See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/264089795

Feeling the risks: effects of the development of emotional competences with

outdoor training on the entrepreneurial intent of university students

Article  in  International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal · December 2014

DOI: 10.1007/s11365-014-0310-y

CITATIONS READS

66 797

3 authors:

Antonio Padilla-Meléndez Manuel Ángel Fernández-Gámez

University of Malaga University of Malaga
213 PUBLICATIONS   1,877 CITATIONS    112 PUBLICATIONS   396 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Jesús Molina-Gómez
University of Malaga
24 PUBLICATIONS   134 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Special Issue "Innovation, Sustainability, Technology: The Challenges of Tourism and Hospitality" View project

Innovation in Family Firms View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Jesús Molina-Gómez on 10 September 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884
DOI 10.1007/s11365-014-0310-y

Feeling the risks: effects of the development of emotional

competences with outdoor training
on the entrepreneurial intent of university students

Antonio Padilla-Meléndez & Manuel A. Fernández-Gámez &

Jesús Molina-Gómez

Published online: 5 April 2014

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Abstract Nowadays, one of the roles of universities is the promotion of entrepreneur-

ship, particularly, among students. Research on entrepreneurship at an individual level
of analysis focuses on the personal characteristics and the entrepreneurial attitude that
stimulate its development, studying the factors affecting that some individuals discover
and exploit opportunities by creating a company, while others do not. Yet, it has been
proved that psychological characteristics of individuals affect their entrepreneurial
intention. Additionally, experiential learning techniques, such as outdoor training have
been showed as useful to change emotional competences. However, there is not any
research on how changes in emotional competencies influence individual entrepreneur-
ial intent in university students, particularly after participating in an outdoor training
experience. This paper analyses quantitative and qualitative data of last-year university
students who participated in an outdoor training experience, measuring its emotional
competences and entrepreneurial orientation, before and after that experience. It
contributes to the understanding on how changes in emotional competences
affect the entrepreneurial intent of university students. Results indicate that
changes in emotional competences, such as self-management, social awareness, and
relationship management affect entrepreneurial orientation, particularly innovation and
risk, affecting, thus, entrepreneurial intention.

A. Padilla-Meléndez (*)
Facultad de Estudios Sociales y del Trabajo, Campus de Teatinos (Ampliación), Universidad de Málaga,
29071 Málaga, Spain
e-mail: apm@uma.es

M. A. Fernández-Gámez : J. Molina-Gómez
Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Campus de El Ejido, Universidad de Málaga,
Málaga, Spain
M. A. Fernández-Gámez
e-mail: mangel@uma.es
J. Molina-Gómez
e-mail: jmolinag@uma.es
862 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Keywords Individual entrepreneurial intention . Individual entrepreneurial orientation .

University students . Emotional competences . Outdoor training

Introduction

Entrepreneurship has been studied extensively in recent decades. As previous

work has shown, entrepreneurship plays an important role in creating employ-
ment, productivity gains, and economic growth (Parker 2005). Within this con-
text, universities are also expected to play a role with respect to promoting
entrepreneurship, particularly among their students. This is related to the idea
of the “entrepreneurial university,” based on fostering entrepreneurship at all
levels (scholars, researchers, employees, and students) (Etzkowitz et al. 2000).
In Spain, people generally feel positive about starting new businesses, but their
risk tolerance tends to be low, which is ultimately a barrier to developing
entrepreneurship in the country. Consequently, some mechanisms, such as training
activities, may be needed to help people to manage risk and to change this negative
situation (GEM 2012).
Within the research on entrepreneurship, studies conducted on the individual level
include the analysis of entrepreneurial attitudes and the personal profiles and traits that
favor the development of entrepreneurship (Bolton and Lane 2012). Furthermore,
psychological characteristics have been studied with respect to their influence on
individual entrepreneurial intention (e.g., Autio et al. 1997; Drost and MacGuire
2011; Liñán 2008). Within this context, previous studies have suggested that person-
ality plays a role in becoming an entrepreneur, linking entrepreneurship with emotional
competences (EC), such as self-management and social management skills (Goleman
1998). Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to recognize and manage one’s
own and others’ feelings (Goleman 1995, 1998), and EC are identified as the ability to
feel, understand, and effectively apply the power of emotions as a source of energy,
information, confidence, and creativity as well as the ability to influence others
(Goleman 1998). Moreover, EC are needed to work effectively, both individually and
in groups in organizational settings, as a crucial predictor of workplace success
(Cross and Travaglione 2003). Consequently, EC could currently be considered
as necessary individual competences. Surprisingly, few teaching and learning
methods or practices have been developed to improve them, particularly in the
university context.
In management education, experiential learning practices (Kolb 1984, 1998), such as
outdoor training (OT), have proven useful in changing and improving these compe-
tences (Hamilton and Cooper 2001). The possibility of developing these competences
is relevant, as there is evidence that people with higher EC tend to be better able to
regulate their emotions and therefore experience more self-confidence and greater
control of environmental demands, thus positively affecting their entrepreneurial ori-
entation (Wong and Law 2002). In addition, individuals with high self-perceived EC
tend to be more effective and to display more creative planning, consequently facili-
tating entrepreneurial orientation (Zampetakis et al. 2009).
As noted, despite the relevance of EC, there is no research on how using experiential
learning techniques such as OT can affect the entrepreneurial orientation and intentions
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 863

of university students. By participating in an OT program, students may be more aware

of their EC and may, with the assistance of consultants and interaction with others,
improve them, particularly in those dimensions most related to having an entrepreneurial
intention, such as self-confidence, relationship management, and risk.
In this paper, an experiment-based methodology involving OT was designed, with
university students as participants. Data from the experience (participant and non-
participant groups) and data pertaining to the entrepreneurial orientation and intention
of the selected students were analyzed. The contribution of this paper is a specific
understanding of how the individual entrepreneurial orientation and intention of stu-
dents can be developed by organizing experiential learning practices, such as OT. In
particular, this paper shows how EC are improved after participating in an OT program
and how they positively affect the entrepreneurial orientation and intentions of the
involved students. To our knowledge, no effort related to this specific topic exists in the
literature.
This paper continues as follows. After a review of the literature on entrepreneurial
intent, EC, and OT in the university context, the methods and main results are
presented. We close with discussion and conclusion sections, including limitations
and implications for practice.

