Design of Piping Systems

Design of Piping Systems

Pullman Power Products

A Wheelabrator-Frye Company

Revised Second Edition

AWILEY·INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY & SONS

New York' Chichester' Brisbane' Toronto
 Copyright @ 19U, 1956

hy

The 1\1. W. Kellogg Company

All Rights Reserved

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond

that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States
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is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information
should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John
Wiley & Sons, Jne.

Revised Second Edition

20 19 18 17 16 15 14

Nothing contained in Design of Piping Systems is to be construed

B8 granting any right of manufacture, sale or use in connection
with any method, apparatus or product covered by Letters
Patent} nor as insuring anyone against liability for infringement
of Letters Patent.

ISBN 0 471 46795 2

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 56-5573

Printed in the United States of America

 Preface

A volume bearing tbe title Design of Piping Systems, devoted solely to the study
of expansion stresses and reactions in piping systems, was privately published by
The M. W. Kellogg Company early in 1941. It made available for the first time
an adequately organized, eomprehcnsive analytieal method for evaluating the
stresses, reactions, and deflections in an irregular piping system in space, unlimited
as to the character, location, or number of concentrated loadings or restraints.
It was the culmination of an intensive, widespread effort to meet the recognized
need for refined analysis capable of general application to the increasing number
of critical piping services required by technological progress, and to the increasingly
severe problems which they posed. The timely availability of this reliahle and
versatile approach, now widely known as the Kellogg General Analytical Method,
made it possible to provide satisfactory design for the avalanche of critical and
pioneering piping requirements associated with World War II plant design, and
proved to be a major step in accelerating acquaintance with accurate thermal
expansion analysis and appreciation of its potentialities for more extensive applica-
tion.
Since the war, technological progress and the trend to larger scale, more complex
units has continued unabated, while the attendant increased pressures, tempera-
tures, and structural complexities have resulted in larger pipe sizes, heavier wall
thicknesses, and a marked increase in alloy construction. Concurrently, the
wartime-fostered universal acceptance of adequate piping flexibility analysis for
critical service has paved the way for more searching examination of the over-all
economics of erected piping by relating potential fabrication, materials, and
operating savings to increased engineering costs. Earlier concepts, which regarded
piping as trivial and expendable, are fast disappearing in view of the rising costs
of field corrections and loss of plant operation - and also with the recognition
that piping represents an increasing percentage of initial plant expenditure.
The importance of sound piping design is now well recognized not only by
designers and users, but also by authorities concerned with public safety. The
Code for Pressure Piping Committee (ASA B31.1) has increased its membership
and activity over the past several years and a Conference Committee has been
organized, composed of the chief enforcement authorities of each State or Province
that has adopted a portion or all of the Code. Significant improvements in the
rules have already resulted in the revised minimum (and now mandatory) require-
ments for piping flexibility. With this trend, the ASA Code is now rapidly assuming
the status of a mandatory Safety Code, whereas previously it had served designers
and users primarily as a recommended design practice guide.
The critical shortage of engineering personnel during World War II prevented
the completion of sections on other aspects of piping design that had been planned
for inclusion in the original edition of Design of Piping Systems. As the shortage
persisted, considerable time elapsed before resumption of work could be considered.
Meanwhile, many requests for extension and suggestions for improvement were
,.
vi PREFACE
received
., from readers of the text already published. Review of these and other
developments in light of extended experience led to the conclusion that a new
edition was warranted': As the work got under way, it was soon evident that
broadening of the subject matter would have to be limited to treatment of the
structural phase of piping design; coverage of the entire field, including fluid flow,
system design and layout, valve design, piping fabrication and erection, etc., would
require much more than the desired single volume.
It is the objective of this Second Edition to supplement Code rules and other
readily available information with specific mechanical design approaches for entire
piping systems as well as their individual eomponents and to provide background
information which will engender ~nderstanding, eompetent application of analytical
results, and the exercise of good judgment in handling the many special situations
which must be faced on critical piping. In line with this objective, the opening
chapter presents a eondensed treatise on the physics of materials. It is followed
by a comprehensive study of the eapacity of piping to carry various prescribed
loadings. The utilization of materials is then considered, not only in relation to
fundamental knowledge but also on the basis of eonventionally accepted practices.
The present edition also includes a greatly augmented treatment of local flexibility
and stress intensification, and a chapter on simplified methods of flexibility analysis
eontains several newly developed approaches which should prove helpful for general
assessment of average piping, or in the planning stage of the design of critical piping.
The Kellogg General Analytieal Method, now extended to include all forms of
loading, has been improved in presentation by the use of numerous sample calcula-
tions to illustrate applieation procedures, and by placing the derivations of the
formulas in an appendix. Included in this edition are chapters on expansion joints
and on pipe supports that offer, it is believed, the first broad treatment of these
items with regard to critical piping. The rising significance of vibration, both
structural and fluid, is recognized in the final chapter, which was also prepared
especially for this edition. For ready accessibility of information, the charts and
tables most frequently needed for reference have been grouped at the end of the
text, and a detailed subject index has been provided.

THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY

The M.W. Kellogg Company became a subsidiary of Pullman Incorporated in 1944,

and in 1975 was re-named Pullman Kellogg. In 1977, the Power Piping, Chimney
and Mechanical Construction Operations of Pullman Kellogg became the Pullman
Power Products division of Pullman Incorporated.

1
 Acknowledgments

This volume is based on the broad experience, background, and mechanical

engineering accomplishment of The M. W. Kellogg Company in the field of piping
design. It reflects the numerous achievements and contributions of the Company
to effective piping design for high temperature and pressure service. As with the
First Edition, the preparation of this book has been sponsored by the Fabricated
Products Division of which Waldo McC. McKee is Sales Manager. This work
eould be brought to realization only through the cooperation of the entire engineer-
ing staff of the Company and, in particular, of the Piping Division.
Certain individual contributions deserve specific acknowledgment. H. Wallstrom
provided the major original contributions to the Kellogg General Analytical Method
and its extensions (Chapter 5 and Appendix A). He was ahly assisted in this work
by Mrs. Catherine R. Gardiner.
Professor E. Orowan of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, retained
consultant of The M. W. Kellogg Company, is responsible for the contents of
Chapter 1.
J. J. Murphy and N. A. Weil collaborated in composing Chapters 2 and 3 and
assisted in the preparation of Chapters 1 and 7. Chapter 4 is the result of a coopera-
tiveeffort between H. Wallstrom and N. A. Weil; L. C. Andrews is credited with the
writing of Chapter 6.
Credit for the most significant contributions to Chapters 7 and 8 is due to
E. F. Sheaffer. M. Yachter, assisted by S. Meerbaum, prepared Chapter 9 and
Appendix B.
In addition to eredits for Chapters, the following special contributions are
acknowledged. J. J. Rush and M. Hartstein developed The Guided Cantilever
Method of Chapter 4. L. Morrison contributed to the general phases of piping
design. Valuable suggestions were supplied by M. G. Schar on Chapter 8 and by
S. Chesler on Chapter 9. Credit is due to J. T. McKeon for his notable comments
and assistance in reviewing and proof-reading this volume. L. Mylander is to be
commended for co-ordinating portions of this work.
The task of assembling and editing the Second Edition was earried out by
E. F. Sheaffer. N. A. Weil performed the review and inserted corrections for the
second printing of this Edition. The entire project has been under the direction of
D. B. Rossheim, who has guided the design principles and philosophies embodied
in this work.
As is the case with most advances in the engineering art, the First Edition and
this significantly extended Second Edition of Design of Piping Systems have greatly
benefited from the research and contributions of other investigators. Their many
valuable contributions are covered in the lists of referenees at the ends of the various
ehapters and in the "Historical Review of Bihliography" of Appendix A.

