The Uses and Limits of Performance Practice in François Couperin's "Huitiême Ordre"

Author(s): Kevin Bazzana

Source: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 12-30
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/742125
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TheUsesandLimits
ofPerformance
inFranqois
Practice Couperin's
HuitimeOrdre
Kevin
Bazzana

Onlythe mostdogmatichistorical performer can failto be humbledbythe

taskof makingmusicout ofthe muteand patchyproductsofverifiable
research:balancingmusicalintelligence and historical credibilityis alwaysa
challenge.Inevitably, conflicts arise,to be resolvedthrough the arbitration of
musicalanalysisand creativity. Historicalsourceson performance practice
maybe oftenabsentor aloof,butmusicianship mustbe flexibleand accom-
modating.(The truthis, muchofwhatis bestin historical performance today
is pureinvention,even ifthisis not admittedin frontof thechildren.)Even
wherehistorical foundations are validand sure,anyperformance mustulti-
mately stand or fallon purely musical merits. A goodperformance can be
and
intelligent unhistorical, but not historical and unintelligent. Performance
is a function ofcriticism, and, as SamuelBeckettonce said,criticism is not
bookkeeping.
The accountability ofhistoricism to musicianship should,I hastento
add, be celebrated.To reverse the relationship is to adhere to a positivistic
program in which only verifiable, inductively derived evidence is permitted to
influence interpretation.It is a serious mistake to believe that removing the
performer's creativeparticipation in the act of interpretation willlet the
musicitselfspeak.The performer does not getin theway.The performer
is theway.
In anycase, creativity is necessary in historical performance, giventhe
enormouslacunaein theextantevidence.'Indeed,in manyofthesegapslie
the interpretive problemsthatare mostcrucialand whosesolutionsdemand
themostimagination fromtheperformer. Forthisreason,the studyofperfor-
mancepracticecan be mostfascinating whereit is mostfrustrating, and
studying the limitsofperformance practicecan be as rewarding as document-
ingitsbenefits.
This articleexaminestherelationship betweenrevelationand reticence
on
in historicalsources performance practicein thecontextof thepractical
problems in
raised performing one particular and verysophisticated piece of
earlymusic.

12

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 Practice
Performance inCouperin13

The pieceis theHuitiAme Ordrein B Minor,from theSecond Livre

(Paris,1717)ofthefourbooksofPiecesdeClavecin byFrangois Couperin le
Grand(1668-1733).Thispieceis in everyrespect -expressive, psychologi-
cal, technical,formal-aprofound workoftheveryfirst rank.It is easilythe
finestFrench baroqueclavecinsuite;onlyBach'ssuitesandpartitas rivalit.
Wilfrid Mellers, inhisseminal bookon Couperin's life,work,andaesthetic,
reserves hishighest praiseforthisordre. It is,he writes, "almost uniformly
serious, eventragic, in style;andwhileas a wholethesecondbookcannot
compare withthefourth in maturity, a goodcasecanbe madeoutforthe
eighth as thegreatest individual "' Mellers
ordre. callsthelongest andmost
complex ofthesuite'stendancemovements, thefamous Passacaille,"unques-
tionably thegreatestsinglepieceinCouperin's clavecinmusicandoneofthe
greatest keyboard pieceseverwritten."2
It is importantto keepin mindthattheworkbeingconsidered hereis
ofthehighest intrinsicmusical value.Furthermore, it is partofa repertoire
(French baroqueclavecinmusic)aboutwhicha substantial bodyofhistorical
sources on performance exists, yetit is a piece for which a completely suc-
cessfulinterpretation still
demands a creative attitude toward the manysignif-
icantgapsin thesesources. It is precisely withsucha workthatthesolutions
toproblems ofperformance practice - especially problems forwhichthehis-
toricalsources offerlittleorno guidance-are themostcrucial.The responsi-
bleperformer ofthisordre receives a valuablelessonin theartofbalancing
musical andhistorical evidence.

1
Therearea largenumber oftheoretical
treatises
andotherwritings on music
from theseventeenthandeighteenth andwearequitewell
centuries,
informed aboutmanyaspects oftheperformance ofFrench baroqueclavecin
music.We know,forexample, thatsophisticated
clavecinmusicin early
Francewasplayed,
eighteenth-century whenever possible,on a full-sized
harpsichordwitha lowermanualcontrollingtwosetsofstrings (8' + 4') and
an uppermanualcontrollinga second8' set.(A buffstopwasa likely feature
on thelower8'.) The manuals couldbe playedseparatelyorcoupled,and
thesetsofstringscouldbe engagedandcombined bymeansofhand-,knee-,
or (rarely)
foot-levers.
The compass oflargeharpsichordsinFranceat that
timewasgenerally GG-c"',either chromatic
fully orwitha splitlower
octave.3Indeed,theHuitiAme Ordrehaspreciselythisrange:GG is called
fortwice,in theSecondeCourante,mm.1 and7; c"' is touched once,in
m. 15 of "La Raphadle."
Musicaland written evidencefromCouperinhimself confirms thatthis
instrument was the assumednorm.4Les bagatelles(SecondLivre,Dixiame
Ordre)is one of severalCouperinpiecesformainscroisdes,requiringone hand
on each of the twomanualsto preventthefingers frombecomingentangled.
Couperin'sinstructionsto the playerofLes bagatelles
assumetwomanualsand