Literature review

Conceptual framework

To analyze the entrepreneurial intentions of university students, a conceptual framework

is necessary. Such a framework encompasses the main concepts and constructs related to
the research on developing the entrepreneurial orientation and intention of university
students through improving their awareness and level of EC through participation in OT
programs (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Conceptual framework

864 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Entrepreneurial intention

Entrepreneurial intention can be defined as “a self-acknowledged conviction by a

person who intends to set up a new business venture and consciously plan to do so
at some point in the future. That point in the future might be imminent or indeterminate,
and may never be reached” (Thompson 2009, p. 676). At this individual level,
personality variables play an important role in the development of alternative models
of the entrepreneurial process (Zhao et al. 2005). Furthermore, individual perceptions
(especially self-efficacy and role models) have been found to be the most important
antecedents of entrepreneurial intention (Liñán et al. 2011a). It is worth noting that this
level differs from the well-known organizational-level entrepreneurial orientation,
which refers to the strategy in which organizations provide a basis for entrepreneurial
decisions and actions (Lumpkin and Dess 1996, 2001).
The entrepreneurial orientation of individuals is an antecedent of their entrepreneurial
intention and reflects a person’s general attitude toward becoming an entrepreneur
(Bolton and Lane 2012). The development of an instrument to measure entrepreneurial
orientation has been a prolific area of research. Liñán and Santos (2007) analyzed the
specific influence of the new socioeconomic factor of social capital on the formation of
entrepreneurial intentions and developed an Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire
(EIQ) instrument. These researchers found an indirect influence of the constructs
defining cognitive social capital (bonding social capital and bridging social capital)
on entrepreneurial intentions. Subsequently, Liñán and Chen (2009) tested the EIQ
psychometric properties in Spain and Taiwan and found its properties to be satisfactory.
Furthermore, the authors showed how cultural values modified the manner in which
individuals in each society perceive entrepreneurship. Thompson (2009) further clari-
fied the construct of individual entrepreneurial intention and reported the development
and validation of a reliable and internationally applicable entrepreneurial intention scale
that is unique to individuals. Finally, Bolton and Lane (2012) developed a measurement
instrument for individual entrepreneurial orientation, identifying three distinct factors
that demonstrate reliability and validity—innovativeness, risk taking, and
proactiveness—and are statistically correlated with measures of entrepreneurial inten-
tion. As explained below, this instrument was used in our research and will be included
in the model as H4.

Emotional competences

Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to recognize and manage one’s own and
others’ feelings (Goleman 1995, 1998). EC are identified as the ability to feel,
understand, and effectively apply the power of emotions as a source of energy,
information, confidence, and creativity as well as the ability to influence others
(Goleman 1998). It is believed that emotional intelligence determines the potential of
a person to learn personal and social skills, whereas EC indicate how much of this
potential has been translated into an area of application, such as the workplace
(Cherniss and Goleman 2001). Therefore, EC are characteristics of an individual that
are causally related to a standard of effectiveness and superior performance in a job or
situation (Spencer and Spencer 1993). These EC are reflected in personal skills (how
individuals handle themselves) and social skills (how individuals handle others)
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 865

(Kierstead 1999). People who develop EC tend to feel more satisfied and are more
efficient and better able to master mental habits that condition their productivity. By
contrast, those individuals who fail to control their emotional lives struggle with
constant infighting, which weakens their ability to work and prevents them from
thinking clearly (Goleman 1998).
Despite the interest that exists in developing EC, some questions regarding the
concept and theory of EC and how to measure them remain unaddressed in the
literature (Landy and Conte 2004). Among the most commonly used models to
measure EC, the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) devised by Boyatzis
(1994), can be highlighted as an assessment tool that identifies the strengths and
weaknesses of individuals in terms of competencies (Boyatzis et al. 1999). These
competences overlap with dimensions of personality (self-awareness, emotional
stability, extraversion, and openness) and other psychological concepts, such as moti-
vation and leadership (Van Rooy and Viswesvaran 2004). This study uses an adaptation
of the edition of the ECI applicable to university students (ECI-U) (Goleman and
Boyatzis 2001).
In the literature, a number of papers suggesting the importance of examining
differences in entrepreneurial orientation have been published, particularly regarding
the organizational level (Covin and Slevin 1991; Zahra 1993). Nevertheless, little
attention has been paid to EC as personal traits and to their relationship with an
individual’s entrepreneurial orientation. However, previous studies suggest that personality
plays a role in the origins of entrepreneurship, which has been demonstrated in
relation to emotional intelligence, linking entrepreneurship with EC such as self-
management and social management skills (Goleman 1998). People with higher EC
tend to be better able to regulate their emotions and therefore experience more self-
confidence and greater control of environmental demands, which enables them to act in
an entrepreneurial way (Wong and Law 2002). Thus, a significantly high level of overall
EC has been found among the entrepreneurs studied in the literature (Cross and
Travaglione 2003). In addition, individuals who tend to reject destructive feelings,
who have high self-confidence, who are able to recognize their own feelings, who can
promote new things, and who take risks are those with greater entrepreneurial spirit and
orientation (Hadizadeh et al. 2009). In addition, individuals with high levels of self-
perceived EC tend to be more effective and exhibit more creative planning, thus
facilitating entrepreneurial orientation (Zampetakis et al. 2009). As a result, a relation-
ship between EC as an antecedent and individual entrepreneurial orientation has been
proposed (Rhee and While 2007; Prahdan and Nath 2012).
Consequently, the following hypothesis was formulated:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): An improvement in individual emotional competences will posi-

tively affect a person’s entrepreneurial orientation.

OT programs have been proposed (Wagner and Campbell 1994) as a method to change
and develop competences, especially leadership, teamwork, and group cooperation
(Hattie et al. 1997; Wagner et al. 1991). OT (also known as outdoor management
development, learning outside of the classroom, outdoor learning, learning experience,
or classrooms without walls) is based on Kolb’s experiential learning theories (Kolb
1984). The goal of OT is to assist participants in performing a self-assessment of their
866 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

strengths and weaknesses and therefore learning about themselves (Bennett 1996) and
developing their EC. The assumption of OT is that people learn best when they have a
direct exchange with their own experiences—that is, when they learn “by doing.” In
sum, OT presents participants with a series of challenges and different situations in
which they must solve problems, allowing them the space and resources needed to
generate immediate success or failure in their actions. One additional peculiarity of this
methodology is the speed with which these skills, attitudes, and values are put into
practice, resulting in greater clarity of participant goals (Jiménez and Gómez 2008). In
addition, the fear of failure that exists in real situations does not exist in OT, as the
methodology itself provides participants with the opportunity to make mistakes in a
supportive environment; thus, learning is much more effective in OT than in other
approaches. Furthermore, OT favors the emergence of underlying conflicts in teams,
creates opportunities to identify blockages and assists in solving them. In short,
the OT program has elements of uncertainty, reality, arousal, perception of risk,
and interaction with nature (Ewert 1989; Priest 1990; Raiola and O’Keefe 1999).
By taking a number of risks, participants in OT experiences extend their limits by
achieving targets that they never thought they could reach (McEvoy and Cragun
1997). Finally, OT enables learning to occur on three levels—physical, intellectual,
and emotional (Burnett and James 1994; Petrini 1990)—and it has been proven that
OT programs can be used to improve soft skills, such as teamwork, problem solving,
risk taking, self-esteem, and interpersonal communication (Hamilton and Cooper
2001). In this work, OT will be used as method to develop the EC of university
students and as a basis from which to analyze the effect of such EC on the
entrepreneurial orientation and intention of students. Consequently, the following
hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): By participating in an OT program, students can improve their EC.

