Vectors 1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and vector. Unit vector for A is Aˆ (read as A cap or A hat).
obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors.
ˆ = A  A=AA
Since, A ˆ .
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, A
force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
velocity etc.
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both,
ˆi , ˆj and kˆ are called orthogonal unit y
then it does not always imply that it is a vector. For it to be a
vector the third condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to vectors. These vectors must form a ˆj
be satisfied. Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude system such that when we Curl the k̂ x
and direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the laws of vector fingers of right hand from x to y then we î
algebra. must get the direction of z along z
Fig. 0.1
thumb). The
Types of Vector
ˆi = x , ˆj = y , kˆ = z
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal x y z
when they have equal magnitudes and same direction.
 x = xˆi , y = yˆj , z = z kˆ
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be
parallel when (8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of
application . Example displacement and force etc.
(i) Both have same direction.
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of
are always along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand
another vector.
screw rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc.,
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said are example of physical quantities of this type.
to be anti-parallel when Axial vector Axis of rotation
(i) Both have opposite direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of
another vector.
Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under
consideration can share the same support or have a common Axis of rotation Axial vector
support then the considered vectors are collinear. Fig. 0.2

(5) Zero vector (0) : A vector having zero magnitude and (10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are
arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a zero vector. called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free)
vectors are always coplanar.
 2 Vectors
Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors B C

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of

R = A+B
a triangle taken in same order B B B sin
then the resultant is given by B
the closing side of triangle in R = A+B 
 
opposite order. i.e. R = A + B B O N
A
A B cos
 OB = OA + AB O A
A Fig. 0.5
Fig. 0.3
Special cases : R = A + B when  = 0o
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector
R = A − B when  = 180o
AN
In  ABN , cos  =  AN = B cos 
B R= A 2 + B 2 when  = 90o
BN (2) Direction
sin  =  BN = B sin 
B CN B sin 
tan  = =
In OBN , we have OB = ON + BN 2 2 2 ON A + B cos 
B
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
R If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the
B B sin
(n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by
 
the closing side or the nth side of the polygon taken in opposite
O A A N
order. So,
B cos
Fig. 0.4 R = A+B+C+D+E
 R = ( A + B cos  )2 + (B sin  )2
2
OA + AB + BC + CD + DE = OE
 R 2 = A 2 + B 2 cos 2  + 2 AB cos  + B 2 sin 2 
D D C
 R 2 = A 2 + B 2 (cos 2  + sin 2  ) + 2 AB cos 
C
 R 2 = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos  E

 R= A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos  E B

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between

R B
A and B, then

O A
| A + B| = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos  A
Fig. 0.6
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN , Note : ❑ Resultant of two unequal vectors can not be
BN BN zero.
tan  = =
ON OA + AN ❑ Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may
B sin  not be zero
tan  =
A + B cos  ❑ Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition be zero.

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent Subtraction of vectors
sides of a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal
of the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of Since, A − B = A + (− B) and
the two vectors.
(1) Magnitude | A + B | = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos 

Since, R 2 = ON 2 + CN 2
 | A − B| = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos (180 o −  )
 R = (OA + AN ) + CN
2 2 2

Since, cos (180 −  ) = − cos 

 R 2 = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos 

 R =| R | =| A + B | = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos   | A − B | = A 2 + B 2 − 2 AB cos 
 Vectors 3

R sum = A + B
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
R = R x + R y + R z q or R = R x ˆi + R y ˆj + R z kˆ
B
Y
 1
2 A
180 – 
−B
Ry R
Rx

Rz
X
R diff = A + (− B )
Z
Fig. 0.7
Fig. 0.9
B sin 
tan  1 =
A + B cos  If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with
B sin (180 −  ) z axis, then
and tan  2 =
A + B cos (180 −  ) Rx Rx
 cos  = = =l
R R x2 + R y2 + R z2
But sin(180 −  ) = sin  and cos(180 −  ) = − cos 

