Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OFFICE OF THE VICE PRESIDENT FOR BRANCHES AND CAMPUSES
SANTA ROSA CAMPUS
City of Santa Rosa, Laguna

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
(PSYC 30033)

COMPILED BY:

CAROLINE T. ALIBUDBUD, PTRP, LPT, MEM, MAED

Faculty

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT I – FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Lesson 1 The Biological Approach to Behavior ......... 3

Lesson 2 The Genetics of Behavior
Lesson 3 Environment and Behavior

UNIT II – THE ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Lesson 4 The Structure of the Nervous System ......... 10

The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous
Lesson 5 System ......... 11
Lesson 6 Synapses, Drugs and Addictions ......... 12

UNIT III – DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF THE BRAIN

Lesson 7 The Growth and Development of Neurons ......... 16

Lesson 8 The Parts and Functions of Axons ......... 19
Lesson 9 Mechanisms of Brain Damage and Recovery ......... 20

UNIT IV – THE BIOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MEMORY

Lesson 10 Learning and Memory ......... 24

Lesson 11 Types of Memory ......... 25
Lesson 12 Types of Amnesia ......... 27

UNIT V – COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS

Lesson 13 Left and Right Brain Hemispheres ......... 29

Lesson 14 Development of Lateralization and Handedness ......... 30
Lesson 15 Effects of Brain Damage ......... 34

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UNIT 2 – THE ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYTEM

OVERVIEW:

In this unit we will learn about the structures of the nervous system, its divisions and more
importantly its functions. We will also understand the difference between sympathetic and
parasympathetic functions of the nervous system. We will also study the relation between
synapses, drugs and addictions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the structure of the nervous system.

2. Differentiate sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
3. Learn about the relation between synapses, drugs and addictions.

COURSE MATERIALS:

Lesson 4. The Structure of the Nervous System

The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate, modulate
and transmit information between all the different parts of the human body. This property enables
many important functions of the nervous system, such as regulation of vital body functions
(heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body movements. Ultimately, the nervous system
structures preside over everything that makes us human; our consciousness, cognition, behavior
and memories. The nervous system consists of two divisions; Central nervous system (CNS) is
the integration and command center of the body Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the
conduit between the CNS and the body. It is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system
(SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system – Neurons and Glial cells.
Neurons, or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous system. Every
neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes (neurites). The nerve cell body
contains the cellular organelles and is where neural impulses (action potentials) are generated.
The processes stem from the body, they connect neurons with each other and with other body
cells, enabling the flow of neural impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in
structure and function; Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body.
Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons, conducting the electrical
signal towards the nerve cell body. Every neuron has a single axon, while the number of dendrites
varies. Based on that number, there are four structural types of neurons; multipolar, bipolar,
pseudounipolar and unipolar.

The morphology of neurons makes them highly specialized to work with neural impulses;
they generate, receive and send these impulses onto other neurons and non-neural tissues.
There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an electrical signal
towards or away from the CNS; Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses
from the CNS to the peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function. Afferent neurons

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(sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues to the CNS. These impulses
contain sensory information, describing the tissue's environment.

The nervous system (NS) is structurally broken down into two divisions; Central nervous
system (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - gathers
all neural tissue outside the CNS Functionally, the PNS is further subdivided into two functional
divisions; Somatic nervous system (SNS) - informally described as the voluntary system
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - described as the involuntary system.

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. These are found
housed within the skull and vertebral column respectively. The brain is made of four parts;
cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum and brainstem. Together these parts process the incoming
information from peripheral tissues and generate commands; telling the tissues how to respond
and function. These commands tackle the most complex voluntary and involuntary human body
functions, from breathing to thinking. The spinal cord continues from the brainstem. It also has
the ability to generate commands but for involuntary processes only, i.e. reflexes. However, its
main function is to pass information between the CNS and periphery.

The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and a number of
small neuronal clusters throughout the body called ganglia. Peripheral nerves can be sensory
(afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed (both). Depending on what structures they innervate,
peripheral nerves can have the following modalities; Special - innervating special senses (e.g.
eye) and is found only in afferent fibers General - supplying everything except special senses
Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii) Visceral - supplies internal
organs.

