe:
1. Center lathe or engine lathe machine
2. Speed lathe machine
3. Capstan and turret lathe machine
4. Toolroom lathe machine
5. Bench lathe machine
6. Automatic lathe machine
7. Special lathe machine
8. CNC lathe machine
Which are the operations performed on the lathe?

A lathe is a tool that rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as
cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied
to the workpiece to create an object with symmetry about an axis of rotation.
What are the tools used in lathe?

1. Turning Tool.
2. Boring Bar
3. Chamfering Tool
4. Knurling Tool
5. Parting Tool
6. Thread Cutting Tool
7. Facing Tool
8. Grooving Tool
Chapter 3
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Metal Machining Processes
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Classification of Metal Machining Processes
Material Removal Processes are family of shaping operation in which
excess material is removed from a starting work part to get desired
final geometry
Turning operations
Drilling Operation
Conventional Milling Operation
machining
Other machining
operation
Metal Grinding Operations

Removal Abrasive
Other Abrasive
process Processes
Processes
Mechanical Energy
Processes
Non-Traditional Chemical and
processes Electrochemical Machining
Thermal Energy Processes
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Major Components of a Lathe Machine
 The six(6) major

components of
an engine lathe
are:
 Bed
 Headstock
 Tailstock
 Carriage
 Feed mechanism
 Thread cutting
mechanism
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1) Bed
 The foundation of a lathe is the bed. The bed provides
the main rigid part and is the primary source to the
alignment of the other major components of the lathe.
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2) Headstock
 The headstock is permanently mounted on the bed of

the lathe. It contains all arrangements which rotate
the work piece.
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3) Tailstock
 The tailstock is an
assembly of components
that is mounted to the
lathe bed. The tailstock
mounting differs from the
headstock mounting, in
that, the tailstock is free to
move along the guide ways
of the bed.
 The primary function of the
tailstock is to provide
support to the work piece
and holding tools such as
drills and reamers
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4) Carriage
 The Carriage
assembly
composed of:
1. A Saddle, which is
an "H" shaped
casting machined
to fit the guide
ways of the bed.
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Carriage
2. A Cross slide,
which can be
moved
perpendicular to
the longitudinal
axis of the spindle
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Carriage
3. A Compound rest
is mounted on the
cross slide. The
compound rest
supports the
cutting tool and
provides
adjustment for the
tool into a variety
of positions.
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Carriage
4. Tool Post
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Mounting the work piece
The work piece may be mounted in

either
 chuck or
 between centers.
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1) 3-Jaw Chuck
 The jaws of a 3-jaw
chuck move
simultaneously
together.
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2) 4-jaw chucks
 4-jaw chucks usually
have individual
adjustments for each
jaw and are more
difficult to use. 4-
jaw chucks are used
when the surface of
the work piece is to
be turned is not
cylindrical
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Turning Parameters
1- Cutting Speed (V) is the primary cutting motion, which relates

the velocity of the surface of workpiece passing over cutting tool. It is
generally given in units of (m/min).
2- Feed (f) is the amount of material removed per revolution or per

pass of the tool over the workpiece. In turning, feed is in millimeter per
revolution (mm/r)
3- Depth of Cut (d) It is the distance the tool is plunged into the
surface. In turning, it is half the difference between initial and final diameters
given in (mm).
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Spring 2005
Lathe Operations
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Lathe Turning
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Various Cutting Operations
 Turning – produces straight, conical, curved, or grooved
work piece
 Taper turning- to give tapered length
 Form turning- turning by form tool
 Facing – produces a flat surface at the end of the part
 Boring – to enlarge a hole
 Reaming- finishing already drilled hole
 Parting Off- Cutting workpiece into two parts
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Various Cutting Operations
 Knurling – produces a regularly shaped roughness
 Grooving- produces groove in the workpiece
 Drilling- Producing hole with drill
 Thread Cutting- Cutting Uniform helical groove on

inside or outside of shaft.
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Lathe Operations
1) Turning Operations
To produce straight, conical, formed, or grooved
workpieces such as shafts, spindles and pins
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Spring 2005
Single Point Cutting Tools
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Single point cutting tools reference planes
Coordinate System or American System (ASA)
 In this system, plane parallel to ground (horizontal plane) containing tool shank is
taken as the datum and is called Base Pane (r)
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Coordinate System or American System (ASA)
 If cutting velocity vector is taken as datum, the base
plane perpendicular to this velocity vector.
 Second reference plane is Longitudinal plane (x) is
along the longitudinal feed direction and perpendicular to
the base plane.
 Third reference plane is Transverse plane (y) is
perpendicular to both the planes
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 Orthogonal Rake System (ORS):-In the
orthogonal rake system, the reference planes are chosen
from the consideration of tool operating on workpiece on
the machine tools.
 Three reference planes are mutually perpendicular to
each other but related to the position of cutting edge.
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Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
 First reference plane is Base plane (r) plane.
 Second reference plane, the cutting plane (c) contains
cutting edge and is perpendicular to the base plane
 Third reference plane , the orthogonal plane o is
perpendicular to both planes.
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 Maximum Rake System(MRS): Base and cutting planes are the
same as in orthogonal system but the third plane ,the
maximum rake plane m, is normal to the base plane r and in
direction of the maximum slope of rake face
 Third plane called maximum rake plane and incline at an angle
m with transverse feed direction
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Normal Rake System: base and cutting planes are same as in
orthogonal planes but third plane is perpendicular to cutting edge of
the tool
Third reference plane is called normal plane
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Tool Specification
• The orientation
of rake face is
defined by two
rake angles ,
back rake
angles and side
rake angles
• End flank and
side flank
orientation is
defined by end
flank angle and
side flank angle
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Tool Specification
 Rake face is defined in
terms of orthogonal rake
angle 0 and inclination
angle i, while principal and
auxiliary flanks are defined
by p and a.
 Principal cutting edge and
auxiliary cutting edge is
defined as p and a
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Theory of Metal Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of material to form chip

As chip is removed new surface is exposed
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Mechanics of Orthogonal cutting
Assumptions:
 No contact at the flank
 Width of chip remains constant
 Uniform cutting velocity
 A continuous chip is produced
 Volumetric changes of material during machining is zero
Volume before cut = Volume after cut
t1 b l1 = t2 b l2
where t1 is undeformed (uncut) chip thickness
t2 is chip thickness
b is width of workpiece
l1 and l2 is the length of uncut and cut chip
Chip thickness ratio, r = t1/ t2
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Mechanics of Orthogonal cutting
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Conversion of Tool Angles from ASA to ORS
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Merchant Theory
 Tool tip is sharp