R. B. SMITH
Vicc-President, Engineering
The M. W. Kellogg Company
vii
 In :Memory of
DAVID B. ROSSHEIM
In all of his career, Mr. Hossheim's ability,
dedication and friendlincss wcre an inspiration
to his associates and won for him cyeryone's
affcction and respect.

.'
 Contents
.~.

xiii 2.4 Stress Evaluation 43

Nomenclature
a. Internal Pressure up to 3000 psi Maximum,
43; b. Internal Pressure over 3000 psi, 44;
c. External Pressures, 46; d. Expansion, 47;
Chapter 1 e. Other Loading, 47.
Strength and Failure of Materials I 2.5 Combination of Stress: Stress Intensification and
I Flexibility Factors 47
1.1 Stable and Unstable Deformations
2 2.6 Evaluation of Deflections and Reactions 48
1.2 Plasticity
A. Plastic Deformation under Uniaxial Stress, 2.7 Design Significance of Inspection and Testa 50
2; B. Triaxial Stress: Yield Conditions, 3;
C. Plastic Stress-strain Relationships for Tri-
axial Stress, 4.
1.3 Failure by Plastic Instability 5 Chapter 3
A. Instability of Plastic Extension: the Ulti- Local Components 52
mate Tensile Strength, 5j B. Instability of the
Plastic E,.;pansion of Tubes, Vessels, and 3.1 Pipe Bends: Structural Loading (Static and Cyclic) 52
Plates, 6; C. Ultimate Stress and Working 3.2 Pipe Bends: Internal Pressure 60
Stress, 7. Miter Bends 60
3.3
1.4 Creep 8 61
3.4 Bends and Miters: Summary
A. The Andrade Analysis of the Creep Curve,
8; B. Transient Creep, 9; C. Viscous Creep, 3.5 Branch Connections: Static Pressure Loading 62
10j D. Creep under Triaxial Stress, 11; E. The 3.6 Branch Connections: Repeated Loading 66
Mechanism of Creep, 11; F. Evaluation and Branch Connections: Comparison with Code Re-
Engineering Usc of Creep Testa, 12; G. Creep 3.7
quirements 67
Fracture, 13.
3.8 Branch Connections: Practical Considerations and
1.5 Types of Fracture; Molecular Cohesion; the Summary 69
Griffith Theory 13
3.9 Corrugated Pipe 70
1.6 Ductile Fractures 15
3.10 Bolted Flanged Connections: General Background 74
1.7 The Brittle Fracture of Steel (HNotch Brittle-
ness") 16 3.11 Bolted Flanged Connections: Practical Considera-
tions 77
1.8 Fatigue 20
A. General Features, 20; B. The Mechanism 3.12 Joints Between Dissimilar Materials 79
of Fatigue, 22; C. Influence of a Superposed 3.13 Other Components 81
Steady Stress, 23; D. Influence of a Com- Piping and Equipment Intereffects 83
3.14
pound State of Stress, 25; E. Influence of
Notches and of Surface Flaws, 25; F. Fatigue
Testa on Specimens VB. Fatigue Tests on Struc-
tural Parts, 26; G. Periodically Varying
Thermal Stresses, 26; H. Thermal Fatigue, 27; Chapter 4
J. Damage by Overstress, 27; K. Corrosion Simplified Method for Flexibility Analysis 90
Fatigue, 28.
4.1 Scope und Merits of Approximate Methods 90
4.2 Thermal Expansion 91
4.3 Preliminary Segregation of Lines with Adequate
Chapter 2 Flexibility: Code Rules 92
Design Assumptions, Stress Evaluation, 4.4 Selected Chart-form Solutions 94
ond Design Limits 30 4.5 Approximate Solutions 97
2.1 Codes and Standards 30 4.6 The Simplified General Method for Squarc-<:orner
2.2 Design Considerations: Loadings 32 Systems 102
2.3 Design Limits, Allowable Stresses, and Allowable 4.7 Approximating the Effeot of Curved Pipe and
Stress RangCB 34 Other Components 107
x CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Chapter 8
Flexibility Analysis by the General Supporting, Restraining, and Bracing
Analytical Method 115 the Piping System 231
5.1 Scope and Field of Application of the General 8.1 Terminology and Basic Functions 231
Analytical Method 115 8.2 Layout Considerations to Facilitate Support 233
5.2 Calculating Aids 116 8.3 The Elements of the Supporting System: Their
5.3 General Outline of Operations 117 Selection and Location 236
5.4 The Solution of Simultaneous Equations 117 8.4 Fixtures 243
5.5 Single Plane Cnlculati~ns 119 8.5 Pipe Attachments 248
5.6 Inclined Members and Changes in Stiffness 120 8.6 Structures and Structural Connections 251
5.7 Circular Members 123 8.7 Erection and Maintenance of the Supporting, Re-
General Shape Coefficients 125 straining, and Bracing System 254
5.8
5.9 The Secondary Term 125
5.10 Effects of Direct and SheRr Forces 127
Chapter 9
5.11 Working Planes and Cyclic Permutation 127
Vibration: Pre\'ention and Control 257
5.12 i\Iultiplnne Pipe Lines with Two Fixed Ends 128
9.1 Introduction 257
5.13 Hinged Joints and Partially Constrained Ends 129
9.2 Fundamental Considerat,ions in Piping Vibration 258
5.H Skewed I\fembers 13·1 a. Definitions, 258; b. Types of Vibration, 258;
5.15 Branched Systems 145 c. Sources of Periodic Excitation, 259; d. Vi-
5.16 Intermediate Restraints 146 bration Prevention and Control, 259.
5.17 Calculation of Deformations at any Point 153 9.3 Structural Natural Frequency Calculations 260
a. The Spring-Mass Model, 260; b. Frequency
5.18 Symmetrical Pipe Lines 157 and Mnss Effectiveness Factors for Different
5.19 Inversion Procedures 157 End Constraints, 261; c. Variable Stiffness and
5.20 Cold Springing 166 Variable Mnss, 263; d. Combined Bending-
Torsion, 264; e. Approximate Natural Fre-
5.21 Weight Loading 170 quencies of Pipe Bends \yith Two Members
5.22 Wind Londing 185 (Vibration Perpendicular to Plane of Bend),
265; j. Plates and Hadial Mode in Pipe, 266.
9.4 Structural Resonance and Magnification Factors 267
Chapter 6 9.5 DarnplOg of St.ructural Vibrations 270
Flexibility Analysis by 1\lodcl Test 198 Q. Hydraulic Snubbers, 270; b. Elastic Foun-
dations for Rotating I\Tachinery, 271.
6.1 The Experimental Approach 198
9.6 Acoustic Natural Frequency Calculations 273
6.2 The Routinized ~lodel Test 198 a. The Organ Pipe and Resonators, 273;
6.3 The Kellogg Model Test 200 b. Special Cases of Multiple Resonator Formu-
6.4 The Kellogg Model Test Laboratory and Equip- Ins,274; c. Piping Systems with Branches and
ment 201 Enlargements, 276.
6.5 Typical Model Tests 202 9.7 Acoustic Resonance and Magnification Factors 277
9.8 Flow Pulsation Smoothing 279
a. Tuned Resonators, 279; b. Surge Tanks,
279; c. Gas Pulsation Dampener Principles,
Chapter 7 280; d. Acoustic Expansion Tank, 281; e. Com-
Approaches for Reducing Expansion Effccts: parison of Gas Pulsation Smoothing Devices,
Expansion Joints 210 282; f. Hydraulic Hammer, 283; g. Magni':'
7.1 Introduction 210 tude and Direction of Forccs on Piping Bends,
285.
7.2 Sources of Excessive Expansion Effects 210
9.9 Illustration of Vibration Analysis of a Simple
7.3 Approaches for Reducing Expansion Effects 210 Piping System 285
7.4 Packed Type Expansion Joints 212 a. General Data and Estimates, 285; b. Esti-
7.5 Bellows Type Expansion Joints 214 mates of Structural Natural Frequencies of
a. Discussion, 214; b. Bellows Details, 214; Piping System, 285; c. Estimate of Lower
c. Support and Protection of Bellows, 216; Bounds of Structural Natural Frequencies, 286;
d. Fabrication of Bellows Joints, 217; c. Estab- d. Effect of Elasticity of Machine Foundation,
286; c. Estimate of Hydraulic Snubber Force
lishing Purchasing Hequirements for Bellows
Joints, 219; f. Materials and Deterioration, and Damping Requirement for Reduction of
220; (1. Fatigue Basis for Prediding Bellows Amplitude of Vibration, 287; j. Resonance
Life, 220; h. Testing and Quality Control of Effect due to Wind Velocity, 287; g. Estimate
Bellows Joints, 222. of Acoustic Nntural Frequencies, 287; h. Esti-
mate of Acoustic Frequency of the System
7.6 Expansion Joints with Built-In Constraints 223 Corresponding to its First Harmonic (2nd
7.7 Establishing Expansion Joint Movement De- Mode), 288; i. Estimates of Some Possible
mands 226 Resonator Frequencies, 288; j. Estimate of
 CONTENTS xi
Volume and Pressure Drop Hequirement of C- 6 Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both
Hydraulic FiI\ers (Bottles) in the Compressor Ends Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of
Di~charge Lines, 290- k. Tuned Resonator Members 345
Geometry,290. .... C. 7 Length of Leg H..equired, Two-Member System,
n.lO Piping Vibration "Trouble Shooting" 291 Both Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced in the
a. Background, 291; b. Vibration Measure- Direction of Adjoining Member 346
ment, 292; c. "Trouble- Shooting" Procedure,
293. C- 8 Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both
Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced in the Direc-
tion of the Adjoining Member 347
C- 9 Length of Leg RequiIled, Two-member System,
Both Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal
Appendix A
to Plane of Members 348
History and Dcdvation of Piping C-I0 Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both
Flexibility Analysis 295 Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal to
A.l History of Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis 295 Plane of Members 349
A.2 Bibliography on Piping Flexibility and Stress C-11 Required Height, Symmetrical Expansion Loop 350
Analysis 297 C-12 Moments and Forces, Symmetrical Expansion
A.3 Dp.rivation of the General Analytical Method 299 Loop 351
C-13 Guided Cantilever Chart 352
C-14 Correction Factor I, Guided Cantilever Method 353
Appendix B C-15 Design Data: Tri~onometric Constants for Circu-
lar Members 354
Derivation of Acoustic Vibration Formulas 328
C-16 Span va. Stress, Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform
B.l Multiple Resonator of nth Order 328 Load 356
B.2 General Characteristic Equation for a Branched C-17 Span VB. Natural Frequency and VB. Deflection,
Piping System 329 Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform Load 357
B.3 Tuned Resonator Relations 331 C-18 Correction Factors for Use with Charts C-16 and
B.4 Simplified Surge Filter Analysis 333 CC17 358

