Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans

Learning objectives
After revising this chapter, you should be able to

explain the significance of mechanical and chemical digestion.

understand the digestion and absorption processes in various parts of the

alimentary canal.

illustrate the adaptive features of the small intestine for food absorption.

describe the routes of the transport of absorbed food and their fates in cells
and tissues.

My Notes

Quick revision notes

7.1 The processes of human nutrition

1. Nutrition ( 營養
) in humans involves five main processes: ingestion ( 攝
⾷ ), digestion ( 消化 ), absorption (吸收 ), assimilation ( 同化)
and egestion ( 排遺).

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 1

 The five main processes of nutrition in humans

7.2 The human digestive system

1. The human digestive system consists of the alimentary_canal ( 消化道)
腺
and its associated glands ( ).
⼝腔
2. The alimentary canal starts from the mouth cavity ( ), continues
咽
through the pharynx ( ), the oesophagus ( ⾷道 胃
), the stomach ( ),
the small intestine (⼩腸 ⼤腸
) and the large intestine ( ), and ends at
the anus ( 肛⾨ ).
3. The associated glands of the digestive system include the salivary
glands ( 唾腺), the gastric glands ( 胃腺 胰
), the pancreas ( ), the liver ( 肝)
and the intestinal glands ( 腸腺
).
The human digestive system

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 2

 7.3 Ingestion

1. Inside the mouth cavity, solid food is chewed and cut up into small pieces
by the teeth. This process is called mastication (咀嚼 ).
2. In humans, there are four types of teeth with different functions:
⾨⿒
◦ incisors ( ) – for biting and cutting food
⽝⿒
◦ canines ( ) – for tearing flesh
◦ premolars (前⾅⿒) – for crushing and grinding food
◦ molars (⾅⿒) – for crushing and grinding food

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 3

 The four types of teeth on the lower jaw
⿒冠
3. A tooth can be divided into three regions: the crown ( ⿒
), the neck (
頸 ⿒根
) and the root ( 琺瑯質
). The crown is covered with enamel ( ). Below
the enamel is dentine (⽛本質). The dentine encloses the pulp cavity (髓腔)
at the centre.

Longitudinal sections of two types of human teeth

4. The dentition (⿒系 ) is the number and arrangement of the different types
of teeth in a mammal. It can be expressed in the form of a dental
formula ( ⿒式 ).

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 4

 The types and numbers of teeth on one side of the upper and lower
jaws in a human adult
5. Humans have two successive sets of teeth during their lives: the milk
teeth ( 乳⿒ ) and the permanent teeth ( 恆⿒ ).

7.4 Movement of food along the alimentary canall

1. After mastication, food is swallowed into the oesophagus and is moved

蠕動
along the alimentary canal by peristalsis ( ).

The swallowing process

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 5

 Peristalsis

7.5 Digestion
1. Digestion ( 消化
) is the breaking down of food into small and soluble
molecules, so that they can be absorbed from the alimentary canal into the
blood vessels.
2. There are two types of digestion:
◦ Physical digestion ( 物理消化 ) is brought about
by chewing with teeth, churning in the stomach, peristalsis, and
the emulsification ( 乳化) of lipids by bile salts. It breaks down food into
smaller pieces, increasing the surface area of food to facilitate chemical
digestion.
◦ Chemical digestion ( 化學消化 ) is the process of breaking down complex
food molecules into simple molecule through chemical reactions. The
reactions are catalysed by digestive enzymes ( 消化酶 ).

3. The actions of digestive juices ( 消化液) and enzymes:

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 6

 7.6 Absorption

1. Absorption ( 吸收 ) is the uptake of digested food from the lumen of the

alimentary canal into the bloodstream. It takes place mainly in the small
迴腸
intestine, especially in the ileum ( ).
2. The small intestine is adapted for absorption in several ways.

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 7

 The structure of the small intestine and villi
3. In the small intestine, digested food molecules are absorbed by two routes:
◦ Monosaccharides, amino acids, minerals and water-soluble
vitamins are absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villi by diffusion and
active transport.
◦ Fatty acids and glycerol recombine in the epithelium of the villi to
form lipid molecules and are absorbed into the lacteal (乳糜管 ).

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 8

 Transverse section of a villus showing the absorption of digested food
molecules
4. The absorption of digested food into the blood decreases the water
potential of the blood. As a result, water is drawn into the blood by osmosis.
Most of the water in the chyle is absorbed in the small intestine, while some
of the remaining water and minerals are absorbed by the colon ( 結腸 ).

7.7 Assimilation

1. Food substances absorbed in the small intestine are transported to

different parts of the body:

Transport of absorbed food molecules from the villus of the small

intestine to different parts of the body

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 9

 2. Assimilation ( 同化) is the uptake and use of absorbed food substances by
cells for metabolism.
3. Functions of the liver include:
◦ regulating blood glucose level
◦ deamination ( 脫氨作⽤ ) of excess amino acids
◦ producing bile
◦ storing glycogen, iron and fat-soluble vitamins
◦ detoxification ( 解毒)

7.8 Egestion

1. Egestion ( 排遺) or defaecation (排糞) is the process of expelling faeces

from the body.