Entrepreneurial intention among university students

After a literature review, several significant studies regarding the individual

entrepreneurial intentions of university students were identified and analyzed
(see Table 1).
In general, these studies can be divided into two broad categories with respect to
their areas of study: context and personal characteristics. Context has been studied
with regard to entrepreneurship education, regional differences, culture, founding
conditions, social capital, and university support (e.g., Coduras et al. 2008; Lee
et al. 2011; Liñán et al. 2011b; Liñán et al. 2011c). This paper is related to
personal characteristics, an area in which previous studies have focused on
developing an instrument to measure individual entrepreneurial orientation with
regard to psychological characteristics, self-efficacy, and desirability. Other studies
have included feasibility and gender-related aspects, which are not considered in
this paper.
Research on psychological characteristics has found that individuals’ perceptions of
their contextual founding conditions have an influence on their intentions to start their
own businesses (Lüthje and Franke 2003), that some psychological characteristics
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 867

Table 1 Significant research on the personal characteristics and entrepreneurial intentions of university
students

Reference Instrument Psychological Self- Desirability Feasibility Gender

development characteristics efficacy

Bolton and Lane (2012) ✓ – – – – –

Drost and MacGuire (2011) – ✓ ✓ – – –
Guerrero et al. (2008) – – – ✓ ✓ –
Kickul et al. (2009) – – ✓ – – –
Liñán (2008) – ✓ – – – –
Liñán and Chen (2009) ✓ – – – – –
Liñán and Santos (2007) ✓ – – – – –
Lüthje and Franke (2003) – ✓ – – – –
Prabhu et al. (2012) – ✓ ✓
Sánchez-Escobedo et al. (2011) – – – – – ✓
Schwarz et al. (2009) – – – – – ✓
Shinnar et al. (2012) – – – – – ✓
Shook and Bratianu (2010) – – ✓ ✓ – –
Thompson (2009) ✓ – – – – –
Valencia et al. (2012) – – – ✓ ✓ –
Veciana et al. (2005) – – – ✓ – –
Yusof et al. (2007) – ✓ ✓ – – –

affect the inclination toward entrepreneurship (Yusof et al. 2007), and that social values
regarding entrepreneurship and personal skill perceptions affect entrepreneurial
intentions (Liñán 2008). Furthermore, studies have examined possible antecedents
(entrepreneurship education and experience, a proactive personality, and entrepreneurial
self-efficacy) of students’ intent to engage in entrepreneurship (Drost and MacGuire
2011) and investigated how a proactive personality has a robust relationship with the
three different manifestations of entrepreneurial intent (general, high growth, and
lifestyle) mediated by entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Prabhu et al. 2012).
Self-efficacy, or self-management in terms of EC, has been examined in the
context of the relationship between psychological characteristics and entrepre-
neurial intention among university students (Yusof et al. 2007). Individuals with
different cognitive styles do not view themselves as possessing equal self-
efficacy in all the tasks required for new venture creation (Kickul et al. 2009).
Additionally, it has been shown that self-efficacy related to creating a venture is
positively related to entrepreneurial intent (Shook and Bratianu 2010). Moreover,
entrepreneurial self-efficacy mediates the relationship between entrepreneurship
education, educational experience, and proactive personality and the three aforemen-
tioned types of entrepreneurial intent (Drost and MacGuire 2011). Additionally, the
mechanism (mediation/moderation) by which entrepreneurial self-efficacy affects the
relationship between proactive personality and entrepreneurial intent has been studied
(Prabhu et al. 2012).
868 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

As noted previously, previous studies suggest that other aspects of personality, such
as social management skills, play an important role in the development of EC
(Goleman 1998). Therefore, the following set of hypotheses was considered:

Hypothesis 3a (H3a): An improvement in self-awareness as one of the dimensions of

EC will positively affect the development of students’ entrepreneurial orientation.

Hypothesis 3b (H3b): An improvement in self-management as one of the dimensions

of EC will positively affect the development of students’ entrepreneurial orientation.

Hypothesis 3c (H3c): An improvement in social awareness as one of the dimensions of

EC will positively affect the development of students’ entrepreneurial orientation.

Hypothesis 3d (H3d): An improvement in relationship management as one of the

dimensions of EC will positively affect the development of students’ entrepreneurial
orientation.

Regarding entrepreneurial orientation, three dimensions have been proposed: risk,

innovation, and proactiveness (Bolton and Lane 2012). This orientation can be asso-
ciated with what the literature has described as desirability. In general, studies have
found that students arrive at universities with entrepreneurial needs and aspirations
(Collins et al. 2004) and positive perceptions of entrepreneurship (Veciana et al. 2005).
Moreover, it has been established that the desirability of creating a venture is positively
related to entrepreneurial intention (Shook and Bratianu 2010). In addition, there is an
association among the perceived convenience, risk tolerance, and perceived viability
of entrepreneurial intentions (Valencia et al. 2012). Based on these arguments, the
following hypothesis was considered:

Hypothesis 4 (H4): An improvement in entrepreneurial orientation (risk, innovation,

and proactiveness) will positively affect the development of entrepreneurial intention.

Research model

In consideration of all the revised literature and the previous hypotheses, the elements
and relationships integrating the entrepreneurial intention model proposed in this paper
are presented in Fig. 2.

Methods

To explore the proposed research questions, quantitative and qualitative methods were
applied. The quantitative method consisted of evaluating the effect of the development
of EC (with students who did and did not participate in an OT program) on individual
entrepreneurial orientation and intention. The qualitative method consisted of in-depth
interviews with participants to more deeply analyze their opinions regarding the effects
of OT on their entrepreneurial intentions. In this section, the measurements, the
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 869

Self-
Awareness
H3a
Proactivenes Innovation Risk
Self-
Management
Emotional H1 Entrepreneurial H4 Entrepreneurial
H3b Competences Orientation Intention
H3c
Social
Awareness H2

H3d Outdoor
Relationship Training
Management

EMOTIONAL ENTREPRENEURIAL ENTREPRENEURIAL

COMPETENCES ORIENTATION INTENTION

Fig. 2 Research framework

characteristics of the OT program, the instrument (questionnaire), and the interview

methodology are explained.

Measurements

Entrepreneurial intention was measured with a simple item asking students about their
intentions to start a venture in the near future using a Likert-type scale. Individual
entrepreneurial orientation was measured by adapting the scale with three dimensions
(risk, innovation, and proactiveness) developed by Bolton and Lane (2012). Finally, as
previously noted, EC were measured using a questionnaire based on an adaptation of
the ECI-U instrument (Goleman and Boyatzis 2001). This tool allows the determination
of the strengths and weaknesses of individuals to provide information regarding the
skills needed to improve and achieve their goals. Sixty items were considered (see
Table 2). Finally, OT was measured as a dummy variable to differentiate those students
who participated in the OT program from those who did not.