Appendix C Appendix D
Charts and Tables 336
A Mntrix Method of Piping Analysis
C- 1
Properties and Weights of Pipe 336 nod The Usc of Iligital Computers 359
C- 2
Thermal Expansion, Carbon and Alloy Steels 341 5A-l Introduction 361
C- 3
Modulus of Elasticity, Carbon and Alloy Steel&- 342 5A-2 Derivation of the Shape Coefficient Matrix 362
C. 4
Chart for Criterion in Par. 620 (a) in Code for Pres- 5A~3 A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis 369
sure Piping ASA B31.1 343
5A-4 An Example 372
C- 5 Length of Leg Required, Two-Member System,
SA-5 Selected Bibliography 378
Both Ends Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of
Members 344 Index 379
 Nomenclature:
Definitions of Principal Symbols

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

a . Horizontal coordinate to midpoint of member A""" Area; activation energyj free end.
in working plane. A.F... Attenuation factor.
b .. " " .... Vertical coordinate to midpoint of member in B""". Material constant.
working plane. Cold spring factor; ~locity of sound; constant.
C"""" "
c . Distance of the '.. . orking plane from the origin; Diameter.
D".""",
viscous damping coefficient. Young's modulus of ehsticityj joint efficiency.
Co,C aa , ew... _ Trigonometric constants. E""" " "
E c ••••••••. Young's modulus of elasticity at ambient
Cc ••••••••• Critical damping coefficient.
temperature.
d , Diameter; inside diameter.
e . Unit linear thermal expansion for a tempera- Young's modulus of ehsticity at operating
ture difference a.T; base of Napierian tempcrature.
logarithms. F"""". Forcc.
j .. Frequency; factor. F:r, FII , FII < ••
Force component in the direction of axis
in . Natural frequency. indicated by subscript. Second subscript,
g , Gravitational constant. if used, refers to the source of the force.
h , Bend characteristic (=lR/Tm'l)j pitch of half Shear modulus, diameter of thc effective
G""" "
corrugation of an expansion bellowsj gra- gasket reaction on a flange.
dient of pipe supports. . j", Moment of inertia.
h r •••. Offset range of an expansion joint. Polar moment of inertia.
J"""",
i . Imaginary unit (= -v=J:). K", Constant.
k .. Flexibility factor of pipe in bendingj spring Length,
L"",,,,,,
constant.
M""""" Moment.
1.." , Length, span of pipe betwecn supports.
M.F. Magnification factor.
m . Mass.
M,,,,,,,,, , Bcnding moment in the plane of the member.
n . Material constant, exponent in fatigue equa-
tion. M'b . Bending moment transverse to the plane of
p, , , , , , , ", Pressure (load per unit area). the member.
q" ...... ... Plastic constraint factorj shape coefficient M, . Torsional moment.
known as the secondary term. MII,MII,MII . Moment component referred to ongm and
r . Radius. about axis indicated by subscript. Second
rio •.•.... Inside radius. subscript, if used, refers to the source of
Tm ••······ . Mean radius. thc moment.
To • •••••. Outside radius. Moment component about axis indicated by
8 . Shape coefficient; steady stress component. subscript. Second subscript, if used, refers
8 a , Saa, Sl a, etc. Shape coefficients. to the source of the moment.
t" ........ , Time, thickness. Any bending moment.
Mo",.,·"
U, U 01 U' 0, e~. Shape cocfficien~.
N" " Number of cycles, rpm.
V, V o , Vloo, etc. Shape cocfficien~.
0"""". Origin.
w ... Width, unit weight load.
Unit loads in the X-, y~, and z-directiona 0' . Fixed end.
respectively. p"""", Point, concentrated load.
X,III z . Coordinate axes, coordinates of a point. Quotient, stiffness ratio, flow rate.
Q"""" "
xiii
xiv NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
R ..... Centerline radius of torus or curved member a .. Surface energy (work for creating new surface
(pipe bend or elbow)~atio. per unit area); angle; coefficient of linear
ii . Universa.l gas constant. expansion.
S . Fatigue strengthj stress, amplitude of alter- p. Longitudinal stress intensification factor;
nating tensile stress component; shape angle.
coefficientj Strouhal number. ')' .... , ..... Shear strain, transverse stress intensification
S, . Bending stress in the plane of the member. factor, ratio of specific heats.
S'b . Bending stress transverse to the plane of the 0.. Transhtory displacement; deflection.
member. E •••. Normal (tensile or compressive) strain.
St .. ········ Allowable stress for a material at ambient E· . . . . . . Logarithmic strain.

