HEAT &THERMODYNAMICSS|

1. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

212t
In this topic, we discuss various phenomenas involving
thermal and how does a matter behave on experiencing the
low of thermal energy. Primarily we study T80

Thermal Expansion
Heat & Clariometry
***

Heat Transfer

1.1 TemperatureandHeat Temperature(°C) 100

Temperature: Temperature is a relative measure of hotness1.2.2 Absolute Temperature Scale
or coldness of a body.
It is kelvin scale
SLUnit: Kelvin (k)
273.15 K
lcepoint
Commonly Used Uni °C or °F

Conversion: +273.15
Steam point> 373.15 K
Comparing it with the celcius scale, number of scale division
Heat: Heat is a form ofenergy flow (i) between two bodies in both the seales is same.
or (i) between a body and its surroundings by virtue of
temperature difference between them -0°C_-273.15
SLUnit: Joule ) T00 100

Commonly UsedUnit: Calorie (Cal) Kelvin scale is called as absolute seale, because it is
practically impossible to go beyond OK in the negative
Conversion: Ical = 4.186J
side.
Heat always lows from a higher temperature system
to a lower emperature & system. Steam
Point
173 15 K 2120C

1.2 Measurement ofTemperature

Tce

Point
H 273.15K C

Principle: Observation ofThermometric property with the

change in temperature and comparing it with certain

reference situations.
Reference situation is generally ice point or steam point. Absolute OK -2731S°C
zero 27315°C
1.2.1 Celciusand FahrenheitTemperatureSeales Kelvin Scale Celcius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

In Fahrenheit Scale
In Celsius Seale
Icepoint 0 ° C lce point > 32°F Comparison of Temperature Scales

Steam point> 1000°C Steam point>212°F

1.2.3 Thermometers
It implies that 100 division in celcius scales is equivalent to Instrument used to measure temperature of any system is
180 scale divisions in fahrenheit scale.
called as thermometer.

2 Examples: Liquid in Glass themometer, Platinum Resistance

Hence 180 100 Thermomete, Constant Volume Gas Thermometers.
Liquid in Glass thermometer and Platinum Resistance All gases converge to absolute zero at zero pressure.
thermometer give uniform readings for ice point & steam point
but go non uniform for different liquids and different materials. 1.3 Thermal Expansion
Constant volume gas thermometer gives same readings
It is widely observed, that most materials expand on heating
respective of which gas. It is based on the fact that at low
and contract on
colling
pressures and constant volume, P x T for a gas.
This expansion is in all dimensions.
Pressure¢
Experimentaly it has been observed that fractional change
Gas A
in any dimension is proportional to the change in
temperature.
Gas B

273.15°C 0C
Iemperature

A KAT constant (k)

Linear Expansion = a AT Coeficient of Linear expansion (a):

L

Increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temp.

Area Expension AT Coeflicient ofArea Expansion (B):

SAL
Inerease in area per unit area per degree rise n temp.

****.

Volume Expansion AV
VYAT Coeflicient of volume expansion (y):
Inerease in area per unit volume per degree rise in temp.

Units of a, B.1=PC or /K
In general with change in volume the density will also
change.
a for metals generally higher than a for non-metals
r(1o°k}
7 is nearly constant at high temperatures but all low temp
it depends on temp.
250 500
T(K)
Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a function of we know
temperature.
For ideal gases y is inversely propertional to temp. at AV compressive strain
Al
=

constant pressure

nRT AV_AT
V
p T
Also Yo=G =Thermal stress
V

o, YaAT ..3)
YT Practical
As an exception, water contracts on heating from 0°C to
applications in railway tracks metal tyres of cart
wheels, bridges and so many other applications.
4°C andhence its density increases from 0°C to 4°C. Thus
is called as anamolous expansion
1.4 Heat&Calorimetry
When two systems at diferent temperatures are connected
gm/ce together then heat flows from higher temperature to lower
Density
temperature till the time their temperatures do not become
Same.

