SEUE1002

Fundamentals of Cosmology
Assoc. Prof. Tolgahan KILIÇOĞLU
Lecture 11
Modern Universe Models
Stone Throwing into the Sky
• Now let's imagine that we are throwing a
stone from the Earth into the sky and review
what could happen as a result.
• All celestial bodies have an escape velocity
(𝑣escape ). For example, the escape velocity for The velocity of the object converges to
the Earth is 11.2 km s-1 dir. a constant value at infinity.

Height of the object thrown

• If an object reaches a velocity above the
escape velocity, it may break away from the
celestial body.
• How the object makes its motion depends on
its total energy. Total energy is the sum of
kinetic and potential energy.

𝐸 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑃
The velocity of the object approaches
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 zero at infinity.
𝐸= 𝑚𝑣 2 −
2 𝑟

• As you can see, kinetic energy is related to the

speed of the object being thrown, and The object first ascends and
potential energy is related to the mass of the then falls back to the Earth.
planet (e.g., the Earth) on which it is located.
• Since the potential energy is gravitational
potential, it is an attractive potential. Since
attractive potentials are always negative (“– ”)
in physics, a minus sign comes in the middle of
Time
the equation.
• As you can see, there is always a competition
between potential energy and kinetic energy.
 Stone Throwing into the Sky
𝐸 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝑬𝑷
The velocity of the object converges to
1 𝑮𝑴𝒎 a constant value at infinity.

Height of the object thrown

𝐸= 𝑚𝑣 2 −
It stops for a moment. 2 𝒓
𝑣=0
• If an object is thrown into the sky
It goes up and

starts to fall again.

It accelerates and

at a velocity lower than the

slows down.

escape velocity, its kinetic energy

will be low and potential energy
will be dominant. In this case, the The velocity of the object approaches
total energy is negative: zero at infinity.

𝑣 < 𝑣escape
𝐸<0
The object first ascends and
then falls back to the Earth.
• In this case, the object rises to
the sky and slows down as it
rises, and stops after a point and
starts to fall back to the Earth. Time
 Stone Throwing into the Sky
The object does not return to Earth.
Its speed converges towards zero as 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑃
 𝑣=0 it moves away from the ground.

1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 The velocity of the object converges to
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 − a constant value at infinity.

Height of the object thrown

2 𝑟

• If an object is thrown towards the

It goes away and
slows down.

sky at a velocity equal to the

escape velocity, its kinetic energy
and potential energy will be
equally strong. In this case, the
total energy is equal to zero: The velocity of the object approaches
zero at infinity.

𝑣 = 𝑣escape 𝐸=0

The object first ascends and

• In this case, the object rises to then falls back to the Earth.
the sky and does not fall to the
Earth again. As it rises, it slows
down and its speed gradually Time
approaches zero (theoretically, it
can be said that “its speed
becomes zero at infinite
distance").
 Stone Throwing into the Sky
The object does not return to Earth. Its
velocity converges to a constant value 𝐸 = 𝑬𝑲 + 𝐸𝑃
 𝑣 = const. as it moves away from the ground.

𝟏 𝟐
𝐺𝑀𝑚 The velocity of the object converges to
𝐸 = 𝒎𝒗 − a constant value at infinity.

Height of the object thrown

𝟐 𝑟

• If an object is thrown towards the

It goes away and

sky at a velocity greater than the

slows down.

escape velocity, its kinetic energy

becomes more dominant than its
potential energy. In this case, the
total energy is positive: The velocity of the object approaches
zero at infinity.