S,

S,
SA
.
..
temperature.
. Allowable stress for a material at operating
temperature.
Torsional stress.
Allowable stress range.
.
r· .
O• ..
x...
..
Principal strains.
Viscous damping coefficient (damping ratio).
Coefficient of viscosity.
Angle.
Wave length.
SB .
SB .
Resultant bending stress.
Computed ma.ximum stress range.
"..
P . . . . ..
Acoustic conductivity.
Poisson's ratio.
Su . Ultimate tensile strength (conventional p . Density.
stress). tI' .. Normal (tensile or compressive) true stress.
T ...... Temperature, amplitude of alternating shear ttl, u:!. tl'3 • •• Principal stresses (true).
stressj period of vibration. T .. Shear stress.
u .. Velocity, energy; shape coefficient, 4> .. Angle.
V .. Volume; shape coefficient. ", .. Angle.
W . Total uniform load. w •••..• .. Angular frequency.
y .. Yield stress in uniaxial tension; resultant A . Restrained linear thermal expansion.
expansion. <1> . Angle.
z .. Section modulus.

Strength and Failure of Materials*
N the simplest cases, the failure of a structural
I part occurs when a certain function of the stress
or strain components reaches a critical value.
The designer must know, then: (a) how the stresses
and strains can be calculated from the applied load;
(b) what are the critical combinations of stress and
strain at which failure occurs.
The first question belongs to the field of applied
mechanics (elasticity, mathematical theory of the
plastic field, and mathematical rheology). In rela-
tion to piping systems, it will be treated in detail in
subsequent chapters of this book.
The second question is concerned with the me-
chanical properties of solids, which is a chapter of
the physics of solids. It is a relatively new field of
science; until about 30 years ago, the mechanisms
of fracture and of plastic deformation were almost
unknown. Since 1920, however, the progress in this
field has been rapid; at the same time, the demands
on the designer's understanding of the mechanical
behavior of materials have gone far beyond what is
generally available in the traditional textbooks.
Hence, it is appropriate to introduce the treatment
of piping system design in this book with a brief but
up-to-date sketch of the mechanical properties of
solids.
Failure of a structural part can occur by
(a) excessive elastic deformation,
(b) excessive non-elastic (plastic or viscous) defor-
mation, or
(c) fracture.
The calculation of elastic deformations and of the
conditions of elastic instability is the main subject
of books dealing with applied elasticity (tradition-
"Prepared by Dr. Egan Orowan, George Westinghouse
ProCessor of M~banical Engineering, Mnssachusetta Insti-
tute of Technology.
1
CHAPTER
ally, though inappropriately, entitled "Strength of
Materials"). In the present chapter, only the condi-
tions of failure hy non-elastic deformation or fracture
will be considered in detail. Failure by excessive de-
formation will be discussed in the first four sections, and
failure by fracture in subsequent parts of the chapter.
1.1 Stable and Unstable Deformations
A structure ceases to be serviceable if it suffers
excessive deformation. The deformations leading
to its failure may be elastic (i.e., deformations that
disappear when the stress is removed), or non-
elastic; the latter may be plastic (i.e., depending only
on the deforming stress but not on the duration of
its action), or they may represent a creep (Le., they
may increase or decrease with time at constant
stress).
Moderate deformations (elastic or non-elastic)
may be beneficial in that they can redistribute the
stress in a structural part or between several struc-
tural parts and so prevent its rise to levels at which
fracture can occur.
In many cases, the deformation leads to changes
of the shape of the body that cause an increase of
the stresses produced by a given load. The simplest
examples of this are elastic buckling, and the plastic
extension of a rod in the course of which its cross
section diminishes and the stress for a given load in-
creases; if this increase is not counterbalanced by
strain hardening, it leads to accelerated disruption.
Such phenomena represent an elastie instability if
the deformation is elastic, and a plastic instability
if it is essentially plastic. Plastic instabilities are of
great importance in the design of tubes and pressure
vessels.
In what follows, failure by plastic instability will
be treated separately, after the section dealing with
2 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
q q

o , n

FIG, 1.1 Yield stress-strnin curve of copper in compression. FIG. 1.2 Stress-strain curve of the Uideally plastic" material.
After Cook nnd Larke [I),
A familiar type, the stress-strain curve of copper, is
plastic failure without instability. Subsequently, shown in Fig. 1.1.
failure by creep will be considered. For the calculation of the distribution of stress
and strain in plastieally deformed bodies, drastically
1.2 Plasticity
simplified types of stress-strain curve must be used.
A. Plastic Deformation under Uniaxial Except in a few of the simplest cases, it is usually
Stress. As mentioned above, pure plasticity is de- assumed for this purpose that yielding starts sud-
fined as a non-elastic type of deformation without denly when a critical stress value is reached, and
time influence. In uniaxial deformation, the plastic that it progresses thereafter at a constant stress-in
strain, is determined by the value of the stress <r at other words, that there is no strain hardening.
which the deformation takes place Figure 1.2 shows the corresponding stress-strain
eurve of the "ideally plastic" material. It must be
<r = f(') (Ll ) kept in mind that such a curve represents a sensible,
though rough, approximation only if the plasti("
Elastic deformations also obey a law of this form;
strain is large compared with the elastic strain. In
however, they are reversible, while in plastic defor-
the initial part of the stress-strain curve of a typical
mation the relationship (eq. 1.1) is valid only for
metal (compare Fig. 1.1), the deviation from the
increasing stress. When the stress is reduced, the
elastic line increases gradually and the idealized
plastic strain remains approximately unaltered.
curve (Fig. 1.2) does not represent an approximation.
By its definition, pure plasticity means the ab-
A few materials (notably, low-carbon steels) show
sence of creep. No material satisfying this require-
the so-called "yield phenomenon": plastic deforma-
ment is known; however, the behavior of ductile
tion starts suddenly when the stress reaches the
metals and other crystalline materials at not too
value of the "yield point." After its start, the stress
high temperatures (compared with their melting
required for further deformation may remain con-
point) can be described approximately as plastic.
stant for a time, or drop immediately to a lower value
The stress required for plastic deformation (often
(the "lower yield point"), as shown in Fig. 1.3. If
denoted by Y) is the yield stress. 1 Its dependence
such a stress drop occurs, the initial yield point is
(eq. 1.1) upon the preceding plastic strain is repre-
called the "upper yield point."
sented graphically by the "stress-strain curve" (more
Of particular interest to the designer is the stress
accurately, it would be called the yield stress-strain
at which the plastic strain (or the total strain)
curve). The stress-strain curves of metals cannot be
represented by a simple mathematical expression.
For strains that are neither too small nor too large,
they can often be approximated by a parabola