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14 TheMusical
Quarterly

threestops(8' + 8' +4').5 In thePrefaceto his Troisieme Livre(Paris,1722),

Couperinagainexplains how to a "
play "Piece-croisee,callingforthe same-
sizedinstrument.6
Not onlydo we knowthehistorically correctinstrument--I believe
thatit is also, on purelymusicalgrounds,thebestinstrument forCouperin's
veryidiomaticmusic-butwe knowa gooddeal abouthow it should,as a
generalrule,be played.Couperin'sown littletreatiseL'Artde Toucherle
Clavecin(Paris,1716; rev. ed. 1717), likemanyotherFrenchbaroquetrea-
tises,dealswithsuchmatters as touch,articulation, and digitaltechnique,
whilebothL'Artand manyof thepiecesin thefourbooksprovideconsider-
able evidenceas to appropriate fingerings.Thereis also a largebodyofhis-
toricalevidenceon tuningand temperament, enoughto supportMellers's
conclusionthatsomevarietyofmean-tonetuning-withall thespecialquali-
tiesand tonalanomaliesof suchkeysas F minorand F-sharpminor-was
Couperin'spreference.7
Turningto thegeneralaffections and characters of thedance move-
ments,we are againwell informed byFrenchbaroquetheorists, lexicogra-
phers,and composers and supported byconsistent internalmusicalevidence.
In the case of theHuitieme Ordre,the character ofeach movementis clear,
as is the likelyrelationshipofdance typeand metersignature to appropriate
tempo.(To eliminateambiguities as to tempo,Couperinprovidestimeor
characterwordsforfiveof the ten movements; theothersare self-evident.)
And thedance typesas Couperin has rendered themin thisordreare entirely
consistent withthe bulkof contemporary written descriptions.
On twoothercrucialmatters of theperformance ofFrenchbaroque
music,James Anthonywrites,"Although quitepossibleto insistener-
R. it is
geticallythatthe mostcriticalproblemsofornamentation and rhythmic alter-
ationarisein the musicofthegrandsiecle,it is equallytruethatthismusic
offers thegreatest latitudeofanyforstylistically validalternatives in perfor-
mance."8Ornamentation was discussedin exhaustivedetailbybaroquetheo-
ristsand composers longbeforethe massiveand valuablesyntheses of this
century(Aldrich,Neumann, al.). et Contradictions between and even
withintheornamental practicesof individualtheorists and composers are,
admittedly, common, and there is continuing debate on the interpretation
ofornaments. But thehistoricaland modernliterature is so vastthatone
cannotpretendto wantforguidancein rendering mostbaroqueornaments.
This is especiallytrueforCouperin,who so carefully explainedmostofhis
notationsin L'Artand in an appendixat theend ofhis Premier Livre(Paris,
1713). Thereare certainly lacunae:forexample,Couperinnowhereexplains
one ofhis mostcharacteristic ornaments, thecombinedturn-trill, and he
does not providea realization fortheverycommonportde voixcouldin the
1713 appendix.Butbetweenhistorical documentation and bongoat,the
proliferation ofornaments in theHuitieme Ordre,and in all ofCouperin's
music,need not intimidate theperformer. Couperineven freesus fromthe
need to be creativebydemanding strictadherenceto his carefulnotation.
In thePrefaceto his Troisitme Livre,he writes:

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 inCouperin15
Practice
Performance

Jesuistoujours (apreslessoinsqueje mesuisdonnepourmarquer

surpris les
agremens quiconviennent a mesPieces). .. d'entendredespersonnesquiles
ontaprises sanss'yassujetir.
C'estunendgligence quin'estpaspardonnable,
d'autantqu'iln'estpointarbitraire
d'ymettre telsagremensqu'onveut.Je
declaredoncquemespiecesdoivent etreexecuties comme je lesaymarquees:
et qu'ellene ferontjamaisunecertaine surles quiontle
" impression personnes
goitvray,tantqu'onn'observera pas la lettre,toutce quej'yaymarque, sans
augmentation ni diminution.9

On the Frenchbaroquepenchantforsubtlerhythmic alterations

of
notatedscores--thatis, notes are dozensoftreatises
fromthe
in.gales--there
period1650-1800,fromthroughout Europe,on whichwe can drawforguid-
ance. Couperinhimself writes,in L'Art:

C'estquenousecrivons
diffbremment
de ce quenousexecutons:ce quifaitque
les&trangers notremusique
jotient moinsbienquenousne fesons la leur....
Parexemple,nouspointons croches
plusieurs = conjoints;
de suitespardegrds
Etcependantnouslesmarquons 10
egales.

The practicehad manysubtleties, and the sourcessometimes disagree,buta

convincingrhythmic interpretation is never out of reach,certainly not in the
HuitimeOrdre.
At thispointin the investigation of theproblemsofperforming Cou-
perin's Ordre,we stand in good stead.There is a wealthof historical
evidenceHuiti.me
on suchimportant matters as the instrument itselfand itstechnique
and tuning,the affections, and
characters, tempi of the dance movements,
and the renderingofornaments and notes The sourcesallowus to
makeinformed ine.gales.
decisions,yetallowus to retain realcreativeoptions.We
might even imaginethatthe interpreter's work is done--thatbyassimilating
thisevidencewithstylishness and bongout,the HuitimeOrdreall butplays
itself.

2
But obviously,thisis farfromtrue.The aspectsof interpretation
just
reviewedamountonlyto the outershellof Frenchbaroqueclavecinstyle,
yieldingonlythe superficial
soundscapeof theperiod.Missingfromthislist,
ofcourse,are theparticular valuesthatcharacterize
and distinguishthe
Huitime Ordrein particular, and missingfromthehistoricalsourcesare pre-
ciselythe methodologies thatwouldhelp us to recognize,interpret,
and com-
municatethesevalues.Anyhypothetical performancethatwas concerned
onlywiththe aspectsalreadydiscussedwouldrevealmerelya tasteful
potpourriof somber,antiquateddances.But thereis muchmoreto this
ordrethanthat,and to expresswhatis mostdistinctive in it we must
supplement-andsometimes openlycontradict-thehistoricalsources.The
mostbasic issuehereis the articulation
of musicalform,and moreparticu-

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16 TheMusical
Quarterly

larly,the treatment ofrepeats,registration,and temporelationships between

movements. In the case of so deep and complexa workas the
Ordre,the communication offormis crucial. Huiti.me
This ordreis lessa potpourri thananyothersuitebyCouperinor his
Frenchcontemporaries and predecessors. The internalmusicalevidence
points to an intended unifiedwhole;11 it does not requirehistoricalcorrobo-
ration,although at leastone compelling piece ofextantevidenceshows
clearly(as Mellers and others that
agree12) Couperinwas indeedconcerned
withtheformalintegrity ofhis ordres.In theAvisthatprecedestheQua-
triemeLivre(Paris,1730), Couperinexplainstheunusualtonaldesignof the
Vingt-Cinquieme Ordre.