Principle of calorimetry states that, neglecting heat loss to

surroundings. heat lost by a body at higher temperature is
4C equal heat gained by a body at lower temperature.
(a) (b)
heat gained = heat lost

Ingeneral Whenever heat is given to any body, either its temperature

changes or its state changes.

1.4.1 Changein Temperature

Proof: Imagine a cube oflength, / that expands equally in When the temp changes on heating,
directions, when its temperature inereases by small AT
all Then
We have
Heal supplied a change in temp (AT)
Al = alAT
a amount of substance (m/n)
Also
a nature of substance (s/c)
av 1-t=t+3t a+3/A + ar-t
AH=msAT
3/al Mass
m=
of body
In Equation(1) we ignore 31Ar & Al as A/ is very small as s specific heat capacity per kg
compared to I.
AT Change in temp
So
AH=nCAT
V
aV =* l=3VaAT TUsing C](2) n= Number of moles
C-Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole
AV
AT= Change in temp
3aAT
Specifie Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise
3a the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one

Similarly we can prove for area expansion coefficient degree.

Units
In case, thermal expansion is prevented inside the rod by
fixing its ends rigidly, then the rod acquires a compressive
strain due to external fones at the ends corresponding stresS
SI-JKgK sueI cal/g°C

set up in the rod is called thermal stress. Common >Cal/gC° eo 0.5 cal/g°C
 Molar Heat Capacity: Amount of heat required to raise the On heating.
temperature of unit mole of the substance through one degree Step-1: Temp changes to 0°C first
Units Step-2: lce melts to H,O) keeping the temp constant
SI-J/mol KK Step-3: Temp. inverses to 100°C
Common Calge° Step-4: H,O() boils to steam keeping the temp constant
Heat Capacity: Amount of heat required to raise the Step-5: Further temp increases
temperature of a system through one degree
AH-SAT Temp
where S=
Heat Capacity
Units
SI J/K
CommonCal/C°

For HO specific heat capacity does change but fairly very Heat

less.
The slope is inversely proportional to heat capacity.
Materials with higher specific heat capacity require a lot of
Length of horizontal line depends upon mlL for the process.
heat tor some a given in temperature
1.4.3 Pressure dependence on melting point and boiling point
14.2 Changeinstate
For some substance melting point decreases with increases
When the phase changes on heating
pressure and for other melting point inereases
Then
Melting poing increases with inerease in temperature. We
Heat supplied a amount of substance which changes the can observe the above results through phaser diagrams.
state (M)

a nature of substance (L)

(atm) (atm)
AH=mL

Where L= Latent Heat of process Solid Solid

****
Latent Heat: Amount of heal required per mass to change
the state of any substance.
Vapour Vapour
T'C)
Units For , 0 For CO

SI>J/Kg
Common->Cal/g Line AO > Sublimation curve

The change in state always occurs at a constant Line OB Fusion curve

temperature. Line OC Vapourization curve

For example
Point O Triple Point
Point C Critical temperature
Solid Liq L
Triple Point: The combination pressure and temperature
Liq Gas al which all three states of matter (i.e. solids, liquids gases
L Latent Heat offusion co-exist.
L Latent heat of vaporization For HO it is at 273.16K and
0.006 Atm.
In case any material is not at its B.P or M.P, then on heating Critical Point: The combination of pressure & temp
the temperature will change till the time a particular state beyond which a vapour cannot be liquified is called as
change temperature reaches. critical point.

For Example : Ifwater is initialy at-50°Cat 1Am pressure Corresponding temperature, pressure are called as critical
in its solid state. temperature & critical pressure.
 From the phasor diagram, we can see that melting poit Larger the thermal conductivity, the greater will be rate of
decreases with increases in pressure for H,O. heat energy flow for a given temperature difference.
Based on this is the concept of reglation. m metals

Reglation: The phenomena of refreezing of water melted Thermal conductivity of insulators is very low. There fore,
below the normal melting point due to addition of pressure air does not let the heat energy to be conducted very easily.
It is due to this pressure effect on melting point that cook ing For combinations of rods between two ends kept at different
is tough on mountains and lasier in pressure cooker. temperatures, we can use the concept of equivalent thermal
conductivity of the composite rod.
1.5 Heat Transfer
There are three modes of heat transfer.
For example:
Conduction
Convection L.KA|Lk,A
Radiation

where K for equivalent thermal conductivity of the

1.5.1 Conduction compositive.
Thermal conduction is the process in which thermal energy
is transferred from the hotter part of a body to the colder
one or from hot body to a cold body in contact with Theterm (p) in the above equation is called a

without any transference of material particles. Temperature Gradient.