(j = constant X En

At small plastic strains, as well as at very large ones,

however, the stress-strain curve is usually quite dif-
ferent from the parabola representing it for moderate
strains. In addition, the stress-strain curves of
different metals are, as a rule, different in character.
lIn the treatment of plasticity, the term llyicld stress"
means the stress required for (initiating CT continuing) plastic
o •
deformation; owing to the presence of strain hardening, it FIG. 1.3 Yield strcss--strain curve of an annealed
100v~carbon steel.
changes ,vith the plastic strain.

«
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
reaches the maximum permissible value. If the
stress-strain curve is of the character shown in
Fig. 1.1, the value of the yield....tress at which the
strain reaches some specified permissible amount
(e.g., 0.2% or 0.02%) is called the 0.2% (or 0.02%)
Ilyield strength" or "proof stress." Since the word
"strength" is reserved in scientific usage for the
fracture stress, the term "proof stress" will be used
in the present chapter. If the yielding is discon-
tinuous, as in Fig. 1.3, the entire range of commonly
permissible strains, up to 1% or even 3%, lies on the
horizontal part of the curve; in this case, the lower
yield point takes the place of the proof stress. The
upper yield point is a capricious quantity which can
be obliterated by relatively small stress concentra-
tions or small plastic deformations, so that the
designer cannot rely on it.
Naturally, the proof stress is altered by preceding
plastic deformation ("cold work"). Let OBD be
the stress-strain curve of an annealed metal and OE
the elastic line (Fig. 1.4); A is the point at which a
critical strain of, say, 0.2% is reached. After strain-
ing in tension to B and removing the load (point C),
a material is obtained of which the stress-strain
curve in tension is CFD. The point F at which the
permissible strain of 0.2% is reached is now higher
than A, owing to the preceding strain hardening.
On the other hand, if the same material, prestrained
in tension to B, is subjected to compression, the
microscopic residual stresses remaining in it give
rise to perceptible plastic deformation even at very
low compressive stresses, and the stresswstrain curve
in compression CG deviates from the elastic line
strongly from the beginning. This softening of the
material to reverse deformation is called the "Bau-
schinger effect." The hysteresis loop BCF observed
when the stress is removed and then applied again is
essentially the same phenomenon, due to directional
microscopic residual stresses in a plastically strained
material.
A mild heating (stress-relieving) after the deforma-
tion removes the residual stresses responsible for
the Bauschinger effect and restores the proof stress
for reverse deformation more or less to the increased
level of the proof stress for deformation continuing
in the initial direction.
B. Triaxial Stress: Yield Conditions. So far,
only uniaxial stressing has been considered. If a
general (triaxial) state of stress is present, with
principal stresses 0"1 ~ 0"2 ~ U3, yielding in a mate-
rial without a sharp yield point occurs when a certain
mathematical expression containing the principal
stresses reaches a critical value. Of several "yield
3
o
f
o
,
G
FIG. 1.4 Increase of the proof stress by cold work; the
Bauschingcr effect.
conditions" suggested, only two have been found
compatible with observations and at the same time
simple enough for practical use: the Tresca (maxi-
mum shear stress) condition, and the von Mises
(maximum octahedral stress) condiHon.
The Tresca yield condition [2] a.ssumes that
yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress,
equal to one-half of the difference between the
algebraically greatest and smallest principal stresses,
reaches a critical value. It is expressed by
", - "3 = Y (1.2)
where Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension or com...
pression. With the Tresca condition, the inter
mediate principal stress ha.s no effect on yielding.
The Mises yield condition [3] assumes that yield.
ing occurs when the "effective" shear stress2
I ~/ 2 2 2
T,U= ;:;V ("'-"2) +("2-"3) +("3-"') (1.3)
2v2
reaches the critical value of the yield stress in pure
shear, i.e., one-half of the yield stress Y in tension
Expressed in terms of the uniaxial yield stress Y, it
can be written as
1 ~/ 2 2 2
(J .4)
Y= V'2V ("1-"2) +("2-"3) +("3-"')
2The Hoctahedral" shear atreas differs from the right-hand
aide of eq. 1.3 by having the fnetor !, instead of 1/2 V2, before
the square root. The factor 1/2V2haa the convenien~e that it
makes the right-hand side of cq. 1.3 equal to the maximum
shear stress in the case of a uniaxial stress, i.e., for 0"2 = 0"3 "'" O.
4 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The Mises condition is often called the "shear strain
energy condition," since, in an isotropic material,
the right-hand side of eq. 1.3 or ·>leA is proportional
to that portion of the total energy which corresponds
to the shear deformations. For anisotropic materials,
however, the shear strain energy depends in general
upon the hydrostatic componcnt (pressure or tcn-
sion) of the state of stress [4]. The attainment of a
critical value of the shear strain energy, therefore,
cannot be a eondition of plastic yielding, which,
except at extreme pressures, is not influenced by the
hydrostatic eomponent of the stress.
A eharacteristic feature of the Mises condition is
that the intermediate princip,l stress· has an influence
u,
on the occurrence of yielding. Only if is equal to
the highest or lowest principal stress does eq. 1.4
coineide with the Tresca condition (eq. 1.2). The
greatest divergence between the two conditions is
present when the intermediate prineipal stress u, is
the mean value of the extreme ones
u, = ~(UI + U3)
In this ease, eq. 1.4 beeomes
2
V3 Y = Ul - U3 ~ 1.15Y (1.5)
That is to say, the maximum principal stress differ-
ence at yielding is about 15% higher according to
thc Mises condition than that given by the Tresca
condition.
Experimcnts indicate that the behavior of metals
with no sharp yield point, as a rule, is intermediate
between the Tresca and the Mises yield conditions,
usually somewhat closer to the latter. For mathe-
matical investigations of stress and strain distribu-
tion in plastically deformed bodies, the Mises condi-
tion is often simpler to handle.
For materials with an upper and a lower yield point
there is no reliable criterion for the onset of yielding
at the upper yield point, sinee this quantity is
f'xtremely sensitive to slight non-uniformities of
stress distribution and to the size of the specimen {5].
As mentioned, however, the upper yield point is of
little importance to the designer, since the allowable
stress must be based on the lower yield point, which
is the stress required for the first Ltiders' bands to
widen. From this it follows at once that the yield
eondition in this case eannot be the Mises condition.
Since the Ltiders' bands are sheared layers embedded
between still rigid blocks of the material, only the
shear stress aeting in their plane can cause them to
become thicker, and the intermediate prineipal
stress which is parallel to the Ltiders' layer and
perpendieular to the direetion of shear in the layer
must be ineffective. Consequently, the appropriate
yield condition in this case must be closer to the
Tresca condition.
C. Plastic Stress-strain Relationships for
Triaxial Stress. In the preeeding section, the eon-
ditions of plastic yielding were considered. If they
are satisfied and yielding occurs, the question of
importance to the designer is how the resulting
strains are determined by the applied state of stress.
The difficulties of this problem become evident if one
considers the faets that the resulting deformation
depends on the sequence in which the stress com-
ponents are applied, and that, owing to the Bau-
schinger effect, the slightest deformation destroys the
initial isotropy of the material and makes reverse
deformation easier than eontinued deformation. A
plausible solution has been given only for the simple
case of an idcally plastic isotropic material (strain
hardcning and the Bauschinger effeet being ignored).
According to this solution, a given triad of principal
stresses 0"1, 0"2, U3 is related to the increment of
plastic strain arising during its application; this