Monpremier desseinen Commencant L'Ordre25e.de ce Livre,6toitqu'ilfut

en Ut-Mineur, et Majeur;maisapresla premiere pieceen Ut-Mineur, Il me
vintdansl'idded'enfaireuneen Mi-bemol quitffit
naturel, relativeau dit
Ordred'Ut-Mineur (et celapourraison;)La premiere et la troisidme,
on ' donnecet piece,comme on a pci,
s'Itanttoutesdeu; trouvees,egardes, Ordre,
n'ayant pasjug6a propos dansle fortde monincommodite de m'apliquer a la
conduittede cetOuvrage. Si dansla Suitteon retrouve
cesdeuxpieces,j'y
remedieray-moy-meme; ou dumoinsje conduiray ceuxquiyremedieront.13

Internalmusicalevidencetellsa morecompletestory.Those ordres thatdo

suggesta potpourri-for example,the sprawling firstand second,or the epi-
sodictwenty-second--are theexceptionsthatonlyconfirm thatthe vast
majority are structuredwithgreatsubtlety and care. Disregardforlarge-scale
designin the suites(presumably becauseof scanthistoricalevidence)is not
justifiedbythe music.Couperin'sordres are muchmoresophisticated than
earlierclavecinsuitesin manywaysbutespeciallyin form,and in factthere
is a realdevelopment in thisregardthrough thefourbooks.
The Ordre is the most organizedofall. To under-
rigorously
Huiti.me
standthenature and extentof itsformaldiscipline,we do wellto workback-
wardfromitsmostclimacticmovement, the immensePassacaille.That this
is theclimaxof theordreis unmistakable; dimensions alone ensureit. The
Passacailleis themostintenseofthe threemovements centralto theordre,
the othersbeing"La Raphadle,"whichopensthe suite,and thecentralsara-
bande,"L'Unique." By theirduration,theirimposing gravity,and their
anguishedtextures, these three movements establishthemselves as boththe
pillarsof the formand the tragicutterancesthatdefine the characterof the
ordre.The lesserintensity of theothermovements places them as orbitalto
thesemainmovements.
Intensitymountsthroughout theordreand culminatesin the Pas-
sacaille.Harmonicanalysisprovidesa partialexplanation.This is one of a
handfulofordresin whicheverymovementis in the samekeyand mode.
Reliefcomesonlyin theformoffleeting referencesto therelativemajor,D.
(The Couranteand the sarabandeclose on D at thedoublebar;theRondeau
and the Passacaillefeaturetemporary closeson D.) But themainimpression

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 inCouperin17
Practice
Performance

is ofunrelievedB-minortension,and of an especiallychromatic bent.

Mellersremindsus that"Charpentier had called B minor'solitaire et milan-
cholique';forBach and Couperinit was a keyofpurgatorial suffering. ...
Couperin'sB minormood,at leastin thiscrucialeighthordre,offers no pos-
sibilityofdreamful evasion."14Threelargetragicmovements, then,anchor
a structure thatdescribesa growing tensionthatreachesa climaxin the
Passacaille.
The Passacailleitselfstrongly supports thisinterpretation, forthis
movement--aformalstrokeofremarkable genius--functions as a microcosm
of theordreas a whole.At the climacticpointin theordre,Couperinsteps
back and reviewsit in miniature.
The structural similarities
betweenthismovementand thewholesuite
are revealing.Bothreacha "shattering climax"(to use Mellers'sphrase15)in
theirpenultimate section:the Passacailleis the climaxoftheordre,whilethe
seventhof itseightcouplets,withitsfiercediscordant arpeggios, is the cli-
max of the Passacaille.Bothconclude,surprisingly, not withclimacticstate-
ments,butwitha lightdenouement: comparethe skittish eighthcoupletof
the Passacaillewiththe lastmovement of the ordre,a quickItalianategigue,
"La Morinete."16 And coupletsone through six of the Passacaillemimicthe
mountingintensity of the first
eight movements of theordre.
The Passacailleis the mosthighlydisciplinedmovement.It is one of
twoexamplesin Couperin'sclavecinmusicof thechaconne-rondeau tech-
nique.17 This technique pilesrigoruponrigor: each couplet is based on the
groundbassof the theme,whichitselfreturns unadornedbetweenthe varia-
tions.In fact,the rondeauthemeitselfis rigorous, consisting of the same
four-measure phrasetwicerepeated;we have heardit eighteentimesbythe
end of thepiece.
Butwhiletheformis strict,the emotionalcontentof the Passacailleis
extremely intense,and the variationtechniqueis surprisingly free.Notably,
thegroundbass itselfis not the clicheddescendingtetrachord18 buta chro-
maticrising fifth,B-f-sharp.The sharpened,upward-winding qualityof this
groundbasscreatesextremetension.The coupletsare esoteric;theirexplora-
tionsof thegroundbass are veryallusiveand imaginative and sometimes only
tenuously relatedto it. Only the climacticseventhcoupletis basedcloselyon
the originalrisingfifth,and it--climactically, we mightsay-finally"com-
pletes"thisfifth witha further chromaticascent(displacedan octavelower)
F-sharp-B.(See Ex. 1.)
The remarkable Passacailleamountsto a summary of thewholeordre.
Its balanceofformalrigor(the chaconne-rondeau technique,the structure of
therondeautheme)withpassionand freedom(anguishedaffect, allusive
ground-bass variations)saysmuchaboutthe balanceofunityand diversity,
orderand emotion,in the ordre-andin Couperin'swholestyle.Mellers
likensthissuiteto theformalist but intenselyemotionalplaysofRacine;he
sees reflectedin thisbalancethe verynatureof the societythatCouperinand
Racine shared:

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18 TheMusical
Quarterly

Example1. Ordre,Passacaille,seventhcouplet
FrangoisCouperin,Huitieme

Racinianqualitythan
Certainlythereis no musicwhichhas a moreprofoundly
in whichtherigidity
thisPassacaille, convention
ofa socialandtechnical (hav-
ingreference to acceptedstandardsin social intercourse),onlyjustsucceedsin
holdingin checka passionso violentthatit threatens to engulfboththeper-
sonalityand thecivilizationofwhichthatpersonality is a part.Justas we are
consciousofRacine'sIn
as socia
alexandrine
holding
his usic,
in
so loselycontrolthe
aiedwtkhwayward passionof i
eigito
muchmusicl.
Phldre'srhythms so we are awareofthe severechaconne-
and metaphors,
rondeauformdammingthe floodofCouperin'schromaticism and dissonance.19

sound,as I have shown.But it

of theordreis analytically
This perception
raises interpretiveproblems.Elements essential to communicatingformin
performance-repeats,registration,tempo relationships-are treatedsuperfi-
cially or ignoredoutrightin the historicalsources. To accommodate our
intotheHuitiame
formalinsights we mustrelyon
Ordrein performance,
other criteria.