𝑣 > 𝑣escape 𝐸>0

The object first ascends and

• In this case, the object rises to then falls back to the Earth.
the sky and does not fall to the
Earth again. As it rises, it slows
down and its speed gradually
approaches a constant value Time
(theoretically it can be said to “Its
speed becomes constant at
infinite distance”).
 Contraction or Expansion
of the Universe
• The contraction and expansion of the universe can be
thought of in a similar way.
• If the total energy of the universe is negative (E <0) the
universe first expands, stops for a moment and then starts to
contract again. Attention! Note that
• If the total energy of the universe is equal to zero (E = 0), the Closed
E and k are with
universe expands forever and the speed of expansion opposite signs. For
gradually approaches zero. example, when E is
positive, k is negative.
• If the total energy of the universe is positive (E> 0) the Time
universe expands forever and the speed of expansion will
gradually approach a constant value.
• If there were no dark energy in the universe, it would be;

𝐸 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑃

−𝑘 
(Curvature Parameter)
𝐻 t (Average Density of the Universe)
(Hubble Parameter)

That is, the curvature parameter of the universe (k) would

determine its behavior. But…
 Contraction or Expansion
of the Universe
• Because there is dark energy in the universe; ?
𝐸 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑃

(Dark Energy)
−𝑘  Closed
(Curvature Parameter) 𝐻 t (Average Density of the Universe)
(Hubble Parameter)

Time
• Not only the curvature parameter (k) determines the sign of E,
but also dark energy ().
• If the value of the cosmological constant is positive (that is, if
there is dark energy), whatever the shape of the universe (open,
closed, or flat) the universe can expand infinitely and the speed
of this expansion is always increasing.
• For this reason, it requires a lot of observational data to reveal
the shape of the universes with dark energy.
• Since the universe we live in also has dark energy, a consensus
on whether the universe is flat or closed could not be fully
agreed upon.
 FLRW Universe Models
Source: M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”
• It is a result of the work of Friedmann, Lemaître,
Robertson ve Walker, who are important
scientists in cosmology.
• FLRW models are generalized solutions of

k increases
universes with different curvature (k) and
different amount of dark energy ().
• In the figure, some results obtained from the
solutions of FLRW models are presented.
• In the figure, dark energy increases from left to
right and the curvature parameter increases from
bottom to top.
• Assumptions:
 increases
• Cosmological Principle
• The universe is homogeneous. Change of scale factor a(t) with time
• The universe is isotropic. (the expression a(t) in the figure is shown as R!)
• The universe has a density:  > 0
• The pressure of the universe is negligible: 𝑝≈0
 FLRW Universe Models
Source: M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”

• If the cosmological constant is negative (<0)

it can be considered that there is negative
dark energy in the universe. Such dark

k increases
energy has an attractive force, not a
repulsive force.
• Such a universe, regardless of its shape,
begins with a big bang, expands for a while,
then contracts and finally ends with a big
crunch. The larger the curvature parameter
(open  flat  close), the shorter the
lifetime of the universe.
 increases
Change of scale factor a(t) with time
(the expression a(t) in the figure is shown as R!)
 FLRW Universe Models
• If the cosmological constant is equal to zero (=0) there Source: M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”

is no dark energy in the universe.

• In this case, the behavior of the universe is directly
related to the curvature parameter.

k increases
• If k = +1, the universe is called a closed universe. Such a
universe starts with the big bang, expands for a while,
then contracts and finally ends with a big crunch. Such a
universe is finite and has a certain size.
• If k = 0, the universe is called a critical universe (flat).
Such a universe begins with the big bang and always
expands. The speed of expansion always decreases and
converges to zero at infinity. Such a universe is infinite.
• If k = -1, the universe is called open universe. larak
adlandırılır. Such a universe begins with the big bang and
always expands. The speed of expansion always  increases
decreases and converges to a constant value at infinity.
Such a universe is infinite.
Change of scale factor a(t) with time
(the expression a(t) in the figure is shown as R!)
 FLRW Universe Models
• If the cosmological constant is greater than zero Source: M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”
but less than Einstein's cosmological constant
(0<<E) there is a small amount of dark energy
in the universe.
• In the case of k = +1, the equations have two