increment is to be added to the plastic strains
created by preceding actions of stresses. Aecording
to Levy and Mises,
0'1 = OX{UI - ~(U2 + U3)]
0" = oX{u, - !<U3 + u,)]
0'3 = OX{U3 - ~h + u,)] (1.6)
where OEt, OE2, OE3 are simultaneous increments of the
principal strains, and 0).. is a parameter determining
the extent of the deformation. The Levy-Mises
equations determine only the ratios of the principal
strain increments; the absolute amounts depend on
how long the straining is continucd at the constant
principal stresses 0"1, 0"2, 0"3.
In the literature, occasionally the stress-strain
relationship
'I = X[UI - ~ (U2 + U3)]
" = X[u, - ~(U3 + Ul)]
'3 = X[U3 - ~(UI + U2)] (1.7)
is used. If the principal stresses remain invariant
during the deformation, these equations represent
simply the integrated form of the Levy-Mises equa-
tions; if not, they are incorrect. These equations are
sometimes referred to as the "deformation theory,"
as contrasted with the Levy-Mises "incremental
theory."
For strain-hardening materials, several authors
•
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
have suggested the generalized stress-strain rela-
tionship
Torr = f(-Yorr)'~ (1.8)
where Toff is the effective shear stress defined by
eq. 1.3, and -yorr the effective shear strain defined by
the analogous equation
-Yorr= ~v (El -E,)'+ (E,-E3)2+ (E3 -El)'
(1.9)
V2
Equation 1.8 has not yet received sufficient experi-
mental verification; it can be a satisfactory approxi-
mation only if the anisotropy due to preceding
plastic deformation can be neglected.
1.3 Failure by Plastic Instability
A. Instability of Plastic Extension: the Ulti-
mate Tensile Strength. Like elastic, so plastic or
viscous deformation may also lead to buckling, e.g.,
of a compressed column, or of a thin-walled tube
under external pressure. The treatment of such
cases is analogous to that of elastic buckling, but the
literature of plastic and viscous buckling is relatively
small. For details, reference should be made to the
published literature [6].
A ease of plastic instability of great historical and
practical importance is that occurring in the tensile
test. Initially, the extension is uniform; unless
fracture intervenes, however, the tensile load reaches
a maximum in the course of the test, and at the same
time a neck begins to develop. Further extension is
then concentrated in the neck and ceases everywhere
else in the specimen. The maximum load, divided
by the initial cross-sectional area, is called the
Hultimate tensile strength ll or "ultimate tensile
stress"; its significance for engineering design will
be discussed in detail in Part C of the present section.
Let u = U(E) be the equation of the (true) yield
stress-strain curve of a purely plastic material in
uniaxial tension; the strain used is the linear strain
defined as
E = (I - 10 )/10 (1.10)
where I is the current length of the tensile specimen
and 10 its initial length. Since the volume]! does not
change significantly during plastic deformation, the
product of length I and cross-sectional area A in the
range of uniform extension remains constant:
lA = IoA o = ]! (1.11)
The load F = uA reaches a maximum when
dF=udA+Adu=O (1.12)
or
du/u = -dA/A (1.13)
5
o
-I +1
l'tt"
FIG. 1.5 Considcrc's geometrical construction of the maxi-
mum load point and of the ultimate tensile stress.
Differentiation of eq. loll gives
dl/l = -dA/A
Combination of this equation with eq. 1.13 leads to
(1.14)
du/u = dl/l
Equation 1.10 can be written as
I = 100 + E) (1. lOa)
from which
dl = lodE
From the last two equations
dl/l = dE/ (I + E)
Introduced into eq. 1.14, this results in
du/dE = u/(I + E) (1.15)
Equation 1.15, representing the condition for the
load to reach a maximum during the tensile test,
has a simple geometrical meaning. Let the stress-
strain curve dE) be plotted in Fig. 1.5, and let the
point P on the negative strain axis have the distance
1 from the origin; i.e., the same distance as the
point Q on the positive strain axis representing
E = 1 = 100% extension. For any point of the
stress-strain curve, du/dE is the gradient of the
tangent line, and u/(1 + E) the gradient of the line
connecting the point (u, E) with the point P. The
condition for the load maximum is equality of these
gradients; i.e., the maximum occurs at the point M
in which a line drawn from P is tangent to the stress-
strain curve. The ordinate AM of the point of
contact is the (true) stress at maximum load; OA is
the tensile strain Eu at maximum load. This theory
of the maximum load point was given by Considere
in 1885 [7].
The ultimate stress," defined as the maximum load
divided by the initial cross-sectional area,
Su = Fmox/A o (1.16)
3Since in the scientific treatment of this field the word
"strength" ought to be reserved to a. fmcture stress, the ulti-
ma.te strength will he-nceforth be called Uultimnte stress."
6 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
q
due to the decrease of thc load-carrying cross
section occurs also when a tube or a hollow sphere is
subjected to internal pressure [8, 9J. It is remark-
able that the instability condition in these cases is
not identical with that for the rod under tension, and
the maximum prcssure withstood by the tube or the
p
spherical shell cannot be derived from the knowl-
_-,O_,.jA ,. edge of the ultimate tcnsilc stress. In view of the
practical importance of these cases, their charac-
FIG. 1.6 Determination of the instability stress on the true teristic features should be pointcd out.
stress logarithmic strain curve in tension. For a hollow sphere of radius r and (small) wall
thickness t, under an internal pressure p, the tensile
stress q is given by
is not identical with the true stress at maximum load
pr z... = 27rftu (1.21)
O'm = Fmnx/A (1.17)
The volume of the shell is
The relation between them is
V = 47rf Zt (1.22)
S./um = A/A o
hence
which can be written as r = vV /4...t (1.23)
S./um = 10 /1 Substituting eq. 1.23 into eq. 1.21 and observing that
in view of eq. 1.ll. According to eq. 1. lOa, the volume remains constant during plastic de-
formation,
10/1 = 1/(1 + ,)
p = 4v,,·/V tl'u = C,tHu (1.24)
Consequently,
1 For a thin-walled closed tube,
Btl = O"m--- (1.18)
2rp = 2tu (1.25)
1 + '.
where Eu is the "uniform strain" at the moment of V = 2...rt per unit of length
the load maximum. In Fig. 1.5, PO = 1; and
PA = 1 +', and AM = u m ; from the similarity p = (2.../V)t Zu = CztZu (1.26)
of the triangles PMA and PUO it follows, there- For a square plate of edge length I and thickness t,
fore, that the intercept 0 U of the ordinate axis extended uniformly in all directions in its plane by
between the origin and the tangent PM drawn from tensile forces F acting upon its edges,
P to the stress-strain curve is the ultimate strcss. F = Itu (1.27)
A similar graphical construction can be obtained
and
if the logarithmic strain is used instead of the linear
V = IZt
strain. The relationship between logarithmic strain
hence,
E* and linear strain E is
(1.28)
" = log, (1 + ,) (1.19)
For the tensile specimen under uniaxial tension,
Hence, alrcady considercd, the corresponding relationship
d,'=~ would be
1 +, (1.29)
Substitution of this in eq. 1.15 'gives where t is the thickness of the (round) rod.
du/d,' = u (1.20) It is seen that the pressure p or the force F as a
function of the thickness of thc specimen is given in
Figure 1.6 shows the corresponding graphical all cases by an expression of the type
determination of the maximum load point from the
p (or F) = Ctnu (1.30)
logarithmic stress-strain curve: the subtangent PA
at the maximum load point is unity. where n = 2 for the tensile rod and the thin-walled
B. Instability of the Plastic Expansion of tube, -~- for the thin-walled hollow sphere, and! for
Tubes, Vessels, and P1atcs. Plastic instability the uniform-biaxially extended plate.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
The maximum load or maximum pressure at whieh
the extension heeomes unstable is obtained from
dp (or dF) =0
In view of eq. 1.30, this means
nln-l". dt + tn d". = 0
or
n(dt/t) = -d"./".
For the hollow sphere, the tube, and the plate,
dt/t = -d,', where " is the logarithmic strain per-
pendicular to the wall or the plate. Thus, the eon-
dition of instability is
d"./d,' = n". (1.31)
For the sphere, this is
d"./d,' = (3/2)".
for the tube
d"./d,' = 2".
and for the pWie
d"./d,' = (1/2)".