Characteristics of the OT program

The OT program structure was designed with a quasi-experimental intragroup/

intergroup design incorporating a pre-test/post-test/re-test method with a control group
(Goleman 1998; Cherniss and Goleman 2001). This design allows for the control and
evaluation of the possible effects of a treatment or intervention program using a control
group with which to make comparisons and to check learning retention. The program
began with a presentation to the participants about the objectives of the program,
explaining that OT offers a range of activities that attempt to simulate reality in a
context that differs from day-to-day life, seeking surprise, novelty, and motivation.
Furthermore, the self-assessment pre-test was explained to participants, as well as the
confidentiality and safety of the planned activities. Finally, the positive role of
870 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Table 2 Principal components analysis and reliability

Competence Item Relationship Social Self- Self-

Management awareness awareness management
Influence I build consensus and support 0.633 – – –
for positions
Influence I convince others by 0.605 – – –
appealing to their self-
interest
Inspirational I motivate others by arousing 0.591 – – –
Leadership emotions
Achievement I take calculated risks 0.590 – – –
orientation
Initiative I seek information in unusual 0.555 – – –
ways
Developing I recognize specific strengths 0.555 – – –
others of others
Teamwork and I maintain cooperative 0.553 – – –
collaboration working relationships
Change catalyst I personally lead change 0.528 – – –
initiatives
Conflict I bring disagreements out in 0.526 – – –
management the open
Change catalyst I call attention to the need for 0.518 – – –
change
Inspirational I make activities or projects 0.517 – – –
leadership engaging
Inspirational I inspire others by 0.510 – – –
leadership articulating a vision or a
mission
Change catalyst I remove barriers to change 0.506 – – –
Self-confidence I am assured and unhesitating 0.481 – – –
Conflict I recognize specific strengths 0.472 – – –
management of others
Developing I mentor or coach others 0.461 – – –
others
Emotional self- I stay composed and positive, 0.454 – – –
control even in trying moments
Conflict I help de-escalate conflicts 0.435 – – –
management
Organizational I understand the political 0.423 – – –
awareness forces at work in the
organization
Trustworthiness I take tough, principled 0.420 – – –
stands, even if they are
unpopular
Initiative I act rather than wait 0.389 – – –
Adaptability I smoothly juggle multiple 0.364 – – –
demands
Empathy I accurately read people’s – 0.599 – –
moods or nonverbal cues
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 871

Table 2 (continued)
Service I match my own services or – 0.541 – –
orientation products to meet others’
needs
Service I am attuned to providing – 0.519 – –
orientation satisfaction to my customer
or others with whom I deal
Emotional self- I display impulse control and – 0.514 – –
control restraint
Organizational I understand the values and – 0.494 – –
awareness culture of groups
organizations
I am careful in my work – 0.486 – –
Conscientiousness
Emotional self- I deal calmly with stress – 0.443 – –
control
Emotional self- I am aware of which – 0.436 – –
awareness emotions I feel and what I
think, do, and say
I show attention to detail – 0.424 – –
Conscientiousness
Service I make myself available to – 0.416 – –
orientation others
Adaptability I easily handle shifting – 0.412 – –
priorities and rapid change
Organizational I accurately read key power – 0.392 – –
awareness relationships within groups
and organizations
Adaptability I adapt plans, behavior, or – 0.368 – –
approaches to fit major
changes in situations
Communication I use examples or visual aids – 0.365 – –
to clarify or underscore my
messages when making a
presentation
Trustworthiness I am authentic (i.e., “What – 0.365 – –
you see is what you get”)
Achievement I anticipate obstacles to a – 0.334 – –
orientation goal
Emotional self- I recognize how my own – – 0.603 –
awareness feelings affect my
performance
Accurate self- I am aware of my own – – 0.603 –
assessment strengths and weaknesses
Self confidence I believe I am among the – – 0.552 –
most capable for a job
Conscientiousness I follow through on my – – 0.550 –
commitments
Emotional self- I recognize the links between – – 0.537 –
awareness my feelings and what I
think, do, and say
872 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Table 2 (continued)
Self-confidence I have “presence” (i.e., I – – 0.527 –
stand out in a group)
Developing I offer feedback to improve – – 0.519 –
others another person’s
performance
Communication I use an engaging style in my – – 0.469 –
presentations
Accurate self- I am open to new information – – 0.447 –
assessment about myself
Influence I anticipate how people will – – 0.415 –
respond to an argument,
and I adapt my own
approach accordingly
Trustworthiness I confront unethical action in – – 0.368 –
others
Building bonds I make close personal friends – – – 0.706
with acquaintances or
classmates
Achievement I set measurable goals – – – 0.662
orientation
Teamwork and I promote a friendly, – – – 0.654
collaboration cooperative climate in
groups or organizations
Building bonds I have a wide, informal – – – 0.564
network of colleagues
Empathy I respect and relate well to – – – 0.511
people of diverse
backgrounds
Initiative I cut through red tape and – – – 0.517
bend the rules when
necessary
Teamwork and I build team identity and – – – 0.486
collaboration spirit
Accurate self- I have a sense of humor – – – 0.464
assessment about myself
Communication I use nonverbal cues like tone – – – 0.464
of voice to express feelings
that reinforce my messages
Building bonds I nurture relationships related – – – 0.423
to activities or projects
Empathy I listen attentively to others – – – 0.397
Cronbach’s alpha 0.891 0.819 0.822 0.822
Individual Item Risk Innovation Proactivity
entrepreneurial
orientation
RISK I like aggressive actions and 0.826 – – –
venturing into the unknown
I’m willing to invest a lot of 0.625 – – –
time and/or money in
something that could
produce high returns
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 873

Table 2 (continued)
I tend to deal with situations 0.688 – – –
of risk well
Innovation I often like to try new and 0.648 – – –
unusual, although not
necessarily risky, experiences
In general, I prefer to – 0.677 – –
approach new projects
with new approaches rather
than using previously
proven approaches
I’d rather try my own way – 0.816 – –
when I’m learning new
things instead of following
everyone else’s way
I tend to favor experimentation – 0.682 – –
and original approaches to
problem solving rather than
using methods used by others
I normally act in advance of – – 0.693 –
PROACTIVENESS problems, needs, or future
changes
I tend to plan well ahead of – – 0.824 –
projects
I prefer to take the initiative – – 0.620 –
and make sure that things are
done in projects rather than
sit and wait for someone else
to do them
Cronbach’s alpha 0.698 0.631 0.599 –

Note: Items for measuring the competences were adapted from Goleman and Boyatzis (2001), and items for
measuring the individual entrepreneurial orientation were adapted from Bolton and Lane (2012). Results
obtained from a factor analysis conducted using the software IBM SPSS Statistics 20, with the Principal
Components Analysis selected as extraction method. The rotation method was Varimax with Kaiser. Rotation
converged in 14 iterations. The factor loadings below 0.30 are omitted for clarity

facilitators in developing a positive ambience during the program as well as

control of the emotional climate during the training process was ensured
(Cherniss and Goleman 2001).
When the OT activities were finished, the participants were asked to complete the
ECI-U questionnaire again to measure the potential increase in their levels of EC (post-
test). Additionally, some discussions in groups were performed to analyze the different
personal experiences of the participants and their unique problem-solving approaches,
attitudes, and decisions. This analysis was a crucial point in the program, as participants
began to become aware of how they had performed in the challenges and how they
made parallels with attitudes in everyday life. To reassess the participant sample,
3 months after the OT program ended, the participants were asked to complete the
ECI-U questionnaire (re-test) again. In addition, they received the opportunity to
develop a concrete action plan aimed at all the competences that were susceptible to
improvement. Finally, to ensure that substantial external variations did not affect the EC
874 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