 Cutting edge is perpendicular to
cutting velocity
 Deformation is two dimension
 W/p is rigid
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Merchant Circle theory
.
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Numerical
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Numerical
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Numerical
In a machining operation that approximates
orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle
is 10. The chip thickness before the cut to is 0.50
mm and the chip thickness after the cut tc is 1.125
in. Calculate the shear plane angle and the shear
strain in the operation.
Sol- Chip Thickness Ratio =
Shear plane angle (Φ) =
Shear Strain ()=
In above example suppose that cutting force and thrust force are
measured during an orthogonal cutting operation: Fc is 1559 N and Ft is
1271 N. The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w is 3.0 mm.
Based on these data, determine the shear strength of the work material
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Numerical
Solution- Fs =
Shear Plane area As= (t0 * w) / sinΦ =
Shear stress = Fs / As =
Using the data and results from our previous examples, determine (a)
the friction angle and (b) the coefficient of friction
Sol-
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Numerical
 determine cutting power and specific energy in the machining
operation if the cutting speed is 100 m/min. Summarizing the
data and results from previous examples, to is 0.50 mm, w is
3.0 mm, Fc is 1557 N.
Sol-
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Numerical
 In orthogonal turning of medium carbon steel, the specific
machining energy is 2.0 J / mm³ . The cutting velocity, feed
and depth of cut are 120 m / min , 0.2 mm /rev. and 2 mm
respectively. The main cutting force in N is
(A) 40 (B) 80 (C) 400 (D) 800
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Turning Operation
 Machining time in Turning, Tc = (Lc / So * N) *Np

Where Np is number of passes and Lc is actual length of cut
 Number of passes, Np = (D1 – D2 )/ 2*t
Where t is depth of cut in mm
D1 is initial diameter of workpiece
D2 is final diameter of workpiece
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Numerical on turning
 A part of 25 cm diameter and 50 cm length is to be turned down to 23.5 cm for length.
Assume feed as 1mm/rev and Cutting Speed (Vs) as 235 m / min. T he maximum
allowable depth of cut is 5 mm. What are the speed of spindle in rpm and cutting time
Tc. Take overtravel is 12.5 mm.
Solution-
• Initial diameter of job = D1 = 250 mm
• Final dia. of job = D2 = 235 mm
• Length of work = l1 = 500 mm
• Overall travel = l3 = 12.5 mm
• Cutting speed (Vs) = 250 m/min
• Feed (f or So) = 1 mm/rev
• No. of passes = 3
• Max. depth of cut = 5 mm
• Find out rpm and machining time
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
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Numerical
 The hollow workpiece of 60 mm outside diameter and 160 mm length is held on mandrel
between centers and turn all over in 3 passes. If the approach length is 30 mm. Over
travel is 10 mm, cutting speed is 50 m/min and average feed is 0.6 mm/rev. Then
calculate machining time.
 N=
 Lc =
 Tc =
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Drilling Operation
The machining time, Tc = Lc /N * So

where, Lc = Lh + A + O + C
A, O = approach and over run and
C = D/2 * cot ρ
Where D = diameter of the hole, i.e., drill
ρ = half of the drill point angle
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Machining time for Drilling
 Through holes of 10 mm diameter are to be drilled in a steel plate of 20 mm
thickness. Drill spindle speed is 300 rpm , feed 0.2 mm /rev and drill point
angle is 120°. Assuming drill overtravel of 2 mm , the time for producing a hole
will be (A) 4 seconds (B) 25 seconds (C) 100 seconds (D) 110 seconds
Solution- Tc = Lc /N * So
where, Lc = Lh + A + O + C
C = D/2 * cot ρ
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Milling operation
TC = LC / sm (for job width < cutter length)

Where, LC = total length of travel of the job = Lw + A + O + Dc/2
Lw = length of the workpiece
A, O = approach and over run (5 to 10 mm)
DC= diameter of the cutter, mm
Sm= table feed, mm/min = so * Zc * N
where, so = feed per tooth, mm/tooth
Zc = number of teeth of the cutter
N = cutter speed, rpm.
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Numerical
Determine TC for plain milling a rectangular surface of length 100
mm and width 50 mm by a helical fluted plain HSS milling cutter of
diameter 60 mm, length 75 mm and 6 teeth. Assume A = O = 5
mm, VC = 40 m/min and so = 0.1 mm/tooth
Solution- Lc = 140 mm
N= 200 rpm
Sm =120 mm/min
Tc = 1.17 min
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Theory of metal machining
Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
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Lathe Operations
2) Facing Operations
To produce flat surface at the end of the part, which are
useful for parts that are attached to other components.
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Spring 2005
Lathe Operations
3) Boring Operations
To enlarge hole or cylindrical cavity made by a previous

process or to produce circular internal grooves
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Spring 2005
Boring
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Lathe Operations
4) Drilling
To produce a hole, which may be followed by boring to
improve its accuracy and surface finish
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Spring 2005
Lathe Operations
5) Threading
To produce external or internal threads
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Spring 2005
Lathe Operations
6) Knurling Operations
To produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical
surfaces
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Spring 2005
Lathe Operations
7) Parting or Cutting off Operations

To cut a piece from the end of a part
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Spring 2005
Drilling
 Drills are mounted into the tail stock. The drill may
initially turn with the part until enough pressure is applied
to tighten the drill in the holder. If the drill does not stop
rotating under pressure a "dog leg" may be used to stop
its rotation.
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Movie files
 Turning
 Facing
Turning
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Drilling
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Any component requiring cylindrical holes.
Engine Blocks, Machine Components
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Ref: Process Selection, KG Swift and JD Booker, p.104.
Drilling Operation
Drilling is the process of producing a hole. This is

accomplished by rotating the tool and/or workpiece.
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Spring 2005
Reaming
Reaming - Enlarging an existing hole with a multi-

edged tool (reamer) for dimensional accuracy and/or
surface finish
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Countersinking Operation
Countersinking - operation for producing a

tapered feature at the end of a hole. This is necessary
to provide area to fit countersunk head of bolt.
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Spring 2005
Counterboring Operation
Counterboring - Enlarging of an existing hole at

one end. This enlarged hole is concentric with the
existing hole and is flat at the bottom. One
application of this process is a feature to set the head
of a bolt below a surface.
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Tapping
Tapping – an operation used to produce internal
thread in workpieces.
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Spring 2005
 Calculate the required RPM of workpiece of 100 mm diameter to provide a C.S.
of 50 m/min. Also find machining time if length of workpiece is 40 mm and
feed is 0.4 mm/rev.
 The hollow workpiece of 60 mm O/S dia. and 160 mm length is held on
mandrel between centers and turn all over in 3 passes. If the approach length is
30 mm. Over travel is 10 mm, cutting speed is 50 m/min. and average feed is
0.6mm/rev. then calculate machining time
 Calculate machining time required to reduce 60 mm dia. shaft to 50 mm dia.
For a length of 1300 mm with depth of cut 2 mm for rough cut and 1mm for
finish cut. Cutting speed = 30 m/min, feed 0.7 mm/rev, approach length = 6mm,
overrun length=5 mm, no. of passes = 3 (2 rough cut + 1 finish cut)
 In turning operation following operation is observed. D=100 mm, l=400 mm,
C.S,V=800 mm/sec, feed, f =0.4 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time. What
will be effect on machining time of C.S is increased by 60 %?
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Drilling
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Questions
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Live Centers & Dead Centers Pipe Center
1) Face Plate 2) Use of face plate
3) Use of face plate for odd shape jobs
Grinding attachment on lathe(Tool Post Grinder) Driving Plate

Use of Straight tail carrier Use of bend tail carrier
Use of Steady rest
Use of Follower Rest