For the t=ile rod, dt/t is the inerement of the
transverse logarithmic strain; since the volume is
constant, this is - (1/2)d,', where d,' is the incre-
ment of the longitudinal logarithmic strain. Thus,
d"./d,' = ".
as before (cf. eq. 1.20).
Figure 1.7 shows the corresponding graphical
construetion, quite analogous to that in Fig. 1.6,
carried out for the four cases. It shows that the
instability point on the stress-strain curve (true
maximum stress vs. greatest logarithmic strain)
is different for eaeh.
Particularly interesting is the practically im-
portant case of the thick-walled cylinder under
internal pressure. The solution of this problem has
first been published by Manning [1OJ; see also
MacGregor, Coffin, and Fisher [11]. The relatively
simple calculation shows that here, too, the pressure
reaehes a maximum as the tube expands plastically,
and then drops. The maximum pressure (often
called "bursting pressure") can be calculated
successfully from thc stress-strain curve of the
material. It is remarkable, however, that it cannot
be derived from a single point of the curve and the
corresponding tangent. In the thick-walled tube,
the strain depends on the distance from the axis;
at any moment during plastic deformation, states
of stress and strain extending over a morc or less
wide region of the stress-strain curve are present.
As a consequence, the maximum pressure cannot be
7
Yield SIr01$ (f
o logorilhmic E-
V, Sirain
( hin-walled tube)
f--_.'';'---l
(Thin-walled hollow sphere
f----;:--:-,- 1 .-:-:--,.-;--1
(Rod under uniQ:dal tension)
--,,--,----,--'.,,---::-;---:----1
Plolo under two equal mutually perpendicular tensions
FIG. 1.7 Graphical construction of maximum load or maxi-
mum pressure in various cases of tensile loading.
calculated without the knowledge of the entire stress-
strain curve, or at least a substantial part of it.
In other words, the maximum pressure withstood
by the thick-walled tube cannot be derived from
any single Il working stress."
C. IDtimate Stress and Working Stress. The
ultimate tensile stress has served in the past gener-
ally, and still serves in many cases, as a basis for
deriving design (working) stresses; for this purpose,
it is divided by a so-called safety factor. Has this
conventional procedure a realistic basis? From the
preceding considerations, the anSwer can be easily
recognized.
There are two types of failure by plastic de-
formation. In the first, the structure becomes
unserviceable by suffering an inadmissible amount of
distortion; in the second, it is destroyed by plastic
disruption. In many practical cases, the second
possibility either cannot occur (e.g., if the loading is
flexural or compressive), or is of minor importance
beeause the consequences of failure by excessive
distortion are not significantly aggravated by sub-
sequent disruption. In the design of pipes and pres-
sure vessels, on the other hand, a moderate plastic
deformation may be no more than a nuisance;
the danger that must be excluded is disruption
(bursting).
If the practieally important type of failure is due
to distortion, the design must be based on the stress
at which plastic deformation reaches the maximum
permissible value, i.e., on the "yield strength" or
uproof stress." As is seen from the Considere
construction of the maximum load and of the
ultimate strength (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6), there is no
general relationship between the ultimate strength
and the proof stress (or, in the case of the annealed
8 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
'-
(')
-1 o linear Slrain E
FIG. 1.8 Uniform extension (strain outside region of neck)
for different types of materials.
low-carbon steels, the lower yield point); the old
practice of deriving the working stress from the
ultimate strength by means of a fictitious safety
factor has then no justification. A ccrtain exception
to this is the case in which different batches of the
same type of material are compared (e.g., different
deliveries of a low-carbon steel) ; the proof stress, or
the lower yield point, may (but need not) be thcn
approximately proportional to the ultimate strength.
If the only practically important type of failure
is plastic disruption (bur&ting), the working stress
should be derived, as a rule, from the load or pressure
at which plastic instability leading to rupture sets in
(the possibility of brittle or fatigue fracture should
be disregarded in this section; it will be treatcd
further below). The structure is then dimensioned
so that the design load or design pressure is a
certain fraction of the rupture load or bursting
pressure. For a rod under uniaxial tension, the
corresponding working stress is the ultimate tensile
stren~h divided by an appropriate safety factor
(which, in this case, is not a fictitious one).
It is to be kept in mind that the maximum load is
given by the ultimate tensile stress only in the case
of a structural part under uniaxial tension. For a
tube, or a pressure vessel, the maximum pressure
occurs at a (conventional or true) stress that may be
very different from the ultimate stress, as will be
discussed in morc detail in Chapter 2. In exacting
cases, therefore, the maximum load or maximum
pressure cannot be derived from the ultimatc
tensile strcss but must be obtained by accurate
calculation based on -the stress-strain curve, or from
a model experiment. Often, however, this is not
nccessary. If the ultimate stresses for tension and
for the plastic expansion of a tube differ by only
10% to 20%, and the safety factor may be anything
between 3 and 6 according to tradition or codc
regulations, it may not be worth .carrying out an
accurate design stress determination for a structural
part of subordinate importance.
The Considere construction "hows that the
ultimate stress is fundamentally unrelated not only
to the behavior of the material at small, but also to
that at large, strains. In particular, the knowlcdgc
of the ratio between the ultimate and the proof
stress gives no indication of the fracture strain:
fracture may occur immediately after the maximum
load point, or at strains 10 or 50 times higher than
the maximum load strain. The simple tensile test.
in which only the maximum load but not the stress-
strain curve is measured, however, may give a
quantity that is extremely useful for judging the
ductility of the material for certain uses. This
q~antity is the uniform extension, i.e., the strain
at which thc load. maximum is reached and necking
starts (GA in Fig. 1.5). Since practically no further
extension takcs place outside the ncck after this
has been initiated, the uniform extension can easily
be measured on the fractured tensile spccimen if
this is long enough to contain parts sufficiently
removed both from the ncck and from the heads'
of the specimen. A material with small uniform
extension (a few per cent) is disrupted easily in
tension and is therefore unsuitable for drawing
operations (wire or deep drawing). At the same
time, however, it may show a high ductility (i.e.,
reduction of area at fracture), so that it may be
eminently suitable to operations involving large
plastic strains without tension. Thus, pure nickel,
tin, or lead are very unsuitable for drawing, but
extremely good for operations like bending or cold
extrusion; austenitic chromium-nickel steels, on the
other hand, have much less ductility but they are,
owing to their large uniform extension, very suitable
for drawing. Figure 1.8 shows how the shape of the
stress-strain curve is related to the uniform strain.
Materials with a fairly sudden yield and littlc strain
hardening afterwards, like pure nickel, lead, or tin.
have sharply hent stress-strain curves of the typc
A; the tangent construction gives for them a small
uniform strain. On the other hand, materials that
strain-harden slowly but steadily in the initial part
of the stress-strain curve, like copper, brass, or
18/8 Cr-Ni steel (type B in Fig. 1.8), havc a large
uniform strain, independent of whether fracture
occurs soon after necking or is preceded by a large
reduction of area
1.4 Crecp
A. The Andrade Analysis of the Creep Curve.
If a matcrial can undergo progressivc deformation
4The U.S.A. standard specimen is not long enough for this
purpose; a useful specimen can be obtained, however, by
increasing its gage length from 2" to 4".
.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 9

