B.

A 5th Semester POLITICAL SCIENCE(GENERAL PAPER)

UNIT 2 MODERN APPROACHES & TRADITIONAL APPROACH

Mhalevolie Solo

Department of Political Science

Modern approaches:
The political philosophers later on realized the need to study politics from a new viewpoint. Thus,
to overcome the paucities of the traditional approaches, various new approaches have been
promoted by the new political intellectuals. These new approaches are considered as the
"modern approaches" to the study of Political Science. Many theorists regard these approaches
as a reaction against the traditional approaches. These approaches are mainly concerned with
scientific study of politics. The first innovation in this regard comes with the advent of the
behavioural revolution in Political Science.

Characteristics of Modern Approaches:

These approaches draw conclusion from empirical data.

1. These approaches go beyond the study of political structures and its historical analysis.
2. Modern Approaches believe in inter-disciplinary study.

They stress scientific methods of study and attempt to draw scientific conclusions in Political
Science.

1. Sociological approach:
Political science and sociology both are social sciences and in several places they overlay. The
fields of sociological studies are human behaviour including the political behaviour, group
behaviour and attitude of group, culture, society. All these fall within the study area of political
science. Sociological approach of politics is very popular. Most famous thinkers are Maclver,
Easton. Almond recognized the important fact in this approach that ample date is available in the
field of sociology so as to lay down certain empirical rules of political behaviour. Many thinkers
realized that state is more of social than political institution. It means social contest is important
to understand the political behaviours of individual (J. C. Johari, 1982). Another term that belongs
to this approach is culture. "Culture refers to the totality of what is learned by individuals as
members of society, it is a way of life a mode of thinking, acting and feeling." Culture in various
ways influences the political behaviour of individuals which is the arena of investigation of
political scientists.

Scholars of politics are fully aware of political culture which is composed of the attitudes, beliefs,
emotions and values of society that relate to the political system and its political issues. So far as
culture is concerned, it is the subject matter of both sociology and political science.

Society is another important theme of sociology and the sociologists devote a substantial part of
their analysis to the exploration of various aspects of society. Students of politics also treat
society with considerable emphasis. Society is composed of human beings who form intimate
relationship among themselves.

The relationship is pigeonholed by both conflict and cooperation and sequentially, these give rise
to politics. Individuals form institutions which are also parts of society. These institutions play vital
role in moulding the character, attitudes and behaviour of individuals. Thus, both sociology and
politics deal with society in its broadest standpoint. Any sociological analysis of society without its
political orientation is bound to be incomplete.

Human beings constitute not only society but also group based on a network of social
relationships. There are numerous sociological studies about these social relationships. Politics
also studies these relationships. Politics studies only the political aspects. There are various
associations or groups within every society and they are normally formed on the basis of
profession.

Sociologists investigate them in a bigger perspective. The sociologist explores the relationship
between behaviour pattern and social conditions. The studies of sociologists and political
scientists are interdependent. A recent specialist has observed that:

"Political behaviour, political relationships and political institutions are within the realm of
sociology along with other kinds of behaviour, relationships and institutions. Political science thus
overlaps with sociology just as it overlaps with history and economics. Those who take a
sociological approach to the study of politics give attention to the kinds of questions and the
kinds of data political movements of all sorts can be studied on the basis of a sociological
approach to politics".

Policy creations and legislations depend upon the sociological studies. Sociologist's studies on
on crime, divorce, juvenile delinquency, conditions of slum and urbanisation give inputs to the
government and legislators. Modern states are welfare states and the authorities of such states
can neglect the sociological studies on the above issues only on their own threat.

2. Psychological approach:
There is a strong link between politics and psychology. Psychologists usually study the political
behaviour of individuals and factors leading to such behaviour. They also study why certain
individuals behave in a certain way. In simple form, psychology studies the behaviour, attitude of
the voter and after studying various aspects, the researchers draw conclusions which very often
serve the purpose of political leaders. It is not an overstatement to hold that the foundation of
behaviouralism is psychology of the individuals. Presently, political scientists are eager to know
how motives and emotions work in the field of political activity. Sometimes, the psychologists
focus upon the group behaviour.