The questionofhow to treatrepeatsin Couperinis influenced byfactorsas

muchsocialas musical.In his music,so closelyalliedwiththe zeitgeist his
of
time,externalstandards offormaldisciplinedirectly the
affect musicalstruc-
ture.The performer of the meOrdremustbe sensitiveto itsformal
whichis intended Huitio
to balancethe extremeemotionsit expresses.
strictness,
To thisend, therepeatsin the ordreshouldbe played.Couperinhimself
all
indicatesin the scorethatbothreprises
carefully in thebinary-form move-

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 inCouperin19
Practice
Performance

mentsare to be repeated(rondeaucouplets,ofcourse,are not repeated);he

also asksforpetitereprisesin theGavotteand the closinggigue.(It is worth-
whileto remindourselvesthathe was an especiallyfussycomposerwhenit
came to makingexplicithis intentions in suchmatters.)One could,perhaps,
findsomecases in whichrepeatsmightbe droppedformusicalreasons:for
example,in thesarabande,the strangeVivement interruptionsmakefora
striking secondand closingstrain,so muchso, perhaps,thatto repeatthis
strainwouldbe anticlimactic; in theRondeau,one feelsthatthe repeatof
the sixteen-measure themeshouldnot be takeneverytimeit is replayed,
thoughCouperin'snotationsuggests thatthiswas intended.20 In neither
case, I think,is the musicalreasonstrongenough.Couperin'sproportions
heredependcruciallyon the inexorability ofexterior form.Further, the
"timeless,implacably fateful
quality"21 thatMellersidentifies in the Pas-
sacailleappliesthroughout the ordre,and playingall therepeatsunderscores
the cumulative dramaticpower.On thequestionofrepeats,then,thestrict-
nessdemandedbythe contextand characterof the musicitselfis the decisive
factor.
Harpsichord is a stillmoredifficult
registration issue,and we mustalso
rely on that
criteria are not historical. David in
Fuller, his articlein theNew
Grove, summarizes the frustratingstate of the historicalevidence.

Thereis an extraordinary disparitybetween thepossibilitiesforharpsichord

in
registrationearly music and the evidence for itsuse..... Documents of
everykind,particularly advertisements andinventors' proposals, of
extolvariety
colourandeasein obtaining itas desirable features ofharpsichords.Andyet,in
an agewhenrulesgoverned so manyaspects ofmusic, no conventions ofharp-
sichordregistrationdeveloped, even in countries where the instrumentwas
standardized.
relatively In 18th-century Paris,forexample, wherea twomanual
harpsichordnearly always hadI: 8', 4'; II: 8'; coupler,composers whowrote for
bothinstruments [i.e.,including organ] andgavedetailed fororgan
instructions
in theirprefaces
registration andin thetitlesoftheirpiecesweresilenton the
subjectofharpsichord registration.22

This situationis indeedcurious,particularly witha composerlikeCouperin,

who, as I said, attendedto detailsin his scoresdownto the directionof
stemsand arpeggiosigns,and who, in the Prifaceto his thirdbook,
demandedstrictadherenceto his notation.The wantofhistoricalguidance
in registrationis surprising,
too, consideringthe almostuniversal
seventeenth- and eighteenth-century viewof theharpsichord as lackingin
expressive potential.Theoristsand composers throughout Europebemoaned
the inabilityof the harpsichord to producethesubtleexpressive effectsofthe
luteor clavichord.23 Couperinwas awareenoughof theharpsichord's limita-
tionsto makea specialplea, in the Prefaceto his first book,forsensitivity in
performance: "Le Clavecinestparfaitquant i son etendiue, et brillanspar
luy-mime;maiscommeon ne peutenfler,nydiminuer ses sons,je sgauray
i ceux qui par un artinfini,soutenu par le gott,pouronsariveri
grd
tofijours
rendrecet instrument susceptible d'expression."24

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20 TheMusical
Quarterly

Yet Couperinmadeno greatereffort thanhis contemporaries to specify

registrations, even thoughhe tookforgranteda standardsizeand configura-
tionofharpsichord. Onlya handfulof authenticbaroqueharpsichord regis-
trationshave survived(Fuller'sarticlelistsa few),and theyreferto specific
pieces,fromwhichgeneralprinciples shouldnot be drawn.Fullertentatively,
even reluctantly, concludes, "Coarse and insensitive thoughit mayseem,
nearlyall the evidence derived from the music itself pointsto the conclusion
thatthe usual to
way beginanyBaroquepiece was on all theregisters
together, and that changesduring the course of the piece wereconfinedto
of
changes manual,though even these were rare."25 But thisconclusionis
hasty,based, as it on
is, only negativeevidence; Fuller himselfadmitsthat
"evidencederivedfromthe instruments refutesthisconclusion."26 And this
solutionis not responsive to thedemandsof a sophisticated multimovement
work.Clearly,we are on ourown here;themeaningof thenegativeevi-
dencemustbe thatregistration is a matterto be determined solelybythe bon
gof-tof the performer, on the basis of analysis of the music.
In the case of the Huitieme Ordre,we produceconvincingresultsby
usingregistration to communicate ourdiscoveries abouttheformaldesignof
theordre.Assumingthe standard8' +8' + 4', withcoupler,it is possibleto
respectthe expressive and coloristicdemandsof the individualmovements,
whilestillshapingand directing thedramaticstructure ofthewhole.
We maybegin,again,withthe Passacailleand workbackward.I
observedthatthismovement was theclimaxof theordre,and thatitssev-
enthcoupletwas, in turn,itsclimax,so thiscoupletcan be consideredthe
"climaxof theclimax,"thehighpointof intensity in theordre.We makea
tellingstructural pointbyreserving forthiscouplet,alone in thesuite,the
fullresources(i.e., 8' + 8' + 4') of the instrument. In thisway,the "shatter-
ingclimax"is underscored. We mightthenwishto makeaudibletherela-
tionshipof theeighthcoupletto theclosinggiguewithlikeregistrations: for
example,lower8' alone, to capturethe light,livelyqualityofeach and to
maximizecontrastwiththe seventhcouplet.
Registering the restof the Passacaille,we shouldkeep in mindits
microcosmic relationship to theordreas a whole.We wantto underscore the
dual structure ofmounting intensity in thecoupletsalongsidefateful repeti-
tionsof therondeautheme.This emphasiscan be accomplished bygradually
addingstopsin coupletsone through seven,whilereturning alwaysto the
restrained upper8' alone forthe introspective rondeau. We can thenanalo-
gouslyregister theothermovements. The orbital dances can mimicthe
mounting intensity of the Passacaille's couplets, and we should supplement
thisidea forthe specialstructural and affective rolesof the opening"La
of
Raphadle"and the sarabande"L'Unique."The former demandsstrength
gesture(perhaps 8' + 8'), the latter a quiet,broodingquality(again, upper 8'
alone, to relate it to the Passacaille theme). Ifwe choose to interpretthe
Vivement sectionsof the sarabandeas suddeninterjections of a completely
new affection, we can register themappropriately, movingtemporarily to a
sparkling lower 8' +4', for example. Around the three tragic formalpillars,