of the participants, their workload and experiences of leadership, teamwork, and

voluntary work during the duration of the training program were controlled.
In the OT program, the competences that have been used in previous research were
selected and grouped into four categories (Goleman and Boyatzis 2001): self-
awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. To
evaluate these competences, the ECI-U questionnaire was used (Goleman and Boyatzis
2001). Sixty items with Likert-type scales were considered (Clark et al. 2003; Sheehan
et al. 2009). Furthermore, some open-ended questions regarding the perceived benefits
of the OT program were also included to collect qualitative data. Previous research has
shown strong evidence of the validity of ECI-U to evaluate EC (Byrne 2003; Lloyd
2001; Stubbs 2005; Wolff 2005). Moreover, the OT program included the use of
facilitators that helped the participants throughout the entire program and had briefings
and meetings with them, thus diminishing the effect of only using self-evaluations of
the improved/acquired EC (Shivers-Blackwell 2004).
Before participating in the program, the participants completed a preliminary ques-
tionnaire providing information about several factors that could influence their level of
EC, such as previous work experience, previous leadership experience, and demo-
graphic data. After the program, the participants repeated the questionnaire, as it was
important to know the other training activities in which they had been involved during
the same period because such activities could have affected the results. As noted, their
workloads during the 2 months of the experiment were also examined, and no
significant differences between the participant group and the control group were found;
thus, the notion that other opportunities could have developed EC in that period was
discarded (Taylor 1988). Moreover, no other leadership experiences that could have
affected EC were developed during the same period (Kolb 1998; Taylor 1988).
The OT program consisted of conducting several outdoor activities based on role
playing and nine different activities with briefings between them to reflect on the
behaviors of the participants. An indoor session was organized to explain the program.
The outdoor activities were conducted in the natural surroundings of the city, and
before the start of the activities, the usual explanations regarding the objectives of the
OT program were given (HayGroup 2000; Wagner et al. 1991). The participants began
with low-risk activities, such as the Electric Fence and Melt Down. The first activity
consisted of placing two ropes between two trees (the first one at 1.8 m and the other at
1.5 m). The challenge was that all participants had to walk between both ropes without
touching them. The second activity consisted of placing two baskets around a perimeter
with one basket full of golf balls. The challenge was to empty the contents of the full
basket into the other basket using ropes. All activities were supported by facilitators
who ensured the correct development of the program, observed the behavior of each
participant, and organized the feedback sessions with the objective of conducting an in-
depth analysis of the observed behaviors to use them as opportunities for improvement
(Assens 2002).

Interview methodology

Regarding the qualitative analysis conducted in this paper, individual semi-structured

interviews were performed (Silverman 2000; Yin 2011). The objective of these inter-
views was to obtain more in-depth information from the participants with respect to
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 875

their perceptions of the development of EC and the relationship between EC and their
entrepreneurial orientations and intentions. The interviews lasted approximately 1 h
and, to ensure confidentiality, were conducted by a team of two interviewers who were
not the facilitators. In these interviews, the participants were asked about the usefulness
of the OT program in general, the benefits of OT in promoting entrepreneurship in
general, and the benefits of OT in promoting individual entrepreneurial orientation.

Results

Sample

An OT program was developed for final-year students studying business administration

in a Spanish public university, involving 153 students (74 students who participated
directly in the experience and 80 who did not participate but served as a control group).
The students completed a questionnaire that included questions on their perceived EC,
entrepreneurial orientation, entrepreneurial intention, and demographics. Moreover,
personal interviews based on a semi-structured questionnaire were conducted with 74
participants to explore their opinions regarding the experience of OT and their individual
entrepreneurial orientation in greater depth.
Regarding the sample, the participants in the OT program were primarily female
students (68.62%), were 23 years old on average, and were in their fourth year of study
focusing on business administration. The educational level of the parents of the
participants was, on average, secondary education. As noted, the participants’ work-
loads were examined during the 2 months scheduled for the experiment. No significant
differences were found between the experimental group and the control group; thus, the
possibility of creating different opportunities in the construction of the EC was
discarded (Taylor 1988). Furthermore, the participants were asked about leadership,
teamwork, and the volunteer experiences that they had during the period of the OT
programs, as these experiences could have also provided opportunities to develop EC
(Kolb 1998; Taylor 1988). It was verified that 100% of the participants had no previous
experience in OT programs, 20% had previous leadership experience, and 90% had
previous experience with teamwork. Likewise, 92% had received some training on
personal and interpersonal skills in class, and 15% had some previous experience in
volunteer work. Overall, it was believed that these experiences did not significantly
affect the perceptions of the students.

Quantitative analysis

In this study, factor analysis, using principal components analysis (with IBM SPSS
Statistics 20) and confirmatory factor analysis (structural equation modeling using EQS
6.1) were conducted. Previously, the normality of the different variables separating the
participant and control group samples was analyzed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test (Hair et al. 1998). The results indicated the non-normality of the data.
The reliability of the whole scale resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.935 based on
the 60 items for the entire sample (153 participants). Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and
Bartlett Sphericity tests were appropriate to apply factorial analysis. Regarding the EC,
876 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

the scale results were as follows: KMO 0.785, chi-squared value of 4566.244, and
Bartlett degrees of freedom 1,770, significance 0.000. Regarding the entrepreneurial
orientation, the scale results were as follows: KMO 0.681, chi-squared value of
321.308, and Bartlett degrees of freedom 45, significance 0.000. Applying the theory
regarding the measurement of EC and the entrepreneurial orientation scale, a principal
components analysis analyzing the constructs mentioned in the literature was conducted
(see Table 2), and four components emerged for EC: self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and relationship management. Meanwhile, the three components
found for entrepreneurial orientation were risk, innovation, and proactivity (see Table 2).
Additionally, regarding the control group, the results of applying non-parametric
procedures based on rankings from the Wilcoxon test indicated that the values of all
analyzed EC of the participants were higher in the post-test than in the pre-test. These
results show that all participants increased their EC after completing the program. By
contrast, the control group showed no significant increase in any of the EC tested.
Likewise, the results obtained after applying the individual entrepreneurial scale of
Bolton and Lane (2012) indicated that the average values for the participants in the OT
program reached levels greater than those in the control group.
After the model was employed in EQS, it was found that one case needed to be
excluded to improve the model fit, as it contributed the most to the normalized
multivariate kurtosis. Consequently, 152 cases were used to compute the final model.
In a global evaluation, the model proposed presents a reasonably good adjustment, as
most of the fit indexes (robust, as they were non-normal data) have values within the
established limits of acceptance (see Table 3).
The significant path coefficients are shown in Fig. 3. H1, H2, and H4 are confirmed.
Consequently, it can be concluded that by participating in an OT program, students
report increased levels of entrepreneurial orientations as a result of an improvement in
their EC. In addition, this improvement in entrepreneurial orientation positively affects
the development of entrepreneurial intention.