There are many examples available if review the history of political thought as to how psychology
and politics are associated. Aristotle stated that man is by nature a social animal and his
sociability is the prime reason of the emergence of political organisation which is called state.
Psychology of man is that man wants to live with others.

Another influential political philosopher, Hobbes articulated that every individuals wants security
and to get it, he desires to accumulate power. It is a general feeling that power only can provide
security. Hobbes' political philosophy is based, to a considerable extent, upon psychological
factors. He has portrayed the nature of men who lived in the state of nature. Men of the state of
nature were power hungry, argumentative and envied each other.

According to Locke, people strongly desired to have freedom and right and to that end they build
up a civil society. Utilitarian philosopher, Bentham studied well the psychology of the middle
class people who sought to maximise their happiness. Bentham proposed their psychology
through the tendency of avoiding pain and welcoming pleasure. Marx's theory of class struggle is
also based on psychology.

The proletarians desire to end the exploitation let loose by the capitalists. Individuals in any
society follow conflicting desires and this is the path-finder of politics. There are motives, likes
and dislikes behind every type of political activity. So politics cannot be isolated from psychology.

Even in international politics, the influence of psychology is visible. The big or super-powers are
involved in power politics to establish their power and enhance their image in international
society. This is absolutely a psychological issue.

The idea to launch a war originates from the mind and for that reason, it has been suggested that
attempts are to be made to remove that wicked idea from the mind. Statesmen of international
repute are of opinion that for peace and security, it is indispensable that all sorts of fear are to be
detached from the mind.

3. Economic approach:
Economics and politics are vital arenas of social science and in several respects they are closely
related. In the prospectus of universities of India and many other countries a few decades ago,
economics and political science established a single subject which suggests the close
relationship between the two. This signifies that in the study of politics, economics has great
importance.

When evaluating the economic approaches, it is established that the policy formulations of
economic nature and determination of the principles of planning which has recently become a
part of the governmental activity are done by the government. In majority of the countries, public
issues are economic issues and sometimes the only actors are the personnel of the government
such as the prime minister, president and other ministers. This obvious relationship between the
two subjects has placed the economic approach in a suitable position.

Fiscal policies, industrial policy, agricultural policy, labour policy are all economic issues, but the
foremost actors are the members of the government. The executive branch takes the final
decision. There are many specialists and advisers. The implementation is approved by the
government. Policy regarding production and distribution, though within the jurisdiction of
economics, is always decided by the government. It is well recognized that the impact of success
and failure of the economic policies depend upon the government. So discussion of politics
cannot be successful without economics.

The greatest attribution of the economic approach to the study of politics emanates from the
writings of Marx and Engels. The principle of class struggle, increasing impoverishment and
capitalism's exploitation are based on economic factors. Marx and Engels have highlighted the
heterogeneity of interests between the classes. Classes are formed on the basis of economic
interests. Capitalist's profit making motive leads to exploitation of workers. To liberate from
exploitation, the workers are enforced to struggle. The idea of emancipation is associated with
economic terms. Marx stated that politics is controlled by the persons who own sources of
production and manage the process of distribution. Outside economic influence, politics has no
independent authority.

Marx's theory of base and superstructure is a matter of relationship between economics and
politics. Possibly, Marx is the only philosopher who has vehemently argued the relationship
between the two important subjects of social science. The interest group approach to the study of
politics is popular in some liberal democratic countries and this conception is related with
economic approach. Interest groups or pressure groups create pressure to achieve economic
objectives. Therefore, interest group politics and economic approach are mutually dependent.