k increases
solutions.
• In the first solution, the universe starts with a big
bang and expands for a while. But dark energy is
not so much that it will expand the universe
forever. Therefore, the universe contracts again
and eventually ends in a big crunch.
• In the second solution, the universe initially has an
infinite width. Then it contracts for a while and,
after that, it begins to expand again without
stopping. This model of the universe is called the
bouncing universe model. The age of such a  increases
universe must be infinite, or at least extremely
large. However, the ages of the objects we see in Change of scale factor a(t) with time
the universe are not that great. For this reason, we (the expression a(t) in the figure is shown as R!)
can easily say that the model of the universe
cannot be that way.
 FLRW Universe Models
Source: M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”
• If the cosmological constant is equal to Einstein's cosmological
constant (=E) there is a balanced amount of dark energy in
the universe.
• In the case of k = +1, the equations have three solutions.
•

k increases
In the first solution, the universe initially has a certain diameter and
expands rapidly as time passes. This model is also known as the
Eddington – Lemaître model.
• The second solution is Einstein's stationary cylindrical universe.
Such a universe does not expand or contract.
• The third solution is reminiscent of the critical universe. The
universe starts with the big bang and slows down and expands. The
scale multiplier reaches the size of Einstein's cylindrical universe at
infinity.

• If k = 0 the universe starts with the big bang and expands by

slowing down. At some point the expansion of the universe
begins to accelerate and continues forever. This model of the
universe is known as the accelerating universe. One of the
models that best explains the universe we live in is thought to  increases
be this accelerating universe model.
Change of scale factor a(t) with time
• The case of k = -1 is similar to the case of k = 0. There are only
slight differences in the behavior of the universe. (the expression a(t) in the figure is shown as R!)
 FLRW Universe Models
Source: M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”
• If the cosmological constant is greater than Einstein's
cosmological constant (>E), there is high amount of dark
energy in the universe.
• Although the solutions in the case of k = +1 are similar to the
accelerating universe, there is an important difference. Such a

k increases
universe begins with the big bang and is expanding with
decceleration. However, as seen from the figure, the universe
enters a pseudo-stationary phase, where it almost stops
expanding for a while. Then it continues to expand without
stopping again. This universe model is known as the Lemaître
model.
• Although the Lemaître model is not accepted today, Lemaître
put forward important theories about how matter in the
universe emerged through this model. According to him, the
nuclei of the elements in the universe were formed in the early
stages of the universe. The pseudo-stationary phase of the
universe provided an opportunity for the formation of stars and
galaxies.
 increases
• Even though it is known that these ideas of Lemaître are not Change of scale factor a(t) with time
very correct today, the idea of creating different structures in (the expression a(t) in the figure is shown as R!)
different phases of the universe has greatly improved our views
on the functioning of the universe.
 Age of the Universe
• Approximate value of Hubble constant is H0 = 72 km s-1 Mpc-1.
• This constant tells us that for each 1 Mpc distance in the universe, galaxies are moving away from us at a multiple of 72
km s-1 speed. In other words, the expected recessional velocity of a galaxy 1 Mpc away is 72 km s-1 , while that of a 2
Mpc galaxy is 144 km s-1 and it goes on…
• If all galaxies are moving away from each other (in fact, the universe is expanding), these galaxies should converge at a
single point as we go back in time (the big bang). So how can we calculate this time?
• It is seen that the unit of the Hubble constant is km s-1 Mpc-1. However, the terms km and Mpc here are both units of
length. They will cancel each other out if the necessary conversion is done. Since 1 Mpc = 3.087·1019 km, the value of
Hubble's Constant in s-1 is:

72 km s −1 Mpc −1 a(t)
𝐻0 = 19 −1
= 2.33 · 10−18 s −1 Now
3.087 ∙ 10 km Mpc

To convert to seconds, this value must be inverse:

13.8 billion years

t

Big bang
1 1
= −18 −1
= 4.3 · 1017 s = 13.6 billion years!
𝐻0 2.33 · 10 s

If the universe were expanding at a steady rate, it would have been 13.6 billion years old. However, today there is a great
deal of scientific evidence that the universe is an accelerating universe. Considering the slowdown and acceleration in the
expansion of the universe, it has been observed that the age of the universe does not differ much. Detailed observations
and calculations made today indicate that the age of the universe is 13.8 billion years.