B sin  Ry Ry
 tan  2 =  cos  = = =m
A − B cos  R R x2 + R y2 + R z2
Resolution of Vector Into Components
Rz Rz
 cos  = = =n
Consider a vector R in X-Y plane R R x2 + R y2 + R z2
Y
as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal
vectors R x and R y along x and y axes Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R and
respectively, by law of vector addition, Ry R
R x2 + R y2 + R z2
l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = cos 2  + cos 2  + cos 2  = =1
R = Rx + R y  R x2 + R y2 + R z2
X
Rx
Now as for any vector A = A nˆ so, Fig. 0.8 Note :❑ When a point P have coordinate (x, y,
R x = ˆi R x and R y = ˆjR y z) then its position vector OP = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ

so R = ˆi R x + ˆjR y
But from figure R x = R cos 
and R y = R sin
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give
the magnitude of the components of R along x and y-axes
respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the components themselves can be used to specify
the vector as
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring
and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
R = R x2 + R y2
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing
equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
tan  = (R y / R x ) or  = tan −1 (R y / R x )
…(i) ❑ When a particle moves from point (x1, y1, z1) to
(x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector
…(ii) →
r = (x 2 − x 1 )ˆi + (y 2 − y1 )ˆj + (z 2 − z 1 )kˆ
…(iii)
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two
vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors
with cosine of angle between them.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle 
between them, then their scalar product written as A . B is
defined as A . B = AB cos 
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a B
scalar which is positive if angle between the
vectors is acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if 
angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< <
180°).
A
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B = B . A Fig. 0.10
 4 Vectors

(iii) It is distributive, i.e. A . (B + C ) = A . B + A . C So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have

(iv) As by definition A . B = AB cos  d  = B . d s or  =  B.ds

 A.B  (iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of
The angle between the vectors  = cos −1  
 AB  moment p is situated in an electric field E or a magnetic dipole

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when of moment M in a field of induction B, the potential energy of
the dipole is given by :
cos  = max = 1, i.e.  = 0 o , i.e., vectors are parallel
U E = − p . E and U B = − M . B
( A . B)max = AB

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when

Vector Product of Two Vectors
| cos  | = min = 0, i.e.  = 90 o (1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two
vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the
( A . B)min = 0 product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle
between them, and direction perpendicular to the plane
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the containing the two vectors in accordance with right hand screw
vectors are orthogonal. rule.
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self
C = AB
dot product and is given by ( A)2 = A . A = AA cos  = A 2
Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector
i.e. A = A. A product written as A  B is a vector C defined by

(viii) In case of unit vector n̂ C = A  B = AB sin  nˆ

nˆ . nˆ = 1  1  cos 0 = 1 so nˆ . nˆ = ˆi . ˆi = ˆj . ˆj = kˆ . kˆ = 1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ ,

ˆi . ˆj = ˆj . kˆ = kˆ . ˆi = 1  1 cos 90  = 0

(x) In terms of components

A . B = (iA x + jAy + k Az ). (iB x + jBy + k Bz ) = [ A x B x + Ay By + A Z B z ]

Fig. 0.12
(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force
work is defined as, W = Fs cos  …(i) The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right
F. s = Fs cos  …(ii)
handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector)
through the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed
So from eqn (i) and (ii) W = F.s i.e. work is the scalar
product of force with displacement. screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and
(ii) Power P : B is rotated from A to B through the smaller angle between
them, then the direction of advancement of the screw gives the
dW ds
As W = F . s or = F. [As F is constant] direction of A  B i.e. C
dt dt
(2) Properties
or P = F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
 dW ds  perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e.,
velocity.  As = P and = v 
 dt dt  ds  orthogonal to both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A
B
(iii) Magnetic Flux  : and B may or may not be orthogonal.

Magnetic flux through an area
is given by d  = B ds cos  …(i)
But by definition of scalar
product B . d s = Bds cos 
 (ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,
A  B  B  A [but = − B  A]
O
Here it is worthy to note that
...(ii)
Fig. 0.11 | A  B | =| B  A | = AB sin 
 Vectors 5

i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal (i) Torque  = r  F

but directions are opposite.
(ii) Angular momentum L = r  p
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of
the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e. (iii) Velocity v =   r
A  (B + C ) = A  B + A  C (iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum a magnetic field B is given by F = q(v  B)
when sin  = max = 1, i.e.,  = 90 o
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E = p  E and  B = M  B
[ A  B]max = AB nˆ
Lami's Theorem
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are
In any  A B C with sides a, b, c
orthogonal.
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum sin  sin  sin 
= =
when | sin  | = minimum = 0, i.e.,  = 0 or 180 o o a b c
180 – 
[ A  B]min = 0

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes,
the vectors are collinear. c b