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 inCouperin
Practice
Performance 21

theothermovements shouldgrowin intensity: single8' stopsforthesecond

allemande, thetwocourantes, andtheGavotte(thelatter couldalsobe
playedan octaveloweron thelower4' alone;thissonority marvelously
captures theTendrement quality Couperin asksfor);upper8' coupledwith
lower4' forthegayRondeau;and8' + 8' fortheimposing 6/4Gigue(which
is reallya loure).
Fromtheseregistrations wegeta clearsenseofa dramatic structure:a
powerful opening gesture is followed a
by gradual intensification toward the
Gigue(witha pauseforsoberreflection in thesarabande), at whichpointthe
dramais replayed in miniature in thePassacaille-the couplets buildon the
brooding rondeau theme toward a searing climax in theseventh, onlytodrop
offintothefacileeighth andtheclosing gigue.Naturally, neither thisstruc-
turalinterpretation northerelated registrations exhaust the implications of
thiscomplex ordre,buttheyareat leastmusically defensible. One thingis
absolutely true:theperformer musttakeresponsibility forregistrations; even
to tryto ignore theproblem is to makean interpretive decision.In lightof
thealmostcomplete absenceofhistorical guidance, ourinterpretive method-
ologymustrelyon thekindsofstructural andexpressive criteria I havejust
discussed.
The thirdandfinalareain theinterpretation ofform is tempo.The
contemporary evidence on individual tempiperse (whether forspecific time
words ordancetypes ormeter signs)is bountiful--and wildly contradictory.27
However, a possibilityexiststhatis nowhere suggested in thehistorical
sources butwhichhasmuchto offer to theinterpretation ofthistightly con-
structed ordre: preciseproportional relationships oftempobetween themove-
ments.Suchrelationships helptobindthesuitetightly together and
contribute to itsdramatic urgency. Stricttemporelationships areentirely
consistent withthenature ofthisordre andfurther underscore theformal
relationships.
Eachmovement in theHuitieme Ordre can be related to a singlebasic
pulsewithout distortingthecharacter ofeachmovement andwithout run-
ningafoulofthehistorical evidence on thenature ofthedances.Table1
lists,foreachmovement, thenotevaluecorresponding to a pulseofcirca
MM = 45. Sucha scheme, merely described, seemscontrived andseemsto
favoran abstract conception ofthesuitequiteapartfrom thedanceorigins of
theindividual movements. Yet,it is remarkable howconsistent theresulting
tempiare,however mathematically related, withtheproper dancecharacters.
for such
Consider, example, contemporary descriptions written ofthe
various dancesas thosein Sebastien de Brossard's DictionairedeMusique [sic]
(2nded., Paris,1705)andinJeanJacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire deMusique
(Paris,1768).Fromthesesources wefindconsistent support forthetempi
thatresultfromthe schemein Table 1. Forthe courante,Brossard givesno
tempoindication,butRousseauwritesthat"Cet Air est ordinairement d'une
Mesure i troisTems graves"(136). Brossarddescribesthe tempoofthe sara-
bandeas "grave,lent,serieux,&c." (300); forRousseau,too, it is a "Danse
grave"(423). Brossardwritesthatthe loureis to be played"lentement ou

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22 TheMusical
Quarterly

Table 1. Thistablerecordsa suggested

scheme oftemporelationships
forthe
HuitimeOrdre.Foreachmovement, theleft-handcolumnliststhetitle,form, and
meter andanytimeorcharacter
signature, words.Theright-handcolumn liststhe
to a basepulseofcircaMM = 45.
notevaluecorresponding

"La Raphadle" Gavotte

(allemande-overture:
C) (2)
"Tendrement"
Allemand:"L'Ausonine"
(8/4) Rondeau
"Leg rement,et marque" (3)
Courante "Gayement" "
(3/2) Gigue
SecondeCourante (loure:6/4) .
(3/2) Passacaille
Sarabande:"L'Unique" (chaconne-rondeau: 3)
(3) "La Morinite"
"Gravement" (gigue:12/8)
(3/8) "Legerement, et treslie"
"Vivement"

gravement" (274); Rousseaucalls it a "Sortede Danse dontl'Airest assezlent

& se marqueordinairement parla mesurea 6/4"(267). Boththeorists point
out thata passacailleis a slowerand moreexpressive(usuallyminor-mode)
versionof thechaconne(see Brossard, 72, and Rousseau,366). In each of
thesecases,a pulseofcirca45 is consistent bothwiththewritten descrip-
tionsand the internalmusicalevidence.Throughout theordre,the scheme
oftemporelationships allowshistoricallyacceptableinterpretationsof the
dance types.28
Of course,sucha schemeis not intendedto be playedmechanically,
and the exacttempiusedwillfallon thissideor thatofthe basicpulse,as
theexpressive demandsof the movements warrant.Butwe can givethe
impression ofprecisetemporelationships,especiallyat thejointsbetween
movements. The amountofsilencebetweenmovements also helpscommuni-
cate theform.Forexample,longerpausesbeforeand afterthesarabandeand
Passacaille,and after"La Raphaele,"wouldset offpiecesthatI interpretedas
pillarsof theform.In othercases,we couldproceedimmediately fromone
movementintothenextwithno breakin pulse,or witha shortpauseevenly
divisiblein termsof thepulse.By givingcarefulattentionto thejointsbe-
tweenmovements, we makeexplicitthe intendedtemporelationships and
senseofoverallcontinuity, freeing to
ourselves take more expressiveliberties
withinthe individualmovements.