Table 3 Model fit indexes (robust

Value Recommended
method)
value

Satorra-Bentler scaled chi squared 306.895 –

Degrees of freedom 24 –
Probability value for the 0.16294 p≥0.05
chi-squared statistic
Bentler-Bonett normed fit index 0.750 ≥0.9
Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit 0.885 ≥0.9
index
Comparative fit index (CFI) 0.923 ≥0.9
Bollen’s (IFI) fit index 0.923 ≥0.9
McDonald’s (MFI) fit index 0.978 ≥0.9
Root mean square error of 0.043 ≤0.05
approximation (RMSEA)
90 % confidence interval of (0.000, 0.083) Narrow
RMSEA
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 877

Self- Proactiveness Innovation Risk

awareness

Emotional
competences
0.11* 0.18* 0.17*

Self- 0.64*
management
1.00*

- 0.27*
Entrepreneurial Entrepreneurial
orientation 0.72* intention

Social Outdoor
awareness training

0.18*

Relationship
Management

Note: * Coefficient significant (p < 0.05). Only significant coefficients are shown.
Fig. 3 Results of the structural equation model

Likewise, H3 can be partially confirmed. Two dimensions of EC positively affected

the development of the students’ entrepreneurial orientation: self-management and
relationship management. However, the analysis of social awareness produced signif-
icant but negative results, and the analysis of self-awareness did not produce significant
results in the model proposed.

Qualitative analysis

To explore in greater depth how and why developing EC could change an individual’s
entrepreneurial orientation, interviews were conducted with the participants (Silverman
2000; Yin 2011). After analysis of the transcripts, it can be concluded that the
participants expressed different ideas about program outcomes, but most of them shared
that they had improved their EC and entrepreneurial intention. Moreover, in the
analysis of transcripts, four main areas were found to be relevant: the OT experience
itself, the usefulness of OT as a tool for the development of EC, the ability of OT to
help start-ups, and the benefits of OT in encouraging entrepreneurship (see Table 4).
In reference to the OT experience, the participants mentioned the usefulness of OT as
a methodology, as an experience activity, and as an innovative experience. One
participant described his ideas as follows: “It helps me to know how to face the
inconveniences of daily life differently, weighing and reasoning, without panic.”
Similarly, another participant emphasized his view of how the experience helped him
to cope better with real situations because “you do something different than what you
have been doing since you begin to study and see things from another point of view.”
Regarding the usefulness of OT, the participants exhibited a high level of consensus,
as 38 respondents highlighted that the program helped them become better acquainted
878 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Table 4 Analysis of interviewees’ transcripts

Usefulness of OT Number of similar

opinions
To know myself better (what my strengths and weaknesses are) 38
To understand teamwork better 21
To develop our skills 20
To break with traditional or previous training 10
Benefits of OT in promoting entrepreneurship in general
To know ourselves better (what your strengths and weaknesses are) 35
To know the importance of teamwork 18
To motivate us 13
To have more confidence to become an entrepreneur 11
To better understand the skills of my team 7
To develop my managerial skills 7
To realize that I have talent for it 4
Benefits of OT in promoting individual entrepreneurial orientation
To know myself better (strengths and weaknesses) 34
To motivate myself 17
To develop my skills 14
To understand reality better by facing different situations 11
To have more confidence in myself 8
To open my mind to entrepreneurial ideas and affect my entrepreneurial spirit 4

Note: These numbers do not reflect the total number of interviewees, as one interview could provide different
opinions in the same answer

with themselves. In fact, 21 participants mentioned the program’s usefulness in developing

teamwork; for example, one participant said, “I realized that I would need the help of
many people and that although we believe that we can do things alone, cooperation with
others can encourage them to come out better.” Similarly, another interviewee said, “This
experience taught me to ‘negotiate’ with my colleagues, to realize that all ideas can come
together, the result is very different and we can focus.” Interesting responses were also
obtained with reference to teamwork; for example, one participant explained as follows: “I
have found teamwork and motivation as critical to achieving goals.”
Moreover, with respect to the benefits of OT in promoting entrepreneurship in
general, the answers of the respondents showed little variation. More than half of the
responses were in favor of using the OT program as a useful method to become more
familiar with their personal capability of becoming entrepreneurs. For example, one
participant indicated a positive perception: “My experience participating in the OT
program has contributed to changing my idea of creating a company and knowing that
the entrepreneur who succeeds there has not been lucky but has made his luck.”
Similarly, another participant expressed the following: “Although I have always had
the idea of creating my own company, it has encouraged me to get more out of the
future,” and “it has encouraged me to have new ideas, new things, and although that is
challenging, when we face difficulties with good organization and good work, we can
reach our objectives.”
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 879

Finally, regarding the benefits of OT in promoting individual entrepreneurial orien-

tation, a high level of consensus in the participants’ answers was found, as 34
participants stated that OT helped them have a better understanding of their strengths
and weaknesses regarding becoming entrepreneurs. Other positive consequences for
their motivation and skill development were also mentioned.
In addition, OT was considered to be a rewarding experience and worth
recommending to would-be entrepreneurs, as it can help them take the right path. For
example, one participant described his ideas as follows: “It helps to have more desire to
do something unique and exclusive.” Another participant expressed the idea of ad-
dressing difficulties: “The created situation forced me to take action to overcome the
problem.”

Discussion and conclusion

The study involved obtaining relevant data on which specific EC are enhanced through
participation in OT experiences and how these EC affect individual entrepreneurial
intentions. These data assist in drawing conclusions relevant to the development of the
entrepreneurship attitudes of university students by improving their EC. Positive
thinking about starting a business was found to be more prevalent among students
who participated in the OT program. In addition, these participants appeared more likely
to take strong action by venturing into the unknown. These individuals demonstrated
a higher propensity to invest a great deal of time and/or money in something that
could produce high returns. Moreover, these participants appeared more likely to
engage in situations of risk, use a wider range of new approaches to solve new
problems rather than previously proven approaches and are more innovative in seeking
original approaches to problem solving rather than using the methods employed by
others. These conclusions are consistent with those of Rhee and While (2007), who
studied a sample of young entrepreneurs from the USA and found that most entrepre-
neurial participants showed higher levels of the following skills compared with other
capabilities in the survey: self-confidence, honesty, achievement orientation, service
orientation, empathy, a catalyst for change, and teamwork.
Many studies have concluded that individual entrepreneurial orientation depends on
a person’s personality. This research has found that EC play a major role in the efficient
development of an entrepreneurial orientation. Because EC influence the entrepreneurial
orientation, it can be assumed that EC may enhance entrepreneurship intentions. In
this paper, quantitative and qualitative data have shown that participating in an OT
program has benefits for the promotion of entrepreneurship. For example, participants
offered the following statements: “I had no thought of starting a business idea, and now
I have that idea in my mind”; the OT “helps me to know how to face the difficulties of
daily life in another way, through weighing and reasoning, without panic.”
In conclusion, with regard to the proposed hypotheses, an improvement of an
individual’s EC positively affects the individual’s entrepreneurial orientation, and by
participating in an OT program, students can improve their entrepreneurial orientation
as a result of developing enhanced EC. However, not all EC were found to be
significant; self-management and relationship management were significant, whereas
self-awareness was not found to be significant, and social awareness was negatively
880 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

significant. This result could be explained by the necessity of competences to have an

effect on entrepreneurial orientation and intention; it is not sufficient for individuals to
simply be aware of these competences. Finally, efforts to change and improve the
entrepreneurial orientation of individuals, particularly innovation and risk, were found
to positively affect the development of entrepreneurial intention.
In general, regarding the benefits of OT in the promotion of entrepreneurship among
university students, OT involves a greater degree of self-awareness and awareness of
one’s limitations, and it improves motivation, communication skills, coordination, and
empathy. Overall, after participating in OT, university students tend to be more
entrepreneurial.
The contribution of this paper is a specific understanding of how to develop the
individual entrepreneurial orientation and intentions of students by organizing experi-
ential learning practices, such as OT. In particular, this paper shows how EC are
improved after participating in an OT program and how they positively affect the
entrepreneurial orientation and intentions of the involved students.