(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself

  180 – 
vanishes, i.e., is null vector A  A = AA sin 0 o nˆ = 0
180 –  a
(vii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ = 0 so that
Fig. 0.14
ˆi  ˆi = ˆj  ˆj = kˆ  kˆ = 0
i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle
containing the side to the length of the side is a constant.
(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, kˆ in
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we
accordance with right hand screw rule :
establish the Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the
ˆj ˆj triangle shown

a + b + c = 0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)

k̂  a + b = −c …(ii)
î î
Pre-multiplying both sides by a

k̂ a  (a + b) = −a  c  0 + a  b = −a  c
Fig. 0.13

ˆi  ˆj = kˆ , ˆj  kˆ = ˆi and kˆ  ˆi = ˆj  ab = ca …(iii)

And as cross product is not commutative, Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b

ˆj  ˆi = −kˆ , kˆ  ˆj = −ˆi and ˆi  kˆ = − ˆj
b  (a + b) = − b  c  b  a + b  b = −b  c
(x) In terms of components
 − a  b = −b  c  a  b = b  c …(iv)
ˆi ˆj kˆ
A  B = Ax Ay Az From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b = b  c = c  a
Bx By Bz Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | =| b  c | =| c  a |

= ˆi ( A y B z − A z B y ) + ˆj( A z B x − A x B z ) + kˆ ( A x B y − A y B x )  ab sin(180 −  ) = bc sin(180 −  ) = ca sin(180 −  )

(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a  ab sin  = bc sin  = ca sin 
vector, vector physical quantities (particularly representing
Dividing through out by abc, we have
rotational effects) like torque, angular momentum, velocity and
force on a moving charge in a magnetic field and can be expressed as sin  sin  sin 
 = =
the vector product of two vectors. It is well – established in physics a b c
that :
 6 Vectors
→ →
Relative Velocity (iv) If the angle between 1 and 2 be , then
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a
particle, we assume a fixed point relative to which the given 
 r12 = 12 +  22 – 21 2 cos  1/2
.
particle is in motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing
or wind is blowing or a person is running with a speed v, we mean (3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in
→
that these all are relative to the earth (which we have assumed to equatorial plane with velocity v s and a point on the surface of
be fixed). →
Y earth with ve relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of
Y P satellite relative to the surface of earth
→ → →
r
PS ' vse = v s − v e
r
PS
X So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction
S
rS ' S of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity relative to earth's
S X surface will be v se = v s − v e
Fig. 0.15
And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to
another moving object, consider a particle P whose position the motion of earth, v se = v s − (−v e ) = v s + v e
→ →
relative to frame S is rPS while relative to S  is rPS  . (4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically
→
→
with a velocity v R and an observer is moving horizontally with
If the position of frames S  relative to S at any time is r S S
→
→ → →
then from figure, rPS = rPS  + rS S speed v M the velocity of rain relative to observer will be
→ → →
Differentiating this equation with respect to time v RM = v R − v M
→ → →
drPS drPS  drS S which by law of vector addition has magnitude
= +
dt dt dt
→ → →
v RM = v R2 + v M
2
→ →
or v PS = v PS  + v S S [as v = d r /dt ]
direction  = tan −1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in
→ → →
or v PS  = v PS − v S S fig.
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P1
→
moving with velocity v1 with respect to another particle P2 moving → – vM →
vR vR
 vR
→ → → →
→ →
with velocity v 2 is given by, v r12 = v1 – v 2 vM
vM

v1
v2 Fig. 0.17

P2

P1 (5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim

Fig. 0.16
→
relative to water with velocity v and water is flowing relative to
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then
→ →
: ground with velocity v R velocity of man relative to ground v M
 r12 = 1 –  2 will be given by:
(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction, → → → → → →
then : v = v M − v R , i.e., v M = v + v R
 r12 = 1 +  2
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually vM = v + vR
perpendicular directions, then:
And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water,
r12 = 12 +  22 vM = v − vR
 Vectors 7

(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with

 
velocity  r . A man can swim in still water with velocity  m . He is
standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two
cases arise.

(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross  All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For
the river straight, the man should swim making angle  with the example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a
upstream as shown. scalar quantity because it can not be added or multiplied
→ according to the rules of vector algebra.
A vr B
  A vector can have only two rectangular components in
→ plane and only three rectangular components in space.
→ vr
w →
vm
v  A vector can have any number, even infinite components.
 (minimum 2 components)
  Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars :
Upstream O Downstream Relative density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress,
Fig. 0.18 strain, modulus of elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia,
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which specific heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, resistance,
→ → → → → → conductance, reactance, impedance, permittivity, dielectric
OA = v m , AB =  r . Their resultant is given by OB =  . The constant, permeability, susceptibility, refractive index, focal
direction of swimming makes angle  with upstream. From the length, power of lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant, Gas
constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, Planck’s
triangle OBA, we find,
constant etc.
r 
cos  = Also sin  = r  Distance covered is a scalar quantity.
m m
 The displacement is a vector quantity.
Where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided algebraically.
with the shortest distance (OB) across the river.
 Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river,
then time taken to cross the river will be given by  Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be
divided.
w w
t1 = =  Unit vector gives the direction of vector.
 m2 – r2
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man  Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of an object is
should swim perpendicular to the bank. 5 ms–1 due East.
The time taken to cross the river will be: 
i.e. v = 5 ms −1 due east.