4. Quantitative approach:
This approach is also known as statistical approach. It is described as the use of numerical data
so as to impart exactitude to the process of describing and analysing political phenomenon. Mere
descriptive or prescriptive analysis is not enough. The subscribers to this approach demonstrate
that there is a safety in numbers and researchers have to prove scientifically the validity of a
proposition by making use of graph, table, and charts. Many writers use this approach in
comparative politics such as Gallup, Charls Merriam, Harold Gosnell, and Lubell. They have
developed sophisticated way to study electoral behaviour of people. It is said that this approach
does not require any especial thematic expertise. It requires the habit of exposing in numerical
terms every generalization to simple test relating to the number of people and their way of doing
in some political activity (J. C. Johari, 1982).

5. System approach:
This approach falls in the category of modern approach. The notion of Systems Theory was
emerged from ancient time, dates back to 1920s. Ludwig Von Bertallanfy is considered as the
earliest advocate of the general systems theory. He utilized this theory for the study of Biology. It
is only after the Second World War, the social scientists claimed for the amalgamation of
sciences for which they took the help of the systems theory. However, when the general systems
theory in its abstract form traced back to natural sciences like Biology, in its operational form,
they are found in Anthropology. Then it was embraced in Sociology and Psychology. In the
decade of sixties, the systems theory became an important tool to evaluate and investigate key
factors in Political Science. Among political scientists, David Easton has been the first to apply
this theory to political analysis.

This approach describes the relationship of political life with other aspects of social life. The idea
of a system was initially borrowed from biology by Talcott Parsons who first promoted the
concept of social system. Later on David Easton further developed the concept of a political
system. This approach signified that a political system operates within the social environment.
Consequently, it is not possible to analyse political events in isolation from other aspects of the
society. To put in other way, influences from the society, be it economic, religious or otherwise,
do shape the political process.

The political system operates within an environment. The environment produces demands from
different parts of the society such as demand for reservation in the matter of employment for
certain groups, demand for soothing working conditions or minimum wages, demand for better
transportation facilities, demand for better health facilities. Different demands have different
levels of support. Easton said that both 'demands' and 'supports' establish 'inputs.' The political
system receives theses inputs from the environment. After considering various factors, the
government decides to take action on some of these demands while others are not acted upon.
Through, the conversion process, the inputs are converted into 'outputs' by the decision makers
in the form of policies, decisions, rules, regulations and laws. The 'outputs' flow back into the
environment through a 'feedback' mechanism, giving rise to fresh 'demands.' Accordingly, it is a
recurring process.

Presently, the term 'political system' has been chosen to the term state or government because it
includes both formal informal political instructions and processes those continue to exist in a
society. Systems approach to political institutions by the behavioural school has evolved new
concept. David Easton, G. A. Almond and Morton A. Kaplan are credited for applying this
approach in Political Science. According to this theory, political behaviour is conceived as a
system and the political system is well-defined as "Authoritative allocation of values with threat or
actual use of deprivations to make them binding on all". It is the system of interactions to be
found in independent societies which performs the functions of integration and adaptation both
internally and externally by means of employment of legitimate physical compulsion. A political
system has three important characteristics, specifically, comprehensiveness, interdependence
and existence of boundaries. However, the features of a political system are openness,
adaptiveness, comprehensiveness, self-regulating, ongoing. It is composed of a number of
structures which have specific functions. These functions are pigeonholed as input and output
functions. A political system performs these in order to maintain itself.

6. Simulation approach:
The facts of this approaches are borrowed by political scientists from natural science as well as
from cybernetics and mathematics. Simulation means the study with help of image construction
or model building. Such facts are used in political communication, decision making and game
theory. The political communication approach formulated by Karl Deutsch lays emphasis on how
one part of the system affects another by sending messages or transmitting information.
According to this approach, politics and government appear in essence as processes of steering
and coordinating human efforts towards the attainment of some goals (J. C. Johari, 1982).

Decision Making Approach is another example of simulation approach. Decision making

approach explores the attributes of decision makers as well as the type of influence the
individuals have on the decision makers. Scholars like Richard Synder and Charles Lindblom
have developed this approach. A political decision which is taken by a few political players
influences a bigger society and such a decision is generally shaped by a specific situation.
Therefore, it takes into account psychological and social aspects of decision makers also.

