SEUE1002

Fundamentals of Cosmology
Assoc. Prof. Tolgahan KILIÇOĞLU
Lecture 10
First Models of the Universe and Dark Energy
 Scale Factor (a)
• To make it easier to understand, suppose our
universe has a single space dimension.
• Let the universe provide cosmological principles
(homogeneous and isotropic).
a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) • Let's assume that there is a galaxy at each
coordinate point of the universe and give each
galaxy code numbers like…, -1, 1, 0, 1, 2,….
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
• Accordingly, the distance between each code
number is equal to each other and this distance
indicated by a(t) is called the scale factor.
e.g., ∆𝑥 = 3
• To find the distance between two galaxies in such
a universe, the code difference between the two
galaxies is multiplied by the scale factor:
a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) a(t) 𝑑 = ∆𝑥 ∙ 𝑎(𝑡)
• For example, if the value of a(t) is 20 Mpc for a
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
certain moment, the distance between the galaxy
with code number -1 and galaxy with 2 is:
𝑑 = ∆𝑥 ∙ 𝑎 = 2 − (−1) ∙ 20 = 3 ∙ 20 = 60 Mpc
• If the universe expands, the value of the scale factor a(t) • The scale factor is used instead of the diameter of
increases, if it contracts, it gets smaller. In this expression, t in the universe to examine the behavior of the
parentheses means that the value of a changes with time. universe (expansion/contraction/stationarity).
• The code difference between two galaxies does not change in • Because it has not yet been clearly established
an expanding universe; however, galaxies appear to be whether the universe has a diameter and, if any,
diverging from each other as the scale factor gets larger. how long it is.
 Scale Factor (a)

• The scale factor can be used for all spaces that satisfy cosmological
principles, regardless of whether they are open, flat or closed.
 Relativistic Universe
Universe models made with Newtonian physics do not include relativity!

Newton's Law of Gravity Einstein's General Relativity

Geometry of the universe Energy +
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 8𝜋𝐺
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐹 = Cosmological constant 𝐺 +  · 𝑔 = 4 𝑇 Momentum
𝑟2 (Dark energy) 𝑐 (Stress)
• The masses in the universe attract each other with a force
given in the above expression. • Energy and momentum in the universe bend spacetime and change
its geometry.
• Energy and momentum move to follow the shape of this bending
space.
• Since time is also in the content of spacetime, time flows at different
speeds where there is energy and momentum.
• In Einstein's general relativity, mass is also considered to be energy:

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
"Matter tells spacetime how to bend,
spacetime tells matter how to move."
 • The more you stretch a spring, the

Dark Energy
more it will pull you in the opposite
direction.
• Dark energy works the other way
around.
• Dark energy has almost no effect
DARK ENERGY between very close objects.
• The more distance there is between
two objects in the universe, the
greater the force of dark energy
that pushes these objects away
F from each other.
F • The amount of dark energy is
DARK ENERGY expressed in Einstein's cosmological
constant: .

F
F
DARK ENERGY

Spring Equation: 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 𝐹= 𝑥

 Dark Energy
• As is known, there are attractive or repulsive forces in the
universe. However, the effect of all these forces increases
as objects or particles approach each other.
• The effect of dark energy increases with increasing
distance. This makes dark energy a very unusual concept.
• The theoretical calculations indicate that for such an effect
to occur, an energy must emerge as the density of matter
in the universe decreases. Therefore, it is one of the
theories that dark energy is a vacuum energy. Accordingly,
dark energy may arise from some kind of quantum
physical effect of empty space.
• Another explanation for dark energy is that it is not really
an energy. These diverging movements of objects may
actually be due to the fact that the universe has a special
topology (shape) that has not been fully understood.
• If the universe has a strange shape (for example, shaped
like a torus), depending on where we are in the universe,
we may be following geometry and participating in
expansion/contraction movements.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbruPR3o0Zc
 Curvature Parameter (k) Closed
Finite and
k = +1
Unbounded