3 jaw chuck 4 Jaw chuck
All Geared Head Stock
All Geared Head Stock
Lathe Specifications
Unit-VI: Lathe Machine Problems
I) Taper Turning:
Prob.1) Calculate the tailstock set over for turning a taper on a job whose diameters are 80 mm and 60
mm. The length of job is 350 mm and length of tapered portion is 250 mm.(Ans:14 mm)
Prob.2) Find the setting required for turning a taper of Ø85 mm to Ø75 mm over a length of 200 mm,
while the length of the job is 300 mm between centres. Tailstock offset is used for generating the
prescribed taper. (Ans: h= 7.5 mm)
Prob.3) Calculate the amount of offset of tailstock for turning taper on full length of a job 10 mm long
to have its two diameters as 50 mm & 40 mm.(Amount of offset: 1:10)
Prob.4) Find the angle at which the compound rest should be set upto turn taper on the workpiece
having a length of 200 mm, larger dia.45 mm and smaller dia. 30 mm. (α = 20 9’)
II) Threading
Prob.5) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch. It has double start right
handed threads on lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw available gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step
of 5 teeth. (Ans:D/d=3/6=30/60)
Prob.6) Calculate change gears for cutting LH threads of 2 mm pitch on a lead screw 6 mm pitch.
Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth. (Ans:D/d=2/6=20/60)
Prob.7) A screw of 1.5 mm pitch is to be cut on a lathe machine having a lead screw of 4 TPI.
Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth (Ans:D/d=2/6=20/60)
Prob.8) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch it has double start RH
threads on a lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw. Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in
step of 5 teeth. What modification is required for cutting left hand threads? (Ans:D/d=1/2=20T/40T)
III) Machining Time

Prob.9) Calculate the required RPM of workpiece of 100 mm diameter to provide a C.S. of 50 m/min.
Also find machining time if length of workpiece is40 mm and feed is 0.4 mm/rev. (Ans: T=6.283
min)
Prob.10) The hollow workpiece of 60 mm O/S dia.and 160 mm length is held on mandrel between
centers and turn all over in 3 passes. If the approach length is 30 mm. Over travel is 10 mm, cutting
speed is 50 m/min.and average feed is 0.6mm/rev.then calculate machining time. (Ans: T=2.8275
min)
Prob.11) A part of 25 mm dia.and 50 cm length is to be turned down to 23.5 cm for length. Assume
feed as 1mm/rev and C.S as 235 m/min.The max.allowable depth of cut is 5 mm.What are the
speed,spindle rpm and cutting time.Take overtravel is 12.5 mm. (Ans: T=5.863 min)
Prob.12) Calculate time required for one complete cut on a workpiece of 300 mm long and 60 mm
dia. The C.S. is 28 m/min and feed is 0.05 mm/rev. (Ans: T=40.39 min)
Prob.13) Calculate machining time for workpiece of dia.90 mmand 130 mm length turned in 2 passes.
If approach length is 12 mm and over travel of 5 mm. Given C.S=30 m/min and feed 0.3 mm/rev.
(Ans: T=9.2362 min)
Prob.14) Calculate machining time required to reduce 60 mm dia.shaft to 50 mm dia. For a length of
1300 mm with depth of cut 2 mm for rough cut and 1mm fir finish cut. Cutting speed = 30 m/min,
feed 0.7 mm/rev, approach length = 6mm, overrun length=5 mm, no.of passes = 3 (2 rough cut + 1
finish cut)
(Ans: T=35.30 min)

------------------------------------------------------xxxxx--------------------------------------------------------------
Solved Problems
1)Taper Turning Problems
mm. The length of job is 350 mm and length of tapered portion is 250 mm.
Solution : Given:
i) Total length of job, L= 350 mm,
ii) Taper length of job, l = 250 mm
iii) Larger Ø of job, D = 80 mm
iv) Smaller Ø of job, d = 60 mm
𝐷−𝑑
Formula- Tailstock offset, 𝑥 =( )xL
2𝑙
80−60
𝑥=( ) x350
2𝑥250
𝑥 = 14 mm (Ans)
to have its two diameters as 50 mm & 40 mm.
Solution : Given:
ii) Larger Ø of job, D = 50 mm
iii) Smaller Ø of job, d = 40 mm
𝐷−𝑑
Formula- Conicity, 𝐾 =( )
𝐿
50−40 10 1
𝐾=( )= =
100 100 10
Amount of tailstock offset = 1:10 (Ans)

Prob.3) Find the angle at which the compound rest should be set up to turn taper on the work piece
having a length of 200 mm, larger dia.45 mm and smaller dia. 30 mm.
Solution : Given:
i) Taper length of job, l = 200 mm,
Formula- tan θ = (𝐷−𝑑)

2𝑙
45−30 3
tan θ= ( ) = = 0.0375
2𝑥200 80
θ = tan-1(0.0375)
θ = 2o9’
Angle at which the compound rest should be setup is, θ = 2o9’(Ans)
2)Thread cutting Problems

Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth.
Solution : Given:
i) Required pitch on job = 2 mm,
ii) Lead screw pitch = 6 mm
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

Formula- Gear Ratio = 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟
=
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
2 2 10 20𝑇
= = x = (Ans)
6 6 10 60𝑇
So required driver gear having 20 teeth and driven gear having 60 teeth mounted on lead screw
(simple gear train)
Prob.5) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch. It has double start
right handed threads on lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw available gears are 20 teeth to 120
teeth in step of 5 teeth.
Solution : Given:
i) Required pitch on job = 1.5 mm (double start),
We know that
Lead = Pitch x no. of start
Lead of work piece = 1.5 x 2 = 3mm
Lead of lead screw = 6 x 1 = 6mm
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
=
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
3 3𝑥10 30 30𝑇
= = x = (Ans)
6 6𝑥10 60 60𝑇
(simple gear train)
Metric Threads on British Machine (Metric threads on inch