Cranial nerves are peripheral nerves that emerge from the cranial nerve nuclei of the
brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate the head and neck. Cranial nerves are numbered one
to twelve according to their order of exit through the skull fissures. Namely, they are: olfactory
nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN II), oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), trigeminal
nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII),
glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI), and hypoglossal nerve (XII).
These nerves are motor (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII), sensory (I, II and VIII) or mixed (V, VII, IX, and
X).
Spinal nerves emerge from the segments of the spinal cord. They are numbered according
to their specific segment of origin. Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are divided into 8 cervical
pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1 coccygeal spinal nerve. All spinal
nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and motor fibers. Spinal nerves innervate the entire
body, with the exception of the head. They do so by either directly synapsing with their target
organs or by interlacing with each other and forming plexuses. There are four major plexuses that
supply the body regions; Cervical plexus (C1-C4) - innervates the neck Brachial plexus (C5-T1)
- innervates the upper limb Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) - innervates the lower abdominal wall, anterior
hip and thigh Sacral plexus (L4-S4) - innervates the pelvis and the lower limb

The somatic nervous system is the voluntary component of the peripheral nervous system.
It consists of all the fibers within cranial and spinal nerves that enable us to perform voluntary
body movements (efferent nerves) and feel sensation from the skin, muscles and joints (afferent
nerves). Somatic sensation relates to touch, pressure, vibration, pain, temperature, stretch and
position sense from these three types of structures. Sensation from the glands, smooth and
cardiac muscles is conveyed by the autonomic nerves.

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(Reference: https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-nervous-system)

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Make a 12-hour list of activities that you perform within a day which involve functions of our
CNS and PNS. Include a brief explanation (10 sentences only).

2. Cite specific functions of Cranial Nerves 1 to 12 (CN 1 to CN12). Indicate whether it is a sensory,
motor or a mixed function. Make a creative presentation of your output and take a photo of it.

3. Recall experiences which involve functions of our somatic nervous system. Make a 10-liner
poem out from it. Include a title of this poem.

Lesson 5. The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous system.
Further divided into the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it is comprised
exclusively of visceral motor fibers. Nerves from both these divisions innervate all involuntary
structures of the body; Cardiac muscle Glandular cells Smooth muscles present in the walls of
the blood vessels and hollow organs. Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial
role in maintaining homeostasis, meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other
but rather, they complement each other. They do so by potentiating the activity of different organs
under various circumstances; for example, the PSNS will stimulate higher intestine activity after
food intake, while SANS will stimulate the heart to increase the output during exercise. Autonomic
nerves synapse within autonomic ganglia before reaching their target organ, thus all of them have
presynaptic and postsynaptic parts. Presynaptic fibers originate from CNS and end by synapsing
with neurons of the peripheral autonomic ganglia. Postsynaptic fibers are the axons of ganglion
neurons, extending from the ganglion to peripheral tissues. In sympathetic nerves, the presynaptic
fiber is short as the ganglia are located very close to the spinal cord, while the postsynaptic fiber
is much longer in order to reach the target organ. In parasympathetic nerves it’s the opposite; the
presynaptic fiber is longer than the postsynaptic.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic system (SANS) adjusts our bodies for situations of increased physical
activity. Its actions are commonly described as the “fight-or-flight” response as it stimulates
responses such as faster breathing, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils
and redirection of blood flow from the skin, kidneys, stomach and intestines to the heart and
muscles, where it’s needed. Sympathetic nerve fibers have a thoracolumbar origin, meaning that
they stem from the T1-L2/L3 spinal cord segments. They synapse with prevertebral and
paravertebral ganglia, from which the postsynaptic fibers travel to supply the target viscera.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) adjusts our bodies for energy conservation,
activating “rest and digest” or “feed and breed” activities. The nerves of the PSNS slow down the
actions of cardiovascular system, divert blood away from muscles and increase peristalsis and

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gland secretion. Parasympathetic fibers have craniosacral outflow, meaning that they originate
from the brainstem (cranio-) and S2-S4 spinal cord segments (-sacral). These fibers travel to
thoracic and abdominal organs, where they synapse in ganglia located close to or within the target
organ.

(Reference: https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-nervous-system)

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Cite five (5) examples in the recent news which depicts functions of the sympathetic nervous
system. Attach photos of each examples. Provide a brief explanation (10 sentences only).

2. Cite five (5) examples in our daily activities which include functions of our parasympathetic
nervous system. Take photos of each examples. Provide a brief explanation (10 sentences only).

3. Explain how behavior is influenced by functions of our sympathetic and parasympathetic

nervous system. Give two (2) scenarios.

Lesson 6. Synapses, Drugs and Addictions

A person reads. The words on the page enter the brain through the eyes and are converted
into information that is relayed, from one neuron to the next, to regions that process visual input
and attach meaning and memory. When inside neurons, the information takes the form of an
electrical signal. To cross the tiny gap, or synapse, that separates one neuron from the next, the
information takes the form of a chemical signal. The specialized molecules that carry the signals
across the synapses are called neurotransmitters.