k = -1

Open
Infinite and
Unbounded
k=0

M. H. Jones, R. J. A. Lambourne 2004. “Galaxies and Cosmology”

• In a flat universe with the curvature parameter k=0, the sum of the interior angles
of the triangle is 180. In the universe with curvature parameter k = +1 (closed), Flat
the sum of the interior angles of the triangle is more than 180, and less in the
one with k = –1 (open). Infinite and
• In a flat universe with a curvature parameter k = 0, the circumference of a circle is Unbounded
2r. The circumference of the circle is shorter than 2r in the k = +1 (closed)
universe, and longer than 2r in the universe with k = –1 (open).
• In a flat universe with the curvature parameter k = 0, two parallel lines always
remain parallel to each other. In the k = +1 (closed) universe, the lines that were
initially parallel to each other gradually get closer to each other. In the (open)
universe with k = –1, they move away from each other.
 Deceleration Parameter (q)
a(t) a(t) a(t) • If the deceleration parameter is q = 0, the universe
A universe moves with a constant speed whether it expands or
contracts. If it stays still, it continues its stasis.
contracts at a
q=0 Static Universe expanding
constant speed • If the deceleration parameter q > 0, the universe
slows down while expanding and/or accelerates while
universe. at a constant speed contracts. Such an universe would contract under all
circumstances and everything would eventually
converge at one point.
t t t
a(t) a(t) a(t) • If the deceleration parameter q < 0, the universe
Universe that first expands with acceleration. Such a universe would
expand forever.
Universe that expands with
• In summary, a positive deceleration parameter slows
q>0 contracts with
acceleration Universe that expands
deceleration then
contracts with down the expansion and accelerates the contraction.
with deceleration acceleration

t t t
a(t)
Universe that a(t)
expands with
q<0 acceleration
Mixed
t
t
 Einstein's Cylindrical Universe Model Future
• When Einstein proposed his theory of General Relativity, he predicted .
that if matter was concentrated in the universe, the universe would
contract, and if matter was scarce, the universe would expand. .
• In 1917 there was no evidence that the universe was expanding or t .
collapsing. For this reason, Einstein thought that a cosmological 2023
constant () must be found that keeps the universe static. 2022
• He calculated a value for  where everything in the universe is 2021
constant and whether the universe expands or contracts over time. 2020
Einstein described this cosmological constant as the worst mistake of 2019
his life when he learned that the universe was expanding.
2018
• Assumptions: 2017
a(t)
• Cosmological Principle .
4𝜋𝐺𝜌
• The universe is homogeneous.
= .
• The universe is isotropic. 𝑐2 .
• The universe has a density:  > 0
Past
• The pressure of the universe is negligible: 𝑝 ≈ 0
• The universe is closed: k = +1 Since Einstein's universe is
• Accordingly, Einstein's universe is stationary, finite and unbounded.
a(t) not expanding or
contracting, the value of
Moreover, if one moves in such a space continuously towards one
direction, returns to the starting point. However, since time also the scale factor remains
moves, one cannot return to the same place in spacetime. constant over time.

• For example, if you look far enough with a telescope in such a

universe, you can see the Solar System (and therefore the Earth) in q=0
the depths of the universe. However, the image you see will probably
be a primitive image where the Solar System is very young and where
the planets have just begun to form.
t
de Sitter's Expanding Universe Model
t
• About a year after Einstein published the first relativistic
cosmological model, the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter
proposed a quite different model.
• Assumptions: a(t)

• Cosmological Principle
• The universe is homogeneous.
• The universe is isotropic.
• The density of the universe is negligible:  ≈ 0  a(t)

y
• The pressure of the universe is negligible: 𝑝 ≈ 0  
• The universe is flat: 𝑘 = 0
• de Sitter thought that the effect of matter in the universe was  a(t)

negligible. Thus, the geometric properties of space were

determined only by the cosmological constant (dark energy). The x
value of the cosmological constant is:
3𝐻 2 a(t) As de Sitter's
= 2
𝑐 universe
• In such a universe, if the cosmological constant has a positive expands, the
value, the universe makes a never-ending expansion movement. scale multiplier
increases.
• This model proposed by de Sitter is the first expanding q<0
cosmological model of the universe. “Expansion with
acceleration”