machine)
Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth and gear of 127 teeth.
Solution : Given:
i) Required pitch on job = p = 1.5 mm
ii) No.of threads per inch = n = 4TPI
We know that
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 5𝑝𝑛
=
127
5𝑥1.5𝑥4 30 30𝑇
= = = (Ans)
127 127 127𝑇
(simple gear train)
3) Machining Time Problems
Prob.7) Calculate the required rpm of workpiece of 100 mm diameter to provide a C.S. of 50 m/min.
Also find machining time if length of workpiece is40 mm and feed is 0.4 mm/rev.
Solution : Given:
i) Diameter of job = D = 100 mm
ii) Cutting speed = C.S = 50 m/min
iii) Length of job = l = 400 mm
iv) Feed = f = 0.4 mm/rev
Machining Time = T = ?
𝜋𝐷𝑁
Formula- C.S = 1000
𝜋𝑥100𝑥𝑁
50 =
1000
N= 159.154 = 160 rpm
𝑙 400
T= = = 6.25 min (Ans)
𝑓𝑥𝑁 0.4𝑥160
Prob.8) The hollow workpiece of 60 mm outside dia.and 160 mm length is held on mandrel between
speed is 50 m/min.and average feed is 0.6mm/rev.then calculate machining time.
Solution : Given:
ii) Length of work = l1= 160 mm
iii) Approach length = l2= 30 mm
iv) Overall travel = l3 = 10 mm
v) C.S = 50 m/min
vi) Feed = 0.8 mm/rev
vii) No.of passes = 3
𝜋𝐷𝑁
Formula- C.S = 1000
𝜋𝑥60𝑥𝑁
50 = , N= 265.25 = 266 rpm
1000
Total distance travelled by tool in single pass is given by
l = Length of workpiece + approach length + overall travel
l = l1 + l2 + l3
l = 160+30+10 = 200 mm
𝑙 200
T= = = 0.93 min
𝑓𝑥𝑁 0.8𝑥266
T = 0.93 x 3 = 2.81 min. (Ans)
feed as 1mm/rev and C.S as 235 m/min. The max.allowable depth of cut is 5 mm. What are the
speed,spindle rpm and cutting time. Take over travel is 12.5 mm.
Solution : Given:
i) Initial dia.of job = D1 = 250 mm
ii) Final dia. of job = D2 = 235 mm
iii) Length of work = l1 = 500 mm
iv) Overall travel = l3 = 12.5 mm
v) C.S = 250 m/min
vi) Feed = 1 mm/rev
viii) Max.depth of cut = 5 mm
𝜋𝐷𝑁
Formula- C.S = 1000
𝜋𝑥200𝑥𝑁
135 = N= 171.88 = 172 rpm
1000
As initial dia.is 250 mm and it is turned down to 235 mm with max. depth of cut as 5 mm hence it
should be done in 2 passes mathematically,
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
No. of passes =
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡
𝐷1−𝐷2 1
= ( 2 )𝑥5
= (250−235
2
1
) 𝑥 5 = 1.5 =2
l = Length of workpiece + over travel
l = l1 + l3
l = 500+12.5 = 512.5 mm
𝑙 512.5
T= = = 2.98 min
𝑓𝑥𝑁 1𝑥171.88
For 2 passes, T = 2.98 x 2 = 5.96 min. (Ans)
Dr.B.S.Rathod
Bansilal Ramnath Agarwal Charitable Trust’s
VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Subject :MP Div.A&B Date: 03/08/2020

Class : SY B.Tech Semester-I
Problems
Unit-I: Casting
Prob.1) A casting of 500x400x120mm solidifies in 25 min. Find the solidification time for a casting
400x300x60mm under similar condition.
(Ans:t=8.13 min.)
Prob.2) In a casting experiments performed using a certain alloy& type of sand mould it took
155seconds for cubed shaped casting to solidify.The cube was 50mm on aside.
i] Determine the value of mould constant in Chorinov’s method.
ii] If the same alloy and mould type were used, find total solidification time for a cylindrical casting
in which the diameter, D=30mm & length, L=50mm.
(Ans:i) C=2.232, ii) t=155sec.)
Prob.3) Determine the filling time for mould having cylindrical shape with Ø=60mm &
height=50mm.The cross of gate is 10cm2 (fig shows gating system)
(Ans:t1=82.34 sec.)
Prob.4) A 200mm long down sprue has an area of cross section of 650 mm2 where the pouring basin
meets the down sprue. A constant head of molten metal is maintained by the pouring basin.The molten
head flow rate is 6.5 × 105 mm3/s. Considering the end of the down sprue to be open to atmosphere and
acceleration due to gravity as 104 mm/s at it ends, find the area of the sprue at the end.
(Ans:A2=290.7mm2)
Prob.5) A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand casting mould. The size of steel casting is
60mm × 120mm × 20mm.The previous observations have indicated have indicated that the total
solidification time for casting is 90 sec. The cylindrical riser have (d/h) =1.Find the size of riser so
that its total solidification time is 130sec.
(Ans:d=48.072cm)
Prob.6) Using CAINE’S method design a riser for steel casting 100x100x200mm.
(Ans: r=0.1745)
Prob.7) Using NRL(Naval Research Lab)method design the most economical riser for a casting
having dimension 125x250x50mm.
(Ans: i) For side Riser,d=105mm- ii) For Top Riser,d=130mm)
Prob.8) Using chvorinovs rule find solidification time for casting having shapes as sphere ,cube and
cylinder with unity volume.
(Ans: i) Sphere,A=4/3𝜋𝑟 2 & r={3/4 𝜋}1/3 ii)Cube-V=a3& A=6mm2 iii) Cylinder-V= 2𝜋𝑟 3&
A=5.54mm2
Unit-II: Forming
1) Rolling
Prob.1) Determine the max.possible reduction for cold rolling a 300 mm thick slab when m=0.08
and roll diameter is 600 mm.for hot rolling when What is the max.reduction on same mill when µ =
0.5.
(Ans:i) For cold rolling-Δhmax =1.92mm ii) For hot rolling-Δhmax =75mm
Prob.2) An annealed copper strip 228 mm wide and25mm thick is rolled to a thickness of 20mm in
one pass. The roll radius is 300mm and roll rotate at 100 rpm. Calculate roll force and power
required in this operation.
The anneal copper has true stress of about 82.69 N/mm2 unstrained condition and 275.6N/mm2 in
max.strained condition.
(Ans:i) F=1.6x106N ii) P=1340 kw
Prob.3) A strip with a cross section 120x6mm is being rolled with 20% reduction area using roll of Ø
400 mm.The coefficient of friction is 0.1.
Deatermine:
i) The final sheet thickness
ii) The angle of bite
iii) Length of deformation zone
iv) Minimum possible thickness of sheet that can be produced in one pass.
(Ans:i) tf=4.8mm ii) α=0.0775 radian iii) L=15.49 mm iv) to=4mm.
2) Forging
Prob.1) Using open die forging operation,a solid cylindrical piece of 305 stainless steel having of Ø
100 mm x 72 mm height is reduce in the height to 60mm at room temperature . Assuming the coeff.of
friction as 0.22 and flow stress for this material at the required true strain as 1000 Mpa.Calculate the
forging force at the end of stroke.
Ans: F=9x106N
Prob.2) A solid piece of steel Ø 50 x 76mm height is reduced in height by 50% with the help of open
die forging. The work material characteristics are represented by k=350 Mpa and n=0.17.If coefficient
of friction is 0.1.Calculate the max.forging force at the end of stroke.
Ans: F=679.27x103N
3) Extrusion
Prob.1) A billet is 75 mm long with original diameter 35 mm is direct extruded to a
diameter 20 mm. For the work meterial characteristics K=600 Mpa,n=0.15 Take a= 0.8
and b=0.14 for Johnson rule. Calculate
i) True strain
ii) Extrusion strain
iii) Ram pressure at L=10 mm and L=70 mm
iv) Force at L=10 mm and velocity is 0.6 m/min
Take extrusion Ratio = 1.75
Ans: 1) e=0.5596 ii) ex=1.5838 iii) (f )avg.=478.228Mpa iv) F=839KN v)P=8.39 kw
4) Wire Drawing
Prob.1) Calculate the drawing load required to obtain 30% reduction in area on a diameter of copper
wire = 12 mm. The following data is given.f = 240 N/mm2 , 2α = 120 , µ = 0.10
Ans: F=13.51 kN
Unit-III: Welding
Prob.1) In arc welding Process, the voltage and current are 25 V and 300 Amp. The arc heat transfer
efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8 mm/s. Calculate net heat input
Soln: Given- Efficiency=0.85,Voltage = 25V,Current = 300Amp, Speed (c) = 8 mm/s
So,Effective heat transfer per second (P) = efficiency x Voltage x Current