T Temperature Gradient : The fall in temperature per unit

length in the direction of flow of heat energy is called as
Temperature Gradient
Units
Direction o
heat how SI-K/m
The term Q. (i.e.) rate of flow of heat energy can also be
At steady state,
named as heat current
The rate of heat energy flowing through the rod becomes
The term (LIKA) is called as thermal resistance of any
constant.
conducting rod.
Thermal Resistance: Obstruction offered to the flow of
This is rate Q = kA
(1)
heat current by the medium

for uniform cross-section rods

where Q Rate of heat energy flow (J/s or W)
A= Area of cross-section (m')
TT= Temperature of hot end and cold end respectively
(PC or K)
L=Length of the rod (m)
Kcoefficient of thermal conductivity
Coeficient of Thermal Conductivity: It is defined as
amount of heat conducted during steady state in unit time
through unit area of any cross-Section ot the substance
under unit temperature gradient, the heat flow being normal
to the area.
Units K/W
1.5.2 Convection
The process in which heat is transtferred from one point to
another by the actual movement of the heated material
particles from a place at higher temperature to another place
ot lower temperature IS called as thermal convection.
If the medium is forced to move with the help of a fan or a
pump, it is called as forced convection.
If the material moves because of the differences in density
of the medium, the process is called natural or free
convection.
Examples of forced convection

Units Circulatory system, cooling system of an automobile heat

connector
SI J/mSk or W/mK.
 Examples of natural convection n integrating

Trade winds, Sea Breeze/land Breeze, Monsoons Burning log (T,-T,)=-Kt+C

ofTea. Dr
TT,+C*where C,=e (6)
1.5.3 Radiation equation (6) enables you to calculate the time ofcooling of
a body through a particular range of temperature.
It is a process of transmission of heat in which heat travels
directly from one place to another without the agency of
any intervening medium
This radiation of heat energy occurs in the form of EM (°C)| log
waves.
(T-T

These radiators are emitted by virtue of its temperature, like

the radiation by a red hot iron or light from a filament lamp.
Time (minute) Time
Every body radiates energy as well as absorbs energy from
surroundings. For small temp dift, the rate of cooling, due to conduction,
The proportion ofenergy absorbed depends upon the colour convection & radiation combined is proportional to
of the body. diflerence in temperature.

(a) Newtons Law of cooling Approximation: Ifa body cools fromT, to T, int times in
medium where surrounding temp is Tg. then
Newton's Law of cooling states that, the rate of loss of heat
d
dofthe bodyisdirectly proportional tothe differenct of
temp difference
T-T-K-T.
Newton's Law ofcooling can be verified experimentally.
-ds
Now k(T, -T,) (4)
dt

where k is a positive constant depending upon area and

nature of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of mass
m, specific heat capacity s is at temperature T, &T, be the
temp of surroundings ifdT, the fall of temperature in time

Amount of heat lost is

des msdT D

Rate of loss of heat is given by

dcs Set Up: A double walled vessel (v) containng water in

ms .(5)
dt d between two walls.
A copper calorimeter (c) containing hot water placed inside
From Equation 4 and 5
the double walled vessel. Two thermometers through the
carbs are used to not the temperature T, of H,O in
-ms k(T, -T,) calorimeter T, of water in between the double walls
respectively.
dT dt =-Kdt Experiment: The temperature of hot water in the calorimeter
T-T ms after equal intervals of time.

Result: A graph is plotted between log (T,-T,) and time

where K = (). The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line
ms
as it should be from Newton's law of cooling.