Implications

Despite its exploratory nature, this research is important for understanding how the
entrepreneurial intentions of university students can be changed through organizing OT
programs that develop EC. This understanding has several implications for universities
and educators. First, universities could implement experiential training programs such
as OT to improve students’ EC as a means of developing their entrepreneurial
orientations and intentions, which would help change the high level of risk avoidance
among university students shown in recent reports, particularly in Spain, in which the
study was conducted (GEM 2012). Furthermore, although the number of entrepreneur-
ship education programs has increased sharply in recent years (Kuratko and Hodgetts
2001), there are still few empirical findings to aid in the pedagogical design of such
educational programs (Honig 2004); thus, the implementation of well-known OT
programs could help in this university context. Second, educators confronting the
development of future entrepreneurs and seeking to enhance the entrepreneurial spirit
of their students could promote these effects through the promotion of OT experiences.
This effort could help their students to acquire competences that may be difficult to
develop in a classroom (self-management, social awareness, and relationship
management).

Limitations

Like all research, this study has some limitations. In principle, this research can be
qualified as an exploratory study, as it attempts to improve the understanding of an
under-researched area, including the role of OT in changing EC and the entrepreneurial
orientation of university students, and it is the first attempt to operationalize this
concept; consequently, there are some limitations worth noting. A confirmatory factor
analysis based on structural equation modeling was conducted to test the relationships
between the constructs. However, the reliability measures of the scales were not as
accurate as desired, and the model fit and other questions regarding the construct
suggest the need to interpret the results of this study with caution. Not all competences
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 881

included in the ECI-U instrument were found to be valid for the studied context. In
addition, not all items on the individual entrepreneurial orientation scale were found to
be significant. Therefore, the model is a first contribution that would need to be studied
with other contexts and tests to be more generalizable. Additionally, more data would
need to be included and analyzed to confirm the validity of the proposed factors. The
inclusion of other factors, such as contextual factors (i.e., other promotional activities of
the university or family influence) could also help increase the explanation value of the
conducted analysis. In addition, this cross-sectional study occurred over one academic
year. It would be interesting to include longitudinal data from several years, including
data collected after students graduated from the university, to determine whether students
with stronger personal entrepreneurial orientation actually became entrepreneurs.
Likewise, this study used data from a single university. To increase the generalizability
of the results, data from other universities should be included in future research.
Finally, research on the differences in the self-assessments of male and female
entrepreneurs may be important and should therefore be considered in future studies.
In general, more research in this area would bring more information with which to build
and enrich the knowledge in the field of university students’ entrepreneurial intentions,
given that this paper is a first attempt to explore the relevance of EC in this area.

References

Assens, J. (2002). Outdoor training: Fiasco o Revolución. Capital Humano, 153, 44–52.
Autio, E., Keeley, R. H., Klofsten, M., & Ulfstedt, T. (1997). Entrepreneurial intent among students: testing an
intent model in Asia, Scandinavia and USA (pp. 133–147). Babson: Frontiers of Entrepreneurship
Research.
Bennett, R. (1996). An outdoor management development type exercise which can be completed indoors.
Training and Management Development Methods, 10(1), 601–619.
Bolton, D. L., & Lane, M. D. (2012). Individual entrepreneurial orientation: development of a measurement
instrument. Education + Training, 54(2), 219–233.
Boyatzis, R. E. (1994). Stimulating self-directed change: A required MBA course called Managerial
Assessment and development. Journal of Management Education, 18(3), 304–323.
Boyatzis, R. E., Goleman, D., & Rhee, K. (1999). Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights
from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). In R. Bar-On & J. D. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of
Emotional Intelligence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Burnett, D., & James, K. (1994). Using the outdoors to facilitate personal change in managers. Journal of
Management Development, 13(9), 14–24.
Byrne, J. C. (2003). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting leadership and related work behavior.
Hoboken: Stevens Institute of Technology, Technology Management.
Cherniss, C., & Goleman, D. (2001). The emotionally intelligent workplace: how to select for, measure and
improve emotional intelligence in individuals. San Francisco: Group and Organizations. Jossey-Bass.
Clark, S. C., Callister, R., & Wallace, R. (2003). Undergraduate management skills courses and students’
emotional intelligence. Journal of Management Education, 27(1), 3–23.
Coduras, A., Urbano, D., Rojas, A., & Martínez, S. (2008). The relationship between university support to
entrepreneurship with entrepreneurial activity in spain: A GEM data based analysis. International
Advances in Economic Research, 14, 395–406.
Collins, L., Hannon, P. D., & Smith, A. (2004). Enacting entrepreneurial intent: The gaps between student
needs and higher education capability. Education and Training, 46(8–9), 454–463.
Covin, J. G., & Slevin, D. P. (1991). A conceptual model of entrepreneurship as firm behavior.
Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 16(1), 7–25.
Cross, B., & Travaglione, A. (2003). The untold story: Is the entrepreneur of the 21 century
defined by emotional intelligence? The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 11(3),
221–228.
882 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Drost, E. A., & MacGuire, S. J. J. (2011). Fostering entrepreneurship among finnish business students:
antecedents of entrepreneurial intent and implications for entrepreneurship education. International
Review of Entrepreneurship, 9(2), 83–112.
Etzkowitz, H., Webster, A., Gebhardt, C., & Terra, B. R. C. (2000). The future of the university and the
university of the future: evolution of ivory tower to entrepreneurial paradigm. Research Policy, 29(2),
313–330.
Ewert, A. (1989). Outdoor adventure pursuits: foundations, models, and theories. Columbus: Publishing
Horizons, Inc.
GEM (2012): Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Report GEM Spain.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D., & Boyatzis, R. E. (2001). Emotional competence inventory, Edition University. Boston: Hay
Group.
Guerrero, M., Rialp, J., & Urbano, D. (2008). The impact of desirability and feasibility on entrepreneurial
intentions: A structural equation model. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4(1),
35–50.
Hadizadeh, A., Ramimher, H., & Hosseini, S. (2009). Relationship between emotional intelligence and
entrepreneurial orientation among the employees of oil company-affiliated organizations. Journal of
Entrepreneurship Development, 1(4), 139–162.
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Upper
Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.
Hamilton, T. A., & Cooper, C. (2001). The impact of outdoor management development (OMD) programmes.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22(7), 330–340.
Hattie, A. J., Marsh, H. W., Neil, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound:
Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 43–87.
HayGroup. (2000). Factbook Recursos Humanos. Elcano: Aranzadi & Thomson.
Honig, B. (2004). Entrepreneurship education: toward a model of contingency-based business planning.
Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3(3), 258–273.
Jiménez, P. J., & Gómez, V. (2008). Adventure sport tourism and outdoor training: methodology. International
Journal of Sport Science, 13(4), 69–79.
Kickul, J., Gundry, L. K., Barbosa, S. D., & Whitcanack, L. (2009). Intuition versus Analysis? Testing
differential models of cognitive style on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and the new venture creation
process. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 33(2), 439–453.
Kierstead, J. (1999). Human resources management trends and issues: Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the
workplace. Toronto: Research Director ePSC.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Kolb, D. A. (1998). The relationship between self-monitoring and leadership in student project groups.
Journal of Business Communication, 35, 264–282.
Kuratko, D. F., & Hodgetts, R. M. (2001). Entrepreneurship: A contemporary approach. Orlando: Harcourt
College Publishers.
Landy, F. J., & Conte, J. M. (2004). Work in the 21st Century: An introduction to industrial and organizational
psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Lee, S. M., Lim, S., & Pathak, R. (2011). Culture and entrepreneurial orientation: a multi-country study.
International Entrepreneurship Management Journal, 7(1), 1–15.
Liñán, F. (2008). Skill and value perceptions: how do they affect entrepreneurial intentions? International
Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4(3), 257–272.
Liñán, F., & Chen, Y. W. (2009). Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to
measure entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 33(3), 593–617.
Liñán, F., & Santos, F. J. (2007). Does social capital affect entrepreneurial intentions? International Advances
in Economic Research, 13(4), 443–453.
Liñán, F., Santos, F. J., & Fernández, J. (2011a). The influence of perceptions on potential entrepreneurs.
International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7(3), 373–390.
Liñán, F., Urbano, D., & Guerrero, M. (2011b). Regionals variations in entrepreneurial cognitions:
Start – up intentions of university students in Spain. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development,
23(3–4), 187–215.
Liñán, F., Rodriguez-Cohard, J. C., & Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011c). Factors Affecting entrepreneurial
intention levels: a role for education. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7(2),
195–218.
Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884 883