7. Behavioural approach:
Behaviouralism is considered as contemporary approach to the study of political science. But this
approach was emerged during 20th century. An important consideration of Behaviouralism has
been the study of political behaviour, as an area of study within Political Science. It concentrates
is on the individual as voter, leader, revolutionary, party member and the influences of the group
or the political system on the individual's political behaviour.

Behviouralism stresses scientific, objective and value-free study of the political occurrences as
conditioned by the environment, firmly the behaviour of the individuals involved in that
phenomena. As such, it focuses on the role of the behaviour of the individual at various levels
and the scientific analysis. Behaviouralism is the development of method against traditional
political science which did not take into account if human behaviour as an actor in politics.

Behaviouralism is quite different from behaviourism. Behaviourism is narrow in its application. It

refers to the response of an organism as aroused by some stimulus. It does not consider role of
the feelings, ideas, prejudices that determine the response of that individual. Behaviouralism
does take into account the role of the feelings, ideas and prejudices. David Easton differentiates
between behaviourism and behaviouralism through an example. The paradigm adopted by
behaviourists, according to him is S- R (Stimulus-Response). But the behavioural lists have
improved it by making it as S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response). David Easton regards
behavioural revolution is an intellectual tendency on the part of the political scientists to study
empirically the political behaviour of persons.

Striking Features of Behaviouralism:

David Easton has described certain key features of behaviouralism which are regarded as its
intellectual foundations. These are:
 1. Regularities: This approach believes that there are certain consistencies in political
behaviour which can be expressed in generalizations or theories in order to elucidate and
predict political phenomena. In a particular situation, the Political behaviour of individuals
may be more or less similar. Such regularities of behaviour may help the researcher to
analyse a political situation as well as to predict the future political phenomena. Study of
such regularities makes Political Science more scientific with some predictive value.
2. Verification: The behaviouralists do not want to accept everything as established.
Therefore, they stress testing and verifying everything. According to them, if
phenomenon is not verified then it will not be scientific.
3. Techniques: The behaviouralists stress on the use of those research tools and methods
which generate valid, reliable and comparative data. A researcher must make use of
refined tools like sample surveys, mathematical models, simulation.
4. Quantification: After collecting data, the researcher should measure and quantify those
data.
5. Values: The behaviouralists have emphasised on separation of facts from values. They
believe that to do objective research, one has to be value free. It means that the
researcher should not have any pre-conceived idea or a prejudiced view.
6. Systematization: According to the behaviouralists, research in Political Science must be
systematic. Theory and research should go together.
7. Pure Science: Another feature of behaviouralism has been its aim to make Political
Science a "pure science". It believes that the study of Political Science should be verified
by evidence.
8. Integration: behaviouralists stated that political Science should not be detached from
various other social sciences such as history, sociology and economics. This approach
denotes that political events are formed by various other factors in the society and
therefore, it would be incorrect to separate Political Science from other disciplines.

Consequently, with the development of behaviouralism, novel thinking and new method of study
were evolved in the field of Political Science.

Advantages of behavioural approach are as follows:

1. - This approach attempts to make Political Science as a scientific method and brings it
closer to the day to day life of the individuals.
2. - Behaviouralism has bought human behaviour into the arena of Political Science and
thereby makes the study more relevant to the society.
3. - This approach helps in predicting future political events.

The behavioural approach has been supported by different political philosophers. However, the
Behavioural approach also gripped under various criticisms for its scienticism also. The main
criticisms of this approach are mentioned below:

1. This approach has been criticized for its dependence on techniques and methods and
ignoring the subject matter.
 2. The supporters of this approach were mistaken when they thought that human beings
behave in similar ways in similar circumstances.
3. Moreover, it is a difficult task to study human behaviour and to get a certain result.
4. Most of the political phenomena are immeasurable. Therefore, it is always difficult to use
scientific method in the study of Political Science.