The ebb and flow of neurotransmitters—neurotransmission—is thus an essential feature

of the brain’s response to experience and the environment. To grasp the basic idea of
neurotransmission, think of a computer. A computer consists of basic units, semiconductors,
which are organized into circuits; it processes information by relaying an electric current from unit
to unit; the amount of current and its route through the circuitry determine the final output. The
brain’s corresponding basic units are the neurons—86 billion of them. The brain relays information
from neuron to neuron using electricity and neurotransmitters; the volume of these signals and
their routes through the organ determine what we perceive, think, feel, and do. Of course, the
brain, a living organ, is much more complex and capable than any machine. Neurons respond
with greater versatility to more types of input than any semiconductor; they also can change, grow,
and reconfigure their own circuits.

Neurotransmission

The task in neurotransmission is to convey a signal from a sending neuron to a receiving

neuron across an open space known as a synapse. All neurons accomplish this in approximately
the same way.

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 The sending cell manufactures neurotransmitter molecules and stores them in packets
called vesicles. When stimulated sufficiently, the neuron generates an electric signal and causes
some vesicles to migrate to the neuron membrane, merge with it, open up, and release their
contents into the synapse. Some of the released molecules drift across the synapse and link up,
lock-and-key fashion, with molecules called receptors on the surface of the receiving neuron. If
the neurotransmitter is stimulatory (e.g., glutamate), its interaction with the receptor will raise the
receiving neuron’s level of electrical activity and thereby increase the likelihood that it will, in turn,
mobilize its vesicles and emit its own neurotransmitter. If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory (e.g.,
gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA]), it will dampen the receiving neuron’s electrical activity and
reduce its likelihood of releasing the neurotransmitter.

In this way, neurotransmitters relay information about the environment and our internal
states from neuron to neuron through the brain’s circuits and, ultimately, shape how we respond.
Neurotransmitters’ interactions with receptors can also set processes in motion that can alter the
structure of receiving neurons, or raise (potentiate) or lower (depress) how strongly neurons
respond when neurotransmitters link to their receptors in the future. Once a neurotransmitter has
interacted with its receptor on the receiving neuron, neuron to neuron communication is complete.
The neurotransmitter molecules drop off the receptors.

Loose again in the synapse, they meet one of three fates: Some attach to another
receptor. Some encounter an enzyme, a chemical that breaks them apart. Some reenter the
sending neuron via a special structure that spans the neuron membrane, called a transporter.
Once back inside the neuron, they are available for re-release in future neurotransmission
episodes. Normally, when drugs are not present, the cycle of release, breakup, and neuron re-
entry maintains the amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse, and hence neurotransmission,
within certain limits. In most cases, when an addictive drug enters the brain, it causes
neurotransmission to increase or decrease dramatically beyond these limits.

Drugs and Neurotransmitters

A person’s experiences when using a drug reflect the functional roles of the particular
neurotransmitter(s) it disrupts. Each individual neuron manufactures one or more
neurotransmitters: dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, acetylcholine, and/or any of dozens of others
that scientists have identified to date. Each neurotransmitter is associated with particular effects

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depending on its distribution among the brain’s various functional areas. Dopamine, for example,
is highly concentrated in regions that regulate motivation and feelings of reward, and is a strong
motivator for drug use. A neurotransmitter’s impact also depends on whether it stimulates or
dampens activity of its target neurons.

Some drugs primarily affect one neurotransmitter or class of neurotransmitters. For

example, prescription opioids and heroin produce effects that are similar to (but more pronounced
than) those produced by the neurotransmitters endorphin and enkephalin: increased analgesia,
decreased alertness, and slowed respiration. Other drugs disrupt more than one type of
neurotransmitter. Cocaine, for example, attaches to structures that regulate dopamine, leading to
increases in dopamine activity and producing euphoria; it also produces changes in
norepinephrine and glutamate systems that cause stimulant effects.

Because a neurotransmitter can stimulate or inhibit neurons that produce different

neurotransmitters, a drug that disrupts one neurotransmitter can have secondary impacts on
others. For example, nicotine stimulates cells directly by activating their receptors for
acetylcholine, and indirectly by inducing higher levels of glutamate, a neurotransmitter that acts
as an accelerator for neuron activity throughout the brain. A key effect that all drugs that cause
dependence and addiction appear to have in common—a dramatic increase in dopamine
signaling in a brain area called the nucleus accumbens (NAc), leading to euphoria and a desire
to repeat the experience—is in many cases an indirect one.