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 Performance inCouperin
Practice 23

4
Historical evidence leadsus onlyto an understanding ofthestylish surfaceof
theHuitieme Ordre;to realizeitsmoreindividual qualities, wemustturnto
othermusical criteria.Myexamination ofrepeats, registration, andtempo
relationships suggests an interpretation oftheworkas a uniqueformal whole.
Butbothsurface andsubstructure areessential to a satisfying interpretation,
anda balanceofhistorical scholarship andmusical analysis is needed.And
yet,I thinkthatthisbalanceis notentirely evenandthatthescalestip
toward analysis as thefinalarbiter in all conflicts between thebarescoreand
thenorms ofhistorical performance practice. Positivistic verifiability should
neverhavethelastwordbecausehistorical evidence canneverapplyto all
individual cases.(Composers arealways moreinteresting thantheorists!)
Thereareconspicuous placesin theHuitieme Ordreinwhichone is advised,
on musical grounds, to depart from common historical practice, andthese
exceptions offer proof oftheimportance ofcreative musicianship to eventhe
mosthistorically minded performer. I willexamine a fewsuchexceptions
drawn from "La Raphadle."
I saidthatthecharacterization ofthedancemovements in thisordre is
straightforward, in is
but fact,"La Raphadle" notso simply pinneddown.
Mellers callsit"a magnificent allemande,"29 andso itcertainly is. But,
uncharacteristically, Couperin does not label itan allemande, andthereason
maybe thatit is intended tohavea dualcharacter, fortherearestriking
similaritiesto a French overture.30 The movement is imbued withthepomp
andgravity, thesharprhythms andtirades, oftheoverture. Yettheflowing
sixteenth notesoftheallemande arealsopresent. (The twostyles aresome-
timeslaidoneatoptheother,as in mm.2-5; seeEx. 2.) In fact,in the
opening ofthesecondstrain, mm.12-15,Couperin evenmimics thefugal
entries thatcharacterize thesecondhalfoftheoverture, returning to the
grander texture in m. 18 (see Ex. 3).
Whatwehavein thismovement is,in fact,a fusion ofallemande and
overture.31 No historical sourcewilltellushowto dealwithsucha creature,
though dealwithitwemust.First, weshouldslowthetempoenoughto
accommodate thedenseornamental texture andto givethemovement a
suitable gravity; Table 1 suggests circa 45 to the quarter note. The sharp
overture rhythms shouldbe as sharpas possible(notoverdotted, though), but
theflowing allemande figurations shouldremain smooth. Registration could
adaptto mimictheoverture textures: after a majestic opening (8' + 8'), the
secondreprise couldbeginon theupper8' alone,justas thesecondreprise of
an overture inevitably openswitha thinner, quieter texture offugalentries.
Withthereturn to theopening gravetexture in m. 18,thetwo8' stops
wouldagainbe used.
"La Raphadle"also providesintrinsicmusicalevidencethatmightlead
us to questionthe appropriatenessof inequality.Most Frenchbaroquetheo-
ristsheld thatmovements not in Frenchstyle(allemande,giga,etc.) were

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24 TheMusical
Quarterly

Ordre,
Example2. Huiti~me mm.2-5
"LaRaphadle,"

Reprise.

S3 Him O "La I m

"LaRaphale,"mm.11-17
Ordre,
3. Huiti0me
Example

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 inCouperin25
Practice
Performance

not appropriate vehiclesforinequality, althoughtherewas certainly no agree-

menton the matter.Couperindid not addressthisproblem,butthereis
compellinginternalevidencethatunnotatedinequalityis misplacedin his
allemandes.If thismovementwereto includeinequality,it wouldbe at the
level ofthe sixteenthnote.32Yet, in mm.5, 6, and 31 (and elsewhere),we
see thatCouperinhas writtenin sharpening ofthe sixteenth-noterhythm
wherehe desiresit (see Ex. 4). Inequalityelsewherein the movement would
undercutthe rhythmic distinctionthatCouperinobviouslyintendedin these
passages.Elsewherein thefourbooks,we findevidencethatCouperin
intendedhis allemandesto be playedas notated:the openingallemandesin
the Premier and Vingt-Septi meOrdrescontainsomewritten-out inequalities
at the sixteenth-note level,as in "La Raphadle,"suggesting thatthe plain
sixteenths in the samemovements are to be playedstraight;
the opening
allemandeof the SecondOrdrecomeswiththisinstruction: "les doublescro-
ches un tant-soit peu pointees";and the allemande"L'Ausoniene"thatfol-
lows"La Raphadle"instructs us to play"marque,"an indicationthatfor-
bidsinequality.Given Couperin'sinsistencein theseexampleson specifying
ifand to whatdegreeinequalityis to be absentor present,we shouldthink
twicebeforeapplyinginequalityto his otherhalf-dozen keyboard allemandes
withno specialmarkings. The musicitselfsaysmorethanthe historicaldoc-
umentation in thiscase.
Ornamentation, too, needsto be adaptedfromhistoricalorthodoxy on
occasion,as "La Raphadle"demonstrates. On the downbeatof m. 2, theport
de voixg-sharp'seemssimpleenough:an appoggiatura resolvingto a'. Yet
Couperin'sextremely carefulstemming and bracketingin theoriginaledition
(see Ex. 5) makeit clearthattwothingsare involvedhere:a sopranovoice
a' to whichthe ornamentbelongs,and an alto voice a' thatis partofa
descending progression a'-f-sharp'-c-sharp'. Bothofthesevoicesdemandto
be treatedwithseparateintegrity forstructural reasons.The sopranovoice's-
portde voixg-sharp'mustsurelybe takenon thebeat.33Couperinhimselfis
quiteclearon thematterin L'Art:"I1fautque la petitenoteperdule d'un
port= de = voix,ou d'un could,frapeavec L'harmonie!c'esta diredans le
temsqu'on devroittoucherla note de valeurqui la suit."34Frederick Neu-
mannusesthisveryappoggiatura from"La Raphadle"as an exampleof an
exceptionin whichthe ornamentmustbe takenbeforethe beat,yethe says
that"thedownbeatruleis mostlikelyto applyto suchcoulpsand portsde voix
thatare in the uppervoice or voices,thatstrikea dissonanceagainstthe
bass,and thatdo so on the heavymetricalbeats."35The sopranovoice in m.
2 meetsall of thesecriteria.The dissonantg-sharp'shouldstrikeagainstthe
F-sharpbass,on the beat, thenresolveto a'. However,the bracketedalto
voice'srhythmic and motivicintegrity (as Neumannrightly argues36) must
also be respectedbecauseit mustbe relatedto the analogousanapesticalto
figurein m. 1. Couperin'sveryprecisenotationpointsto a simultaneous
strikingofg-sharp'and a' on thebeat in m. 2, withthe alto figure played
exactlyas notatedand theg-sharp'resolving upwardto a seconda', thisone