Multimedia resources
Video

Examination of the human Practical 7.1 Examination of the

digestive system using a human alimentary canal and its
torso associated glands of a
dissected mammal

https://youtu.be/TqjvxAUZRn
E https://youtu.be/_WoKJ-SmX
kE

Practical 7.2 Investigation of the

action of amylase on starch Practical 7.3 Investigation of the
action of protease on egg white

https://youtu.be/25P7htQnID
Y https://youtu.be/_XXqWP
fUWsg

Practical 7.4 Investigation of the

effect of bile salts on oil Practical 7.5 Simulation of
digestion and absorption in the
small intestine using dialysis
tubing

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 10

 https://youtu.be/MJl71Okytp4 https://youtu.be/l8eZa0xGAxI

Animation
7.1 Food and digestion

https://youtu.be/e8JMsFb6v0
8

7.2 Food absorption in the small

intestine

https://youtu.be/id_1XDAfTDI

Concept check
1. Chemical digestion of food starts in the mouth cavity.The statement is
true.Salivary glands in the mouth secrete saliva, which contains amylase.
Amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch into maltose.

True ✔
False

Clear your concept

2. Bile contains lipase.The statement is false.Bile does not contain enzymes. It

contains bile salts which emulsifies lipids into small oil droplets to increase
the surface area for lipase to act on.
True

False ✔
Clear your concept

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 11

 3. Emulsification is a chemical digestion process.The statement is false.The
chemical structure of lipids is not changed by emulsification. It is a physical
digestion process.

True
False ✔
Clear your concept

4. If the gall bladder is removed, bile will not be produced.The statement is

false.Some students wrongly think that the gall bladder produces bile. In fact,
bile is produced in the liver. The gall bladder is only a temporary store for
bile. If the gall bladder is removed, bile will still be produced.

True

False ✔
Clear your concept

5. Water in food is mainly absorbed by the small intestine.The statement is

true.Most of the water (80%) is absorbed by the small intestine.
True ✔
False

Clear your concept

6. Lymph in the lacteal has a milky appearance because it contains large

amounts of fatty acids and glycerol.The statement is false.Fatty acids and
glycerol absorbed into the epithelia cells of the villus recombine to form lipid
molecules, which make the lymph milky.

True

False ✔
Clear your concept

7. Egestion is the process of removing metabolic wastes from the body.The

statement is false.Students may mix up egestion and excretion. Egestion is
the process of expelling faeces from the body. Faeces mainly consist of
undigested materials which have not been metabolised. Therefore, faeces
are not metabolic wastes for excretion.
True

False ✔
Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 12
 Clear your concept

Exam question distribution

5** worked examples

Worked example 7.1 (Related section: 7.5, 7.6, 7.7)

The photomicrograph below shows a cross section of part of the human digestive
system.

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 13

 1. With reference to the two observable features from the photomicrograph,
explain how these features are related to the functioning of this part of the
digestive system. (4 marks)

2. Describe how glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream. (2 marks)

3. Use a flowchart to show the route of transport of glucose to the heart after
absorption. Indicate the major organs and blood vessels along the pathway.
(2 marks)

Answer

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 14

 Answer
1. Finger-like projections (villi) of the intestinal wall (1) provide a large surface
area for the absorption of digested food substances. (1)The epithelium of
villus is very thin / one-cell thick. (1) This shortens the distance of diffusion /
transport of digested food substances (1)Glucose enters the bloodstream
through diffusion (1) and active transport (1).blood capillaries of villus ➞
hepatic portal vein ➞ liver ➞ hepatic vein ➞ vena cava ➞ heart (2)

5 minutes to success
1. The diagram below shows the human digestive system.Physical digestion
takes place at

1 and 2.

1 and 3.

2 and 4.

1, 2 and 3.

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 15

 Explanation
D is the correct answer.Physical digestion is brought about by chewing
with the teeth the mouth cavity, churning in the stomach, peristalsis along
the alimentary canal, and emulsification of lipids by bile salts in the small
intestine. The digestion of food is completed in the small intestine.

2. Which of the following statements about peristalsis is incorrect?

It is responsible for pushing food bolus along the alimentary canal from
the oesophagus to the anus.

It is controlled by the cerebrum.

It requires energy.

Its speed is affected by the bulk of food taken in.

Explanation
B is the correct answer.Peristalsis is a reflex response which does not
involved the cerebrum.

3. The diagram below represents part of the human circulatory system.In which
vessel are the breakdown products of alcohol first found?

Blood vessel A

Blood vessel B

Blood vessel C

Blood vessel D

Explanation
D is the correct answer.Alcohol is broken down in the liver.

4. The diagram below show a section of the small intestine.What is the

importance of structures X?

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 16

 They increase the rate of peristalsis.

They increase the secretion of mucus.

They increase the secretion of intestinal juice.

They increase the rate of food absorption.

Explanation

D is the correct answer.

5. Which of the following shows the transport route of vitamin A to the heart
after absorption in the small intestine?

blood capillaries of villus ➞ hepatic artery ➞ liver ➞ hepatic vein ➞ vena

cava ➞ heart

blood capillaries of villus ➞ hepatic portal vein ➞ liver ➞ hepatic vein ➞

vena cava ➞ heart

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 17

 lacteal of villus ➞ lymph vessels ➞ liver ➞ hepatic vein ➞ vena cava ➞
heart

lacteal of villus ➞ lymph vessels ➞ vena cava ➞ heart

Explanation
D is the correct answer.Vitamin A is fat-soluble. It is transported through
lymph.

Chapter 7 - Nutrition in humans 18