(P) = η *VI =0.85x25x300 J/s
Net heat input -------Ans
Prob.2) Two pipes of inner diameter 100 mm and outer diameter 110 mm each are joined by flash butt
welding using 30 V power supply. At the interface, 1 mm of material melts from each pipe which has
a resistance of 42.4 ohms. If the unit melt energy is 64.4 MJ/m3, Find time required for welding .
Soln: Given-
Energy Required for melting/volume
i) Melt Energy, E = 64.4 MJ/m³
ii) Power supply, V = 30 volts
iii) Resistance, R = 42.4Ω
iv) ID of pipe,di = 100 mm
V) OD of pipe,do = 110 mm
π
Melting Energy = d²0 - d²i) × 644.4 × 106j
4
= 212.32 Joules
V²
H = I²RT = T
R
V = IR
H 212.32 × 42.4
T= ×R=
V² 30²
T = 10 Sec ------Ans
Prob.3) A shielded metal arc welding operation is performed on low carbon steel plates at voltage 25
volts and current 200 Amps. The heat transfer factor is 0.90 and the melting factor is 0.75.
Find : a) Rate of heat generation at weld
b) The unit melting energy (in J/mm3 )for low carbon steel.
c) volume rate of metal welded
Solution : Given-
i) heat transfer factor, f1= 0.91
ii) melting factor, f2 = 0.75
iii) voltage, V = 25 volts
iv) current, I = 200 Amp.
So, (a) Rate of heat generation at weld, RHW = f 1x f 2x ExI = (0.90)(0.75)(25)(200)
= 3375 J/s = 2531.25 W------Ans
(b) On the Kelvin scale, Tm = 1487 + 273 = 1760 K, which is the value in Table
Required Unit melting Energy, Um = KT2m = 3.33(10-6 )(1760)2 = 10.3J/mm3------Ans
Where, K = K is constant (kelvin Temperature Scale value) = 3.33(10-6 )
Tm = Melting Point
1487=Melting temperature of low-carbon steel = 1487C
RWV = volume rate of metal welded
(C) RWV = (3375.25 w)/(10.3 J/mm3) = 327.7 mm3/s-----------------------------------Ans
Prob.4) A heat source transfer 3000 W to the surface of metal part. The heat impinges the surface in a
circular area, with intensities varying inside the circle. The distribution is as follows:70% of the power
is transferred within circle of diameter = 5 mm, and 90% is transferred within concentric circle of
diameter =12mm. What are the power densities (PD) in
(a) 5 mm diameter inner circle and
(b) The 12 mm diameter ring that lies around the inner circle.
Soln.
Power density, PD = P / A
where –
PD = power density, W/mm2;
P = power entering the surface, W
A = surface area over which the energy is entering, mm2.
(a) The inner circle has an area A = (5)2/ 4 = 19.63 mm2.
The power inside this area P = 0.70 X 3000 = 2100 W
Thus the power density PD = 2100 / 19.63 = 107 W/ mm2.----------Ans
(b) The area of the ring outside the inner circle is A = (122 - 52) /4= 93.4 mm2
The power in this region P = 0.9 X 3000 -2100 = 600 W
The power density is therefore ,PD = 600 / 93.4 = 6.4W/mm2.----------Ans
Prob.5) The power source in particular welding setup generates 3500 W that can be transferred to the
work surface with a heat transfer factor= 0.7. The metal to be welded is low carbon steel, whose
melting temperature is 1760° K. The melting factor in the operation is 0.5. A continuous fillet weld is
to be made with a cross-sectional area= 20 mm2, Determine the travel speed at which the welding
operation can be accomplished?
Soln.
Sol: Let us first find the unit energy required to melt the metal using-
Um = KT2m
= 3.33(10-6 )(1760)2 = 10.3J/mm3
Rearranging equation to solve for travel velocity, we have v = (f1xf2xRH)/(Um x Aw);
and
Velocity, V = (0.5)(0.7)(3500)/(10.3x20) = 5.95mm/s----------Ans
Prob.6) A fillet weld is used to join 2 medium carbon steel plates each having a thickness of 5.0 mm.
The plates are joined at a 90° angle using an inside fillet corner joint. Melting point Tm = 1700°K ,
The velocity of the welding head is 6 mm/sec. Assume the cross section of the weld bead
approximates a right isosceles triangle with a leg length of 4.5 mm, the heat transfer factor is 0.80,
and the melting factor is 0.58. Determine the rate of heat generation required at the welding source to
accomplish the weld.
Sol:: Aw= bh/2 = 4.5(4.5)/2 = 10.125 mm2
Um = KT2m ----------------- Um = unit energy for melting
Um= 3.33 x 10-6(1700)2= 9.62 J/mm3

RH = UmAwv/(f1x f2) -------------------- RWV = volume rate of metal welded
= 9.62(10.125)(6.0) / (0.8 x 0.58)
RH = 1260 J/sec = 1260 W. ----------Ans RH- Rate of Heat generated
Prob.7) A gas tungsten AW operation is performed at a current of 300 A and voltage of
20V.The heat transfer& melting efficiency f1=0.7 & f2= 0.5 resp. and the unit melting energy
for the metal Um= 10 J/mm3.
Determine (a) power in the operation,
(b) rate of heat generation at the weld, and
(c)volume rate of metal welded.
Solution: (a) The power in this arc-welding operation is, P = IE = (300 A)(20 V) = 6000 W
Ans-1
(b) From, the heat transfer efficiency,f1= 0.7.

The rate of heat used for welding is given by-
HRw = f1 x f2 x IE
= (0.7)(0.5)(6000)
= 2100 W = 2100 J/s --------------------------------------------------------------Ans-2
(c) The volume rate of metal welded is- WVR = HRw / Um
= (2100 J/s)/(10J/mm3) = 210 mm3/s ---
Ans-3
Prob.8) A resistance spot welding operation is performed on two pieces of 1.5 mm thick sheet steel
using 12,000 Amps for a 0.20 second duration. The electrodes are 6 mm in diameter at the contacting
surfaces. Resistance is assumed to be 0.0001 ohms, and the resulting weld nugget is 6 mm in
diameter and 2.5 mm thick. The unit melting energy for the metal Um= 12.0 J/mm3. What portion of
the heat generated was used to form the weld, and what portion was dissipated into the surrounding
metal?
Solution:
The heat generated in the operation is given by equation as,
H = (I)2x R x time duration
= (12,000)2 (0.0001)(0.2) = 2880J
The volume of the weld nugget (assumed disc-shaped) is---
V = 2.5 (6)2 = 70.7 mm3.
The heat required to melt this volume of metal is
Hm= V x Um
= 70.7(12) = 848J.
The remaining heat, 2880 - 848 = 2032 J (70.6% of the total), is absorbed into the surrounding
metal.
Prob.9) In a DC arc welding operation, the voltage-arc length characteristic was obtained as Varc = 20
+ 5L where the arc length L was varied between 5 mm and 7 mm. Here Varc denotes the arc voltage in
Volts. The arc current was varied from 400 A to 500 A. Assuming linear power source characteristic.
Find:
i) Open circuit voltage
ii) Short circuit current for the welding operation.
Solution:
Varc = 20 + 5l
For L= 5 mm, Varc = 45 V
For L= 7 mm, Varc = 55V
V0
V = V0 − Iarc
IS
Where, Vo = open circuit voltage and