- Furthermore, the researcher being a human being is not always value neutral as believed by
the behaviouralists.

Other criticisms by political thinkers are as under:

1. Behaviouralism over emphasizes on techniques.

2. It is criticized as Pseudo-politics as it aims at upholding only American institutions as the
best in the world.
3. It stresses behavioural effect at the cost of institutional effect.
4. It emphasizes static rather than current situations.
5. It is a value free research, as its debate is not possible.

Post behaviourism: The progress of behavioural movement in Political Science is one of the
important breakthroughs in the history of Political Science. The growth of behaviouralism clearly
presented a scientific dynamism in the study of political phenomena. Nevertheless, after
sometime, it began to be realized that unlike natural sciences, generalizations could not be made
in the field of social sciences, as the study of man in the societal framework was a far more
complex pursuit than the study of objects in the natural sciences. Therefore, a new thinking
emerged among the behaviouralists for transforming behaviouralism.

David Easton who was a faithful supporter of behaviouralism later became a strong opponent of
behaviouralism. In his presidential address to the Annual Convention of the American Political
Science Association held in 1969, David Easton avowed that he felt unhappy with the political
research and teaching made under the impact of behaviouralism. He further said that because of
excessive use of mathematics, Political Science looked more of mathematics instead of social
science and that it does not study the current and contemporary world.

Behaviouralism also disappointed people as it is unsuccessful in providing solutions to many

social and political problems. Such dissatisfaction has led to the emergence of post-
behaviouralism. This new approach believed that mere use of refined techniques and research
tools would not solve the social and political problems of the world. Therefore, post-
behaviouralists criticized the idea of behaviouralists to make Political Science a value-free
science like other natural sciences. Post-behaviouralists attempted to make Political Science
pertinent to the society. However, it must be recalled that post-behaviouralism cannot be
separated from behviouralism as it has arose from behaviouralism. Through, using different
techniques and methods, post-behaviouralists try to overcome the disadvantages of
behaviouralism and make the study of Political Science more applicable to the society.

According to post-behaviouralism, the use of scientific tools is valuable if it can solve the various
problems of the society. Behaviouralists gave too much emphasis on methods and techniques
and believed that it was better to be wrong than ambiguous. On the contrary, Post-
behaviouralists believe that it is better to be vague than non-relevantly precise. The post-
behaviouralists disapproved behaviouralism on the basis that the latter had lost touch with the
realities of the society because of over emphasis on techniques. Thus, post-behaviouralists may
be regarded as the reform movement within behaviouralism. This new approach stresses
identifying and solving the major issues of political and social life. According to post-
behaviouralism, the political scientists should find out different alternatives and means to solve
the social problems. Consequently, the main drive of post-behaviouralism has been to make
Political Science significant to the society. However, it is noted that it is only a perpetuation of
behaviouralism. It does not overall reject the ideas of behaviouralism. It recognizes the
achievement of behaviouralism and escalates its effort to do objective research in Political
Science. It only attempts to bring research in Political Science closer to reality to make the
subject more relevant to the society. Accordingly, the post-behaviouralists opposed the efforts of
the behaviouralists to make Political Science a value-free science. It was debated by the post-
behaviouralists that Political Science must consider basic issues of society such as justice,
liberty, equality, democracy to make research relevant to the society. The post-behaviouralists
have described behaviouralism as a 'mad craze for scienticism'. Thus, the post-behaviouralism is
an improvement of behaviouralism as it changes its focus strictly from empirical research to
resolving problems confronting the society.

8. Marxian approach:
Marxian approach to politics is not limited to the writings of Marx, Engels and Lenin but all those
of a congregation of later writers such as Luxemburg, Trotsky, Gramsci and many others.
Further, an explicitly 'political' treatise cannot be found in the whole range of classical Marxist
texts. Miliband indicated that "a Marxist politics had to be constructed or reconstructed from the
mass of variegated and fragmented material which forms the corpus of Marxism."