Lloyd, M. (2001). Emotional intelligence and Bass Brewers Ltd. Unpublished dissertation. Nottingham:
Nottingham Business School.
Lumpkin, G. T., & Dess, G. G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to
performance. Academy of Management Review, 21(1), 135–172.
Lumpkin, G. T., & Dess, G. G. (2001). Linking two dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation to firm
performance: The moderating role of environment and industry life cycle. Journal of Business
Venturing, 16(5), 429–451.
Lüthje, C., & Franke, N. (2003). The making of an entrepreneur: testing a model of entrepreneurial intent
among engineering students at MIT. R and D Management, 33(2), 135–147.
McEvoy, G. M., & Cragun, J. R. (1997). Using outdoor training to develop and accomplish organizational
vision. Human Resource Planning, 20(3), 20–28.
Parker, S. C. (2005). The economics of entrepreneurship: What we know and what we don’t. Foundations and
Trends in Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 1–54.
Petrini, C. (1990). Over the river and through the woods. Training and Development Journal, 44(5), 25–36.
Prabhu, V. P., McGuire, S. J., Drost, E. A., & Kwong, K. K. (2012). Proactive personality and entrepreneurial
intent: is entrepreneurial self-efficacy a mediator or moderator? International Journal of Entrepreneurial
Behaviour and Research, 18(5), 59–586.
Prahdan, R. K., & Nath, P. (2012). Perception of entrepreneurial orientation and emotional intelligence: a
study on India’s future techno-managers. Global Business Review, 13(1), 89–108.
Priest, S. (1990). Semantics of adventure education. In J. C. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure education.
Pennsylvania: Venture Publishing, Inc. State College.
Raiola, E., & O’Keefe, M. (1999). Philosophy in practice: a history of adventure programming. In J. C. Miles
& S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure programming (pp. 45–54). Pennsylvania: Venture Publishing, Inc. State
College.
Rhee, K. S., & While, R. J. (2007). The emotional intelligence of entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business and
Entrepreneurship, 20(4), 1–12.
Sánchez-Escobedo, M. C., Díaz-Casero, J. C., Hernández-Mogollón, R., & Postigo-Jiménez, M. V. (2011).
Perceptions and attitudes towards entrepreneurship. An analysis of gender among university students.
International Entrepreneurship Management Journal, 7(4), 443–463.
Schwarz, E. J., Wdowiak, M. A., Almer-Jarz, D., & Breitenecker, R. J. (2009). The effects of attitudes and
perceived environment conditions on students’ entrepreneurial intent: An Austrian perspective. Education
and Training, 51(4), 272–291.
Sheehan, B. J., McDonald, M. A., & Spence, K. K. (2009). Developing students’ emotional competency using
the classroom-as-organization approach. Journal of Management Education, 33(1), 77–98.
Shinnar, R. S., Giacomin, O., & Janssen, F. (2012). Entrepreneurial perceptions and intentions: the role of
gender and culture. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 36(3), 465–493.
Shivers-Blackwell, S. L. (2004). Reactions to outdoor teambuilding initiatives in MBA education. Journal of
Management Development, 23(7), 614–630.
Shook, C. L., & Bratianu, C. (2010). Entrepreneurial intent in a transitional economy: An application of the
theory of planned behavior to Romanian students. International Entrepreneurship and Management
Journal, 6(3), 231–247.
Silverman, D. (2000). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Spencer, L. M., & Spencer, S. M. (1993). Competence at work: models for superior performance. New York:
Willey.
Stubbs, C. E. (2005). Emotional intelligence competencies in the team and team leader: A multi-level
examination of the impact of emotional intelligence on group performance. Unpublished Dissertation.
Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University.
Taylor, M. S. (1988). Effects of college internship on individual participants. Journal of Applied Psychology,
73, 393–401.
Thompson, E. R. (2009). Individual entrepreneurial intent: construct clarification and development of an
internationally reliable metric. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 33(3), 669–694.
Valencia, A., Cadavid, L., Rios, D. C., & Awad, G. (2012). Factores que inciden en las intenciones
emprendedoras de los estudiantes. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 17(57), 132–148.
Van Rooy, D. L., & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of
predictive validity and nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 71–95.
Veciana, J. M., Aponte, M., & Urbano, D. (2005). University students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship: A
two countries comparison. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1(2), 165–182.
Wagner, R. J., & Campbell, J. (1994). Outdoor based experiential training: improving transfer of training using
virtual reality. Journal of Management Development, 13, 4–8.
884 Int Entrep Manag J (2014) 10:861–884

Wagner, R., Baldwin, T., & Roland, C. (1991). Outdoor training: revolution or fad? Training and Development
Journal, 45(3), 51–57.
Wolff, S. B. (2005). Emotional competences inventory (ECI). Hay Group: Technical Manual.
Wong, C. S., & Law, K. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and
attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274.
Yin, R. K. (2011). Qualitative research from start to finish. New York: The Guilford Press.
Yusof, M., Sandhu, M. S., & Jain, K. K. (2007). Relationship between psychological characteristics and
entrepreneurial inclination: A case study of students at University Tun Abdul Razak. Journal of Asia
Entrepreneurship and Sustainability, 3(2), 23–41.
Zahra, S. A. (1993). A conceptual model of entrepreneurship as firm behaviour: a critique and extension.
Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 17(4), 5–27.
Zampetakis, L. A., Kafetsios, K., Bouranta, N., Dewett, T., & Moustakis, V. S. (2009). On the relationship
between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions. International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 15, 595–618.
Zhao, H., Seibert, S. E., & Hills, G. E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy development of
entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1265–1272.

View publication stats