IS = short circuit current.
Iarc = arc current
V0
∴ 45 = V0 − × 500
IS
V0
and 55 = V0 − × 400
IS
By solving, we get
V0 = 95 Volts ---- (Open circuit voltage)-----------------Ans-1
IS = 950 A--------- (Short circuit current)-----------------Ans-2
Unit-III: Sheet Metal Working
Q.1) A square washer with 10 mm internal hole and 25 mm outer square is to be made from
1.5 mm thick strip of 0.2 % carbon sheet on progressive die.
Given:
i) Ultimate shear strength =250 N/mm2
ii) Penetration = 60 % of sheet thickness
iii) Clearance = 6% of sheet thickness
Find
i) Find cutting force without staggering(forcing out) and no shear
ii) Cutting force with staggering and no shear
iii) Cutting force with staggering and with full shear(i.e.1.5 mm shear)
iv) Comment on above answers.
v) Punch and die size at blanking station.
Ans :Given
t = 1.5 mm
d=10 mm
out side dimension a = 25 mm
fs = 250 N/mm2
P = 0.6t
C = 6 % of t = 0.06 t = 0.09 mm
i)Cutting force without staggering(Out) and without
shear.
= Force for punching + force for blanking
= 𝜋 x 10 x 1.5 x 250 + 25 x 4 x 1.5 x 250
= 11781 + 37500
= 49281 N
ii)Cutting force with staggering but no shear.
With staggered punches, the force to be considered is that for the punch having greater
force i.e. 37500 N.
(iii) Cutting force with staggering and full shear.
If s is the shear and F is the force
Work done with shear = work done without shear
s = 1.5 mm
F’ (pt + shear) = F x p x t
𝐹𝑝𝑡 37500×0.6×1.5
F’ =Fpt 𝑝𝑡+𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = = 14062.5N
0.6×1.5+1.5
iv)Both with staggering and by providing shear cutting force comes down.
v) Punch and die size for blanking operation :
C = 0.09 mm
For the blanking operation die size = blank size = 30 x 30 mm
Punch size = (30 - 2C) (30 - 2C)
= 29.82 x 29.82 mm
Q.2) Washers of 30 mm 0D and 15 mm I.D. are to be made by press work from a

PCS sheet of 1 mm thickness. Considering elastic recovery of material, find:
(i) Clearance
(ii) Piercing die and punch sizes
(iii) Blanking die and punch sizes.
Ans.:
d = 15 mm
D = 30 mm t = 1 mm
Assuming clearance 5% of sheet thickness C = 0.05 x1 = 0.05 mm
Blank die design:die = 30 mm punch = 30 – 2 x.05 = 29.9 mm
Punch die design : punch = 15 mm die = 15 + 2 x 0.05 = 15.1 mm
Q.3)A hole of 50 mm is to be produced in a steel plate of 2 mm thickness. The

ultimate shear strength of material is 440 N/mm2. If punching force is to be
reduced to half the force using a punch without shear, estimate amount of shear on
punch. Take percentage of penetration as 35%.
Ans. :
D = 50 mm, t = 2 mm, Fs = 440 N/mm2 p = 0.35 s =?
Punching force without shear = 𝜋 x D x t x fs = 𝜋 × 50 x 2 x 440 = 138230 N
Workdone by punch = 138230 x p x t = 13823 x 0.35 x 2 = 96761 N-mm
With shear of s mm
96761 = F' (0.35t + s)
𝐹 138230
F' = = =69115N
2 2
96761 = 69115 (0.7+s)

96761
0.7 + s = 69115 =1.4
s = 1.4 – 0.7 = 0.7 mm---------------Ans

Q-4) Find the total pressure, dimensions of tools to produce a washer 50 mm
outside diameter with a 24 mm hole from material 4 mm thick having a shear
strength of 360 N/mm2
Ans. :
t = 4 mm
d=24 mm,
fs = 360 N/mm2
D = 50 mm
Assuming C = 5% = 0.05 x 4 = 0.2 mm
Blanking: die = 50 mm, punch = 49.6 mm
Piercing: die = 24.4 mm, punch = 24 mm.
Total pressure = 𝜋 (D+ d)t x fs
= 𝜋 (74) X 4 X 360
= 334768 N
Q-5) The symmetrical cup workpiece shown in fig.is to be made from cold rolled
steel 0.8 mm thick. Make the necessary
calculations for designing the drawing die for
this part.
Ans. :
d = 50 mm
t = 0.8 mm
h = 50 mm
r= 1.6 mm
𝑑 50
= = 31.25
𝑟 1.6
Assume a trimming allowance = 2t on each side

D = 111.8 + 2 x 2 x 1.6 = 118.2 mm
ℎ 50
= =1
𝑑 50
Number of draws = 2
Punch and die radii = 5t = 5 x 0.8 = 4 mm
Die clearance = 1.25 t = 1.25 x 0.8 = 1 mm
Drawing pressure :
𝐷
F = 𝜋𝑑 𝑡 fy [𝑑 − 𝐶]
Assuming, Fy = 400 N/mm and C=0.65

118.2
F = 𝜋 x 50 x 0.8 x 400 [ 50
− 0.65]
= 86.155 kN
Press capacity = 88.115 × 1.3 = 112kN
𝐷−𝑑 118.2−50
% reduction = × 100 = × 100 = 57.7%
𝐷 118.2
Q-6)Calculate bending force for channel bending for the following data:
a) Thickness of blank = 3.2 mm
b) Bending length = L=900 mm
c) Die radius = punch radius = 9.5 mm
d) Ultimate tensile strength of the material = 400 N/mm2
e) K = 0.67 for channel bending.
Ans :
t = 3.2 mm
bending length = 900 mm
die radius= punch radius = 9.5 mm
ft= 400 N/mm2
K = 0.67
C = t = 3.2 mm
w= punch radius + die radius + C = 9.5 + 9.5 +3.2 = 22.2 mm
F = Kft t2L/ w
0.67×400×3.2×3.2×900
= 22.2
= 111.256 kN
Q-7) Estimate the blanking force to cut a blank 25mm wide and 30 mm long from
a 1.5mm thick metal strip if the ultimate shear stress of the material is 450 N/mm 2.
Also determine the workdone if the percentage penetration is 25% of the metal
thickness.
Ans:
Blank = 25×30mm, t = 1.5mm, fs=450N/mm2 p =0.2
F = 2[25+30]×450×1.5
=74.25kN
Workdone = 74.25×0.25×1.5
=27.84Nm
Q.8) A cup 5 cm in diameter and 7.5 cm deep is to be drawn from 1.5 mm thick
drawing sheet with a tensile strength of 315 N/mm². The corner radius is
negligible. Determine :
(i) Blank diameter
(ii) Number of drawing operations
(iii) Force and energy for the first draw with 40% reduction.
Ans.:
d = 50 mm, h = 75 mm, t = 1.5 mm, f t = 315 N/mm2
𝐷 = √d2+4dh
= √502+4x50x75
i) D = 132.29 mm
ℎ 75
= = 1.5
𝑑 50
ii) Number of draws = 2

For the first draw reduction = 40 %
132.29−𝑑
= 0.4
132.29
d = 132.29 x 0.6 = 79.37 mm