Marx views on Individual:

Marx stated that the individual is individual-in-society. Individual has no identity without the
society. Marx described that "society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of
inter-relations, the relations within which these individuals stand." As such, Marx is different from
the liberal view which conceives individual as atomized, insular and self-contained.

Views of Marx on Society:

Marxists specified that all societies in history have been class societies. The contending classes
from 'freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman to
bourgeoisie and proletariat in the period of capitalism have stood in constant opposition to one
another. All class societies are characterized by supremacy and conflict which are based on
specific, concrete features of their mode of production. Class domination has been a historical
process suggesting a constant attempt on the part of the dominant classes to maintain and
extend their power on the society.

Marx on Politics:
Marxist opined that politics can be understood only with reference to the nature of prevailing
societal conflict and domination. Politics, as such, conceived in terms of the 'specific articulation
of class struggles.' In general, in Marxian view politics has a derivative and epiphenomenal
character. The political life processes are considered as part of 'superstructure' standing on the
economic structure of society. The subsidiary and derivative character of politics can be well
inferred from the following quotation from the 'Preface' to a contribution to the criticism of Political
Economy:

"In the social production of their existence, men enter into definite, necessary relations, which are
independent of their will, namely, relations of production corresponding to a determinate stage of
development of their material forces of production. The totality of these relations of production
constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation on which arises a legal and
political superstructure and to which there correspond definite forms of social consciousness.
The mode of production of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life
conditions the social, political and intellectual life-process in general."

According to Marx, Politics, economics, culture and ideology are all inseparably interweaved. The
'forces of production' at a particular stage of historical development, are harmonized by definite
'relations of production' that characterize the society. The relations of production taken together
constitute the economic foundation of the society. The legal and political institutions stand on this
"real foundation" of economic structure.

From the Marxist perspective, the real nature of politics, has to be assumed from "the hidden
basis of the entire social structure." Ralph Miliband stated that politics is 'a very determined and
conditioned activity indeed so determined' and 'conditioned' in fact, as to give politics a mostly
derivative, subsidiary, and 'epiphenomenal' character."

It is well recognized that Marx put more emphasis on the materialistic or economic interpretation
of history. He stated that the capitalists by controlling the means of production and distribution
also controlled not only the political but social and economic structure of the society as well. He
stressed economic aspect of life. According to him, every other activity in the society revolved
round economics. All social and political activities are based on economic activity.

9. Structural functional approach:

According to this approach, the society is a single inter-related system where each part of the
system has a definite and distinct role to play. The structural-functional approach may be
considered as an offshoot of the system analysis. These approaches accentuate the structures
and functions. Gabriel Almond was an advocate of this approach. He described political systems
as a special system of interaction that exists in all societies performing certain functions.
According to him, the main attributes of a political system are comprehensiveness, inter-
dependence and existence of boundaries. Like Easton, Almond also believes that all political
systems perform input and output functions. The Input functions of political systems are political
socialization and recruitment, interest-articulation, interest-aggression and political
communication. Almond makes three-fold classifications of governmental output functions
relating to policy making and implementation. These output functions are rule making, rule
application and rule adjudication. Therefore, Almond believes that a stable and efficient political
system converts inputs into outputs.

10. Communication Theory Approach:

This approach examines how one segment of a system affects another by sending messages or
information. Robert Weiner first defined this approach. Later on, Karl Deutsch developed it and
applied it in Political Science. Deutsch believes that the political system is a system of
communication channels and it is self-regulative. He further stated that the government is
responsible for overseeing different communication channels. This approach treats the
government as the decision making system. According to Deutsch, the four factors of analysis in
communication theory are; lead, lag, gain and load.

In political studies, it is observed that there is no single approach that effectively describe every
phenomenon or issue. Each of these approaches have their strength and weaknesses. A wide-
ranging approach is more desirable as researchers embark on description or analysis of political
events and issues.