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26 TheMusical
Quarterly

Example4. Ordre,"La Rapha le," mm.5, 6, and 30

Huiti.me

thewritten mainnoteof the sopranomelody(see Ex. 6). Onlythisinterpre-

tationis fullyconsistentwiththe theoretical evidenceand thenotation.
Neumann'ssuggestion (see Ex. 7a) departsfromclearhistorical practicein
the sopranovoice; the common-practice interpretation shown in Example7b
destroysthe integrityof the alto motive-giving to both voicesthe ornament
the in
ofone. Musically, interpretation Example 6 has much to The
offer.
painfulacciaccatura crunch is with
consistent the tense chromatic character
of thismovement"Laand this
Rapindeed,
ordre-, it is a beautifully
appropriate ges-
tureforthe openingmeasures.Analogousornaments are askedforin m. 9,
and also in mm.8 and 12 of the sarabande.Interpretations thatare literally
trueto Couperin'snotationyieldsurprising but tellingdissonancesthatthe
usualreadingsofhistoricalsourceswouldnot entertain.

This discussionof exceptionalcases in "La Raphatione"and thereare many

morein the wholeordre)leadsto theconclusionthatthe musicalanalysis
invokedin areasofperformance not supported byhistorical evidenceshould
mediateeven wheresuchevidenceexists.This is no mereplatitude.Rules
inferredfromhistoricalsourcesshouldconstantly be questionedand subjected
to new scrutiny,neveracceptedsolelyon the basisoftheirsupposedauthor-
ity.This principleseemsobviousenough,and yetit is certainly truethat
manyhistorical limit
performers their own creativeoptions acceptdubious
or
musical resultsratherthantemper their zeal. (Witnesstheperpet-
positivistic
uation ofthe ridiculousexcessesof Musical analysis,I stress
must be the final overdotting.n)
between scores and treatises.
again, arbiter

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 inCouperin27
Practice
Performance

5. Huitime
Example "LaRaphale,"mm.1,2
Ordre,

Example6. Author's
interpretation devoixinEx. 5,m.2
ofport

ofport
Example7. Twootherinterpretations 7b)common
devoixinEx.5,m.2: 7a) Neumann; practice

Two important conclusionscan be drawn:first, formshouldtakeprece-

denceoversurfacedetails;second,one shouldtryto communicate whatis
individualin a work,not whatis generic.These conclusionsare closely
related,and forgetting bothis a surprisinglycommonsin. Concentrating on
verifiableevidence, which almost exclusivelydeals with the musicalsurface,
manyhistoricalperformers underplaythe uniqueand crucialdemandsof
innerform,thereby promoting genericinterpretationsin whichall musicof a
period is of a piece. They belittle
great music especially,bywhittlingit down
to the lowestcommondenominator ofperiodstyle.(They "sayBach, [but]
meanTelemann,"as Adornoput it.37) Superficial periodstylishness--pulling
out the Frenchbaroquestop--cangivecharmto a banal triosonata,but it
can onlymakea museumpiece out of a Couperin.The Huitieme Ordreis not
greatbecauseofthosenoisesbywhichwe identify itsperiodand place; it is
greatbecauseof itsprofundity and expressivenessand becauseof itspowerful
and individualmusicalarchitecture. To communicate theseaspectsofthe
ordrerequiresthepresenceofmusicianship thatis primarilyanalytical,criti-
cal, and creative,and onlysecondarily archival.Surelyno performer would
disagreewithCharlesRosenon one basicpremiseofmusicalinterpretation:
"A performance is not an archaeologicaldig."38

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28 TheMusical
Quarterly

Notes

to Dr. ErichSchwandt
I amverygrateful ofVictoria)
(University andDr. George
Houle(Stanford
University)foradviceandencouragement
at all stagesofworkon
thisarticle.
1. Wilfrid
Mellers, Couperin
Francois andtheFrench
Classical newversion
Tradition,
(London:FaberandFaber,1987),192.
2. Mellers,
192.
3. FrankHubbard, inhisstandard reference bookThree CenturiesofHarpsichord
Making (Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress,1965),84-132,provides a wealthof
evidencetosupport thesegeneral conclusions,drawing from French makers,perform-
andobservers
ers,writers, ofCouperin's time.See alsoJames R. Anthony, French
Baroque Musicfrom Beaujoyeulx toRameau, rev.ed. (NewYork:W. W. Norton &
Co. 1978),245-46.
4. Thereis alsosomeevidence from Couperin's contemporaries. See Hubbard,
chap.3, and alsoDavid Fuller's
articleon harpsichord in
registration TheNewGrove
ofMusicandMusicians,
Dictionary vol. 15,689-91.Foran example ofa contemporary
sourceassuming a standard full-sized
harpsichord, seethePraface toJean-Frangois
Dandrieu'sPremier LivredePiecesdeClavecin (Paris,1724).
5. Couperin's instructions read:"Pourtoucher cettepiece,il fautrepousserundes
ClaviersduClavecin,6terla petitte Octave,poserla maindroite surle Clavierd'en
haut,etposerla gauchesurceluid'enbas."("To playthispiece,onemustpushback
oneofthemanuals oftheharpsichord [i.e.,uncouple it],remove the4' stop,place
therighthandon theuppermanual, andplacethelefton thelowerone.")
6. He writes thatcross-hand pieces"devront etrejotidessurdeuxClaviers, dont
l'unsoitrepousse,ou retird"("shouldbe playedon twomanuals, oneofwhichis
pushed back,orretired [i.e.,uncoupled]").
7. Mellers,336-38.
8. Anthony, 375.
9. "After takingsuchcareto marktheornaments suitableformypieces. . . I am
alwayssurprisedto hearof thosewho have learnedthem with no heedto myinstruc-
tions.Thisis unpardonable negligence,themoreso as it isno arbitrary mattertoput
inanyornament thatonemaywish.I declare, therefore,thatmypiecesmustbe
executedas I havemarked them,andthattheywillnevermakean impression on
thosepersons ofrealtasteunlessoneobserves to theletterall thatI havemarked
withoutanyadditions ordeletions."Thistranslation inAnthony, 261.
10. "We write differentlyfromthe we
way play, which is whyforeigners playour
musiclesswellthanweplaytheirs. . . . Forexample, wedotseveral eighthnotesin
succession
[thatmove]byconjunct degrees; however, wenotatethemequal"(39).
11. Robert Donington, TheInterpretationofEarlyMusic(London:FaberandFaber,
I in
1963),314,errs, think, crediting Couperin withthesamekindofcasualness
abouttheformal integrityofhisordres as otherFrench baroque composers. Donington
quotesfrom thePriface toCouperin's ConcertsRoyaux (published as theSuplementto
theTroisieme Livre)inwhichCouperin that
relates he wrote these piecesforLouis
XIV'schamber concerts andarranges themherebykey.Thisdoesnotnecessarily