Assuming C = 0.65
𝑫
iii) Force for the first draw = 𝝅𝒅𝒕ft [ − 𝑪]
𝒅
139.29
= 𝜋 x 79.37 x 1.5 x 315 [ 79.37 − 0.65] = 130.181𝑘𝑁
Height after first draw can be calculated by comparing the volumes before and after the
draw.
𝜋
Thus, 𝜋/ 4 x 132.292 × t = [4 × 79.37 × 79.37 + 𝜋 × 79.37 ℎ] × 𝑡
h = 35.28 mm
workdone = 130.181 x 35.28
= 4592.8 Nm--------------Ans.
Unit- VI:
Machining Process
I) Taper Turning:
mm. The length of job is 350 mm and length of tapered portion is 250 mm.(Ans:14 mm)
Prob.2) Find the setting required for turning a taper of Ø85 mm to Ø75 mm over a length of 200 mm,
while the length of the job is 300 mm between centres. Tailstock offset is used for generating the
prescribed taper. (Ans: h= 7.5 mm)
to have its two diameters as 50 mm & 40 mm.(Amount of offset: 1:10)
Prob.4) Find the angle at which the compound rest should be set upto turn taper on the workpiece
having a length of 200 mm, larger dia.45 mm and smaller dia. 30 mm. (α = 20 9’)
II) Threading
Prob.5) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch. It has double start right
handed threads on lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw available gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step
of 5 teeth. (Ans:D/d=3/6=30/60)
Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth. (Ans:D/d=2/6=20/60)
Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth (Ans:D/d=2/6=20/60)
Prob.8) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch it has double start RH
threads on a lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw. Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in
step of 5 teeth. What modification is required for cutting left hand threads? (Ans:D/d=1/2=20T/40T)
III) Machining Time

Prob.9) Calculate the required RPM of workpiece of 100 mm diameter to provide a C.S. of 50 m/min.
Also find machining time if length of workpiece is40 mm and feed is 0.4 mm/rev. (Ans: T=6.283
min)
Prob.10) The hollow workpiece of 60 mm O/S dia.and 160 mm length is held on mandrel between
speed is 50 m/min.and average feed is 0.6mm/rev.then calculate machining time. (Ans: T=2.8275
min)
feed as 1mm/rev and C.S as 235 m/min.The max.allowable depth of cut is 5 mm.What are the
speed,spindle rpm and cutting time.Take overtravel is 12.5 mm. (Ans: T=5.863 min)
Prob.12) Calculate time required for one complete cut on a workpiece of 300 mm long and 60 mm
dia. The C.S. is 28 m/min and feed is 0.05 mm/rev. (Ans: T=40.39 min)
Prob.13) Calculate machining time for workpiece of dia.90 mmand 130 mm length turned in 2 passes.
If approach length is 12 mm and over travel of 5 mm. Given C.S=30 m/min and feed 0.3 mm/rev.
(Ans: T=9.2362 min)
Prob.14) Calculate machining time required to reduce 60 mm dia.shaft to 50 mm dia. For a length of
1300 mm with depth of cut 2 mm for rough cut and 1mm fir finish cut. Cutting speed = 30 m/min,
feed 0.7 mm/rev, approach length = 6mm, overrun length=5 mm, no.of passes = 3 (2 rough cut + 1
finish cut)
(Ans: T=35.30 min)

------------------------------------------------------xxxxx--------------------------------------------------------------
Solved Problems
1)Taper Turning Problems
mm. The length of job is 350 mm and length of tapered portion is 250 mm.
Solution : Given:
ii) Taper length of job, l = 250 mm
iii) Larger Ø of job, D = 80 mm
iv) Smaller Ø of job, d = 60 mm
D−d
Formula- Tailstock offset, 𝑥 =( )xL
2𝑙
80−60
𝑥 = ( 2x250 ) x350
𝑥 = 14 mm (Ans)
to have its two diameters as 50 mm & 40 mm.
Solution : Given:
D−d
Formula- Conicity, 𝐾 =( )
L
50−40 10 1
𝐾=( ) =100= 10
100
Amount of tailstock offset = 1:10 (Ans)

Prob.3) Find the angle at which the compound rest should be set up to turn taper on the work piece
having a length of 200 mm, larger dia.45 mm and smaller dia. 30 mm.
Solution : Given:
i) Taper length of job, l = 200 mm,
Formula- tan θ = (D−d)

2𝑙
45−30 3
tan θ= ( ) = 80 = 0.0375
2𝑥200
θ = tan-1(0.0375)
θ = 2o9’
Angle at which the compound rest should be setup is, θ = 2o9’(Ans)
2)Thread cutting Problems

Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth.
Solution : Given:
i) Required pitch on job = 2 mm,
Required Pitch
Formula- Gear Ratio = Driver Gear =
Driven Gear Lead screw pitch
2 2 10 20T
= 6 = 6 x10 = 60T (Ans)
(simple gear train)
Prob.5) Calculate the gears and sketch the gear train for cutting 1.5 mm pitch. It has double start
right handed threads on lathe with 6 mm pitch of lead screw available gears are 20 teeth to 120
teeth in step of 5 teeth.
Solution : Given:
i) Required pitch on job = 1.5 mm (double start),
We know that
Driver Gear Required Pitch
Formula- Gear Ratio = Driven =
Gear Lead screw pitch
3 3x10 30 30T
= 6= 6x10 x60 = 60T (Ans)
(simple gear train)
Metric Threads on British Machine (Metric threads on inch
machine)
Available change gears are 20 teeth to 120 teeth in step of 5 teeth and gear of 127 teeth.
Solution : Given:
i) Required pitch on job = p = 1.5 mm
ii) No.of threads per inch = n = 4TPI
We know that
Formula- Gear Ratio = DrivenDriver Gear = 5pn

Gear 127
5x1.5x4 30 30T
= = 127 = 127T (Ans)
127
(simple gear train)
3) Machining Time Problems
Prob.7) Calculate the required rpm of workpiece of 100 mm diameter to provide a C.S. of 50 m/min.
Also find machining time if length of workpiece is40 mm and feed is 0.4 mm/rev.
Solution : Given:
ii) Cutting speed = C.S = 50 m/min
iii) Length of job = l = 400 mm
iv) Feed = f = 0.4 mm/rev
π𝐃𝐍
Formula- C.S = 1000
πx𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐱𝐍
50 = N= 159.154 = 160 rpm
1000
400
T= 𝑙 = = 6.25 min (Ans)
f x N 0.4x160
Prob.10) The hollow workpiece of 60 mm outside dia.and 160 mm length is held on mandrel between
speed is 50 m/min.and average feed is 0.6mm/rev.then calculate machining time.
Solution : Given:
ii) Length of work = l1= 160 mm
iii) Approach length = l2= 30 mm
iv)Overall travel = l3 = 10 mm
v) C.S = 50 m/min
vi)Feed = 0.8 mm/rev
vii)
No.of passes =3
π𝐃𝐍
Formula- C.S = 1000
πx𝟔𝟎𝐱𝐍
50 = , N= 265.25 = 266 rpm
1000
Total distance travelled by tool in single pass is given by
l = Length of workpiece + approach length + overall travel
l = l1+ l2+ l3
l = 160+30+10 = 200 mm
𝑙 200
T = f x N = 0.8x266 = 0.93 min
T = 0.93 x 3 = 2.81 min. (Ans)
feed as 1mm/rev and C.S as 235 m/min. The max.allowable depth of cut is 5 mm. What are the
speed,spindle rpm and cutting time. Take over travel is 12.5 mm.
Solution : Given:
i) Initial dia.of job = D1 = 250 mm
ii) Final dia. of job = D2 = 235 mm
iii) Length of work = l1 = 500 mm
iv) Overall travel = l3 = 12.5 mm
v) C.S = 250 m/min
vi) Feed = 1 mm/rev
viii) Max.depth of cut = 5 mm
π𝐃𝐍
Formula- C.S = 1000
πx𝟐𝟎𝟎𝐱𝐍
135 = N= 171.88 = 172 rpm
1000
As initial dia.is 250 mm and it is turned down to 235 mm with max. depth of cut as 5 mm hence it
should be done in 2 passes mathematically,
Machining allowance
No. of passes =
depth of cut
D1−D2 1
=( )x
2 5
250−235 1
=( ) x = 1.5 =2
2 5
l = Length of workpiece + over travel
l = l1+ l3
l = 500+12.5 = 512.5 mm
𝑙 512.5
T = f x N = 1x171.88 = 2.98 min
For 2 passes, T = 2.98 x 2 = 5.96 min. (Ans)
4) Theory of Metal Cutting Formulae