t2 =
w v 5 ms −1 (East)
vˆ =  = = East
m | v| 5 ms −1
→
A vr B So unit vector v̂ has no unit as East is not a physical quantity.
 Unit vector has no dimensions.
w
→ →
vr  ˆi . ˆi = ˆj . ˆj = kˆ . kˆ = 1
vm

 ˆi  ˆi = ˆj  ˆj = kˆ  kˆ = 0

Upstream O Downstream  ˆi  ˆj = kˆ , ˆj  kˆ = ˆi , kˆ  ˆi = ˆj
Fig. 0.19
 ˆi . ˆj = ˆj . kˆ = kˆ . ˆi = 0
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a
         
distance AB down stream. This distance will be given by:  A  A = 0 . Also A − A = 0 But A  A  A − A
     
w r Because A  A ⊥ A and A − A is collinear with A
AB = r t 2 =r or AB = w
m m
 Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its direction.
 8 Vectors
  vectors are parallel.
If A = B , then A = B and Aˆ =Bˆ .
   Rmax = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos 0  =| P + Q |
ˆ = −B
If A + B = 0 , then A = B but A ˆ .
 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when  = 180°
 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can i.e. vectors are anti-parallel.
be zero is two.
Rmin = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos 180  =| P − Q |
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose resultant is Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to
zero is three.
the difference of their magnitude.
 Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose resultant  Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two vectors is
is zero is four. equal to the sum of their magnitude.
  When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if A. B = 0 .  
  Rmin = P − Q  0 [| P | | Q |]
 Two vectors are parallel to each other if A  B = 0.  
Thus, two vectors P and Q having different magnitudes can
 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and force are never be combined to give zero resultant. From here, we
polar vectors. conclude that the minimum number of vectors of unequal
 Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular magnitude whose resultant can be zero is three. On the other
momentum are axial vectors. hand, the minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude
whose resultant can be zero is two.
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is not  
possible to divide with a direction.
 Angle between two vectors A and B is given by
 
A.B
 Distance covered is always positive quantity. cos  =  
| A| | B|
 The components of a vectors can have magnitude than that  
of the vector itself.  Projection of a vector A in the direction of vector B
 
A. B
 The rectangular components cannot have magnitude = 
greater than that of the vector itself. | B|
 
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product becomes a  Projection of a vector B in the direction of vector A
 
null vector. A. B
= 
 The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can | A|
  
never be a null vector.  If vectors A, B and C are represented by three sides ab, bc
 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give and ca respectively taken in a order, then
a null vector.   
| A| | B| | C|
= =
 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not ab bc ca
necessarily a vector. For example, time and electric current.
 The vectors ˆi + ˆj + kˆ is equally inclined to the coordinate
These quantities have magnitude and direction but they are
axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
scalar. This is because they do not obey the laws of vector      
addition.  If A  B = C , then A . B  C = 0 .
     
 A physical quantity which has different values in different  If A . B  C = 0 , then A . B and C are coplanar.
directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia  
has different values in different directions. Hence moment of
 If angle between A and B is 45°,
   
inertia is a tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive then A . B =| A  B |
index, stress, strain, density etc.     
 If A1 + A 2 + A 3 + ...... + An = 0 and A1 = A 2 = A3 = ...... = An
 The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at angle
always less than the magnitude of the vector 2 / n .
    
 If A = B , then A x = B x , Ay = By and A z = B z .  If A + B = C and A 2 + B 2 = C 2 , then the angle between
 
          A and B is 90°. Also A, B and C can have the following values.
 If A + B = C . Or if A + B + C = 0 , then A, B and C lie in (i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
one plane. (ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
      (iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.
 If A  B = C , then C is perpendicular to A as well as B .
     
 If | A  B | =| A − B | , then angle between A and B is 90°.
 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when  = 0° i.e.