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 Practice
Performance inCouperin29

implythathe "merely" theConcerts

arranged bykey.Anyway, thisquoteisfarfrom
evidence
sufficient thatCouperin
didnotconsider
hisordres
tobe unifiedwholes,in
mostcases.
12. Mellers,338. PhilippeBeaussant, inhisbookFranCois Couperin(Paris:Fayard,
"Ce preambule
1980),writes: estbienetrange . . . [maisil]nousinforme au moinssur
l'importance
queCouperin attachait a la composition d'ensemble d'unOrdre" (485).
("Thispreambleis verystrange. . . [butit]at leastinforms us oftheimportance that
Couperinattached to theoverallcomposition ofan ordre.") See alsoShlomoHofman,
L'OeuvredeclavecindeFrancois
Couperin leGrand: etudestylistique A.
(Paris:Editions
& J.Picard& Cie., 1961),39-40.
13. "Myfirst intentionwhenbeginning thetwenty-fifth
ordreofthisbookwasthat
itbe inc minorandmajor;butafter thefirstpieceinC minor, theideacametome
ofdoingoneinE-flat major,whichwastherelative ofthesaidordreinc minor(and
forthatreason).The first
piece,andthethird, beingbothfinished[andthen]lost,I
haveputforth thisordre
as bestI could,nothavingthought itright,giventheextent
ofmyinconvenience, to applymyself to thecompletionofthiswork.If,subse-
quently,thesetwopiecesarefound again,I willremedyit,myself-orat least,I
willdirect
thosewhowillremedy it."
14. Mellers,
403.
15. Mellers,
192.
16. WhatMellers writes
of"La Morinite,"
193,couldalsoapplyto theeighth
con-
plet:"as thoughCouperinwishedtoreassert
thevalidity
ofsocialeleganceafter
his
incursion intothemerciless andspiritual
psychological terrors
thatsurroundourwak-
inglives."
17. Byan interesting theotherchaconne-rondeau,
coincidence, "La Favorite,"
from
theTroisiemeOrdre,inC major/minor(Premier alsostandsin microcosmic
Livre),
relation
to itssuite.
18. "La Favorite"
is basedon a chromatic tetrachord.
descending
19. Mellers, 193.
20. Thereis onepossible
exception. instruction
Couperin's afterthelastcouplet-
"Rondeau jusqu'aumotFin"--probably
meansthatthefinalreturn
ofthetheme
shouldbe withouttherepeat.
21. Mellers,193.
22. Fuller,689.
23. See, forexample,
quotationsfromMersenne
andothersin DavidLedbetter,
andLuteMusicin 17th-Century
Harpsichord France
(London:MacmillanPress,1987),
26-27.
24. "Theharpsichordis perfect
withregard torange, andbrilliant
ofitself;
butas
onecanneitherswellnordiminishitssounds,I willalways
be pleasedbythosewho,
byan infinite
art,sustained
bytaste,succeedinrenderingthisinstrument
capableof
expression."
25. Fuller,
690.
26. Fuller,
690.

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30 TheMusical
Quarterly

27. GeorgeHoulesorts outmuchoftheconfusing seventeenth- andeighteenth-

centuryevidence on meter andtempoinhisbookMeter inMusic,1600-1800:
Performance, Notation
Perception, (Bloomington:IndianaUniversity Press,1987).
28. Table1 does,however, runafoulofreceived accounts historical
ofvarious met-
ronome markings (L'Affillard,
Lachapelle,Onzembry, Choquel,Quantz,etc.).As
Donington warns, suchtempomarkings mustbe takenwitha grainofsalt(338).
Somewereintended formechanical andtheprocess
instruments, ofinterpretingand
them
translating into Maezel's metronome markingsis As
controversial. one can easily
seebylooking at thevarious movements oftheHuitieme Ordre, thehistorical
tempo
areoften
indications absurd andevenphysicallyimpossible toplay.(A sampleabsur-
dity:thePassacaille
played at L'Affillard's
romping106 to thequarternote;a sample
theGavotte,
impossibility: withitsmanyexpressive appoggiaturas inadjacentvoices,
played 120to thehalfnote.)Manyofthesetempomarkings
at L'Affillard's arealso
withthedescriptions
inconsistent andRousseau,
ofBrossard whosedictionariesI take
as a morereliableguideto the of
viability Table1.
29. Mellers, 192.
30. Beaussant concurs: "I1ya dansla demarche (quin'enporte
de cetteAllemande
maisquiestuneassurement)
pasle titre, quelquechosed'uneouverturelulliste"
(391). ("Thereis in thegaitofthisallemande(whichdoesnotcarrythetitleofone,
butwhichassuredly isone) somethingofa Lullyoverture.")
31. Couperin seemstohaveinvented thisformin theopening movementofthe
TroisiemeOrdre.He usesitonlyin thesetwomovements works.
inhiskeyboard
32. Thisis theconsensus ofthehistoricalevidence.See Mellers,
276-79.
33. Thisis Putnam Aldrich's recommendation ofhistorical
basedon a synthesis
in
sources "ThePrinciple Agrements ofthe Seventeenthand EighteenthCenturies:
A StudyinMusicalOrnamentation" (Ph.D. diss.,Harvard 1942),7-39.
University,
34. "Thelittle'lost'[i.e.,grace]noteofa portdevoix,orofa couli,mustbe struck
withtheharmony! -that is tosay,inthetimevalueofthenotethatfollows it"(22).
35. Frederick
Neumann, "CouperinandtheDownbeat DoctrineforAppoggiaturas,"
41 (1969):83.
ActaMusicologica
36. Neumann, 82.
37. TheodorW. Adorno, "BachDefendedAgainsthisDevotees," trans.
Prisms,
SamuelandShierryWeber(Cambridge:MIT Press,1981),145.
38. CharlesRosen,TheClassical Haydn,
Style: Mozart, (NewYork:
Beethoven
W. W. Norton& Co., 1972),107.

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