t1
i) Chip thickness Ratio = r = t2
1
ii) Chip reduction coefficient = k =
r
F Fc sinα+Ft cosα Ft+Fc tanα
iii) Coefficient of friction = μ = = tan β = Fc cosα −Ft sinα OR Fc−Ft tanα
N
rcosα
iv) Shear angle = Ø = tan Ø =
1−rsinα
Fc sinα+Ft cosα
v) Friction angle = β = tan β =
Fc cosα −Ft sinα
Fs Fs.sinΦ
vi) Shear stress (force) τs = Fs = = = Fs=Fc cos Φ - Ft sin Φ
As b.t1
vii) Normal force = FN = Fc.sin Φ + Ft cosΦ
viii) Frictional force = F = Fc.sin α + Ft cos α
ix) Chip velocity = Vc= v.r
Fc
x) Specific cutting energy = b.t1
xi) Shear strain = e =cot Φ + tan (Φ – α)
Vs
xii) Shear strain rate = S = fs
t1
xiii) Shear plane length =
sinΦ
Fc.v
xiv) Power consumed = 1000
n
xv) Tool life = C = VT
Prob.1) In orthogonal cutting operations, following are the observations.
i) Cutting speed = 120 m/min
ii) Uncut chip thickness = 0.127 mm
iii) Rake angle = 100
iv) Width of cut = 6.35 mm
v) Cutting force = 567 N
vi) Thrust force = 227 N
vii) Chief thickness = 0.228 mm
Calculate : Shear angle, friction angle, shear stress along shear plane, chip velocity,
shear strain, cutting power.
Soln: Given data
v = 120 m/min = 2 m/s
t1= 0.127mm
t2= 0.228 mm
α = 100
b = 6.35 mm
Fc = 567 N
Ft = 227 N
Ans :
t1 0.127
i) Chip thickness Ratio = r = t2 = = 0.557
0.228
ii) rcosα
Shear angle = Ø = tanØ = 1−rsinα
rcosα 0.557xcos10
Ø = tan-1( 1−rsinα )=(
1−0.557sin10
) =31.200
Fc sinα+Ft cosα
iii) Friction angle = β = tan β =
Fc cosα −Ft sinα
567 sin10+227 cos10

= = 0.6204
567 cos10 −227 sin10
β = tan-1 (0.6204) = 31.810

Fs Fs.sinΦ
iv) Shear stress along shear plane = τs = = =
As b.t1
Fs=Fc cos Φ - Ft sin Φ
= 567 x cos 31.26 – 227 sin 31.26 =366.88N
Fs.sinΦ 366.88.sin31.26
Now τs = = = 236.07 N/mm2
b.t1 6.35 x 0.127
v) Chip velocity = Vc= v.r = 2 x 0.557 = 1.114 m/sec
vi) Shear strain = e = cot Φ + tan (Φ – α)
= cot 31.26 + tan (31.26 – 10)
= 1.6473 + 0.3890 = 2.036
Fc.v 567 x 2
vii) Power consumed = = = 1.134 kw
1000 1000
Prob.2) During machining of 1.45 steel with 0-10-6-6-8-90-1 orthogonal rake system(ORS)shape
carbide cutting tool, following observations are made.
i) Depth of cut = 1.5 mm
ii) Feed = 0.15 mm/rev
iii) Speed 200 m/min
iv) Tangential cutting force = 1500 N
v) Feed thrust force = 800 N
vi) Chip thickness = 0.45 mm
Calculate : shear force, normal force at shear plane, friction force, kinetic coefficient of friction,
specific cutting energy.
(0-10-6-6-8-90-1 = back rake, side rake, end relief, side relief, end cutting edge, side cutting edge
angle , nose radius)
Soln: Given data
t1= 0.15 mm
t2= 0.45 mm
α = 100
b = 1.5 mm
Fc = 1500 N
Ft = 800 N
Ans :
t1 0.15
Chip thickness Ratio = r = t2 = = 0.333
0.45
rcosα
Shear angle = Ø = tanØ = 1−rsinα
rcosα 0.333 cos10
Ø = tan-1( 1−rsinα ) = ( 1−0.333 sin10) =19.190
i) Shear force = Fs= Fc cos Φ - Ft sin Φ

= 1500 cos 19.19 - 800 sin 19.19 = 1153 N
ii) Normal force = FN = Fc.sin Φ + Ft cosΦ
= 1500 sin 19.19 + 800 cos 19.19 = 1248.60 N
iii) Frictional force = F = Fc.sin α + Ft cos α
= 1500 sin 10 + 800 cos 10 = 1048.3 N
Ft+Fc tanα 800+1500 tan10
iv) Coefficient of friction = μ = = = 0.783
Fc−Ft tanα 1500−800 tan10
Fc 1500
v) Specific cutting energy = = = 6666.67 N/mm2
b.t1 1.5 x 0.15
Dr.B.S.Rathod

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2011 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Development

IPCBEE vol.4 (2011) © (2011) IACSIT Press, Singapore

Polymer Composites Sustainability: Environmental Perspective, Future Trends and

V.P. Sharma, V. Agarwal, S. Umar and A. K. Singh

[1] S. Ramakrishna, J. Mayer, E. Wintermantel and K.W. Leong,

BRACT’S, Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune-48

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 3

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 23

Application: Video tape, photographic film, film

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Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 42

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 43

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 45

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 46

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 47

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 48

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 49

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 51

1) PMC 2) CMC 3) MMC

Why MMC? Due to high strength, stiffness, excellent mechanical properties

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 55

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 56

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 58

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 60

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 62

Faculty Name(optional), Department of ______Engineering,

Mr. Mahendra G. Gadge

BRACT’S, Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune-48

BRACT’S, Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune-48

➢Application of plastics: Plastics is versatile, hygenic, lightweight, flexible and highly

Faculty Name(optional), Department of ______Engineering, VIIT, Pune-48 2

Learning Outcome/Course Outcome

• Design sheet metal working processes for various applications.

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 3

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 4

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 7

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 8

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 9

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 10

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Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 13

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Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 19

Dr.B.S.Rathod, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VIIT , Pune-48 23