Drugs and Neurotransmission

As described above, neurotransmission is a cyclic process that transpires in several steps

utilizing specialized components of the sending and receiving neurons. Identifying the precise
step that a drug disrupts, and how, provides crucial insight into its impact on users, and is key to
developing medical and behavioral interventions to inhibit, counter, or reverse the disruption.
Some drugs mimic neurotransmitters. Heroin and prescription opioids, for example, chemically
resemble the brain’s natural opioids (endorphin and enkephalin) sufficiently to engage and
stimulate their specialized receptors. Since heroin stimulates many more receptors more strongly
than the natural opioids, the result is a massive amplification of opioid receptor activity. Marijuana
mimics cannabinoid neurotransmitters, the most important of which is anandamide. Nicotine
attaches to receptors for acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter for the cholinergic system.

Other drugs alter neurotransmission by interacting with molecular components of the

sending and receiving process other than receptors. Cocaine, for example, attaches to the
dopamine transporter, the molecular conduit that draws free-floating dopamine out of the synapse
and back into the sending neuron. As long as cocaine occupies the transporter, dopamine cannot
re-enter the neuron. It builds up in the synapse, stimulating receiving-neuron receptors more
copiously and producing much greater dopamine impact on the receiving neurons than occurs
naturally.

Chronic Drug Use

During the early phase of an individual’s drug experimentation, neurotransmission

normalizes as intoxication wears off and the substance leaves the brain. Eventually, however,
repeated drug use leads to changes in neuronal structure and function that cause long-lasting or
permanent neurotransmission abnormalities. These alterations underlie drug tolerance (where
higher doses of the drug are needed to produce the same effect), withdrawal, addiction, and other
persistent consequences.

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 Some longer-term changes begin as adjustments to compensate for drug-induced
increases in neurotransmitter signaling intensity. For example, the brain responds to repeated
drug-induced massive dopamine surges in part by reducing its complement of dopamine
receptors. This alleviates the drugs’ overstimulation of the dopamine system, but also contributes
to features of drug dependence (e.g., susceptibility to drug withdrawal) and of addiction (e.g.,
compromised ability to respond to normal dopamine fluctuations produced by natural rewards).
Similarly, methadone and some other opioids induce neurons to retract a portion of their mu opioid
receptors, making them unavailable for further stimulation. The retraction is short-lived, after
which the receptors return to the neuron surface, restoring normal responsiveness to subsequent
stimulation. This dynamic of reducing and then restoring receptor availability may thwart the
development of tolerance to these drugs. (Morphine, in contrast, does not cause receptors to
retract, and the resulting opioid overstimulation triggers intracellular adjustments that appear to
promote opioid tolerance).

The drug-related mechanisms producing cumulative changes in neurotransmission

sometimes are epigenetic in nature. While a drug cannot change a person’s genes, drugs can
prod some genes to increase or decrease their production of proteins, leading to changes in
neuron function or even actual reshaping of the physical structure of neurons. For example, in
mice, cocaine alters important genetic transcription factors and the expression of hundreds of
genes. Some of the resulting changes in the brain’s complement of proteins have been associated
with increased drug-seeking and addiction-like behaviors in animals. Other changes, such as
proliferation of new dendrites (branchlike structures on neurons that feature neurotransmitter
receptors on their surface) may be compensatory. Some epigenetic changes can be passed down
to the next generation, and one study found that the offspring of rats exposed to THC—the main
psychotropic component of marijuana—have alterations in glutamate and cannabinoid receptor
formation that affects their responses to heroin.

Some drugs are toxic to neurons, and the effect accumulates with repeated exposures.
For example, the club drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA [Ecstasy/Molly]) damages
axons (the branch of a neuron that releases its neurotransmitter into the synapse) that release
serotonin; the result is disruption of serotonin neurotransmission that may underlie the memory
problems that are sometimes experienced by heavy users. Similarly, methamphetamine damage
to dopamine-releasing neurons can cause significant defects in thinking and motor skills; with
abstinence, dopamine function can partially recover, but the extent to which cognitive and motor
capabilities can recover remains unclear.

(Reference: https://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/nida-notes/2017/03/impacts-drugs-
neurotransmission)

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Explain the immediate and chronic effects of drug use on neurotransmission using a concept
map.

2. Lists down five (5) effects of drugs on a person’s behavior.

3. Make a 3-minute vlog citing ways on how we should take care of ourselves from drug abuse.