~;:~L~t=+b+L
at constant stress, it is said to show creep. The
sunplest type of deformation that eorresponds to
t~is defi?ition is viscosity: a material is ealled purely
VISCOUS If the rate of straining, d·yjdt is a function of Timo Purely PIa1tie Tron~jllnt ViKOUI
SIro;n Creep Croop
the stress,j(r) and does not depend on the deforma-
tion already undergone FIG. 1.10 Andrade's analysis of the creep curve.

d'yjdt = f(r) (1.32)

many cases and eurves of type B are obtained. A
If. the functional relationship is ,imple proportion-
period of final aeceleration is frequently observed
ahty (Newton's law of viscosity),
even at constant stress; however, it is always due to
d'Y structural changes taking place during creep, and so
T = 11- (1.33)
dt curve B can be regarded as representing the pure
and simple type of creep curve.
the material is said to show Newtonian viscosity'
the constant ~ is the <XJejficient of .viscosity. Most of
In his pioneering experiments, Andrade has ob-
served that the slope of the straight parts towards
the common liquids are of the Newtonian type.
which the creep curve tends asymptotically depends
Th~ creep behavior of metals, particularly at not
strongly on the temperature. At sufficiently low
too hIgh temperatures, is markedly different from
temperature, the asymptote becomes horizontal and
pure viscosity. If a constant load is applied to a
the creep rate vanishes in the course of time. The
te~ile specimen (as is usual in technological creep
period of deceleration, on the other hand, is always
testmg) and the strain plotted as a function of time
present, even in the neighborhood of absolute zero.
usually curves of type A in Fig. 1.9 are obtained:
From this, Andrade concluded that the creep curve
S?lid sol~tions with a tendency to develop a sharp
(B in Fig. 1.9) represents the superposition of two
yIeld ~Olnt (a-brass, Monel metal, Nickel silver)
essentially different creep processes, which follow
~ay g~ve curv:es of the type C; other alloys show an
the sudden straining after the application of the load.
mductIOn perlOd, as seen in curve D. However,
The first component is the dccelerating one, the rate
~urve A can be regarded as the pure type observed
of which disappears with time; this is at present
If no structural changes occur during creep. It
called transient creep. Superposed to this, at least if
shows that the rapid, almost sudden, extension that
the temperature is not too low, is a constant-rate
foll?ws the application of the load is followed by a
creep process, usually called viscous creep because
penod of deceleration; before fracture occurs there
its rate depends, roughly speaking, only on the
is a period of acceleration, and between the ~eriods
applied stress and not on the preceding amount of
of deceleration and acceleration there is an interval
strain. Figure 1.10 shows Andrade's analysis of the
of constant creep rate which may be quite long, or
creep process: the observed creep strain is the sum
may be merely a point of inflexion.
of the purely plastic (plus elastic) strain which fol-
In his analysis of creep, Andrade [12J found that
lows immediately the application of the stress, the
the final acceleration is usually a trivial consequence
transient creep strain, and the viscous creep strain.
of the increase of stress due to the decrease of cross-
B. Transient Creep. At low temperatures
sectional area in the course of the constant-lord
(below, say, one-third of the absolute melting point)
tension test. If the experiment is carried out at
viscous creep is insignificant and transient creep
constant tensile stress, the acceleration disappears in dominates; hence its alternative name "cold creep."
At high temperatures (in the hot-creep range), the
Slrain Frodllro
tranSIent component is often negligible beside the vis-
A
cous one; hfmce the name "hot creep" for the latter.
In Andrade's original experiments, which were of
relatively short duration, the transient creep curve
____- - - c could be represented by the expression
'Y = 'Yo + C..;yt (t = time). (1.34)
At lower temperatures, however, the logarithmic
Time
expression [13]
FIG. 1.9 Types of creep curves for various mnterialB. 'Y = 'Yo + Clog t (1.35)
10 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
ViKOUS
Croep
Rale
SIren
FIG. 1.11 Stress dependence of the viscous creep rate of
lead wires at 17 C. After Andrade.
fits the curve better. All transitional types between
the Andrade formula and the logarithmic formula
can be observed, as well as curves which represent a
more-than-Iogarithmic decrcase of the creep rate.
C. Viscous Creep. The viscous component is
often represented by a reasonably straight curve, as
shown schematically in Fig. 1.10, if the duration of
the test is not very long. Otherwise structural
changes (recrystallization, precipitation, etc.) are
almost invariably present, and then the rate of
viscous creep may increase, decrease, or irregularly
fluctuate in the course of time. This is the basic
factor that makes the extrapolation and practical
use of ereep tests difficult.
The experiments of Andrade [12] have shown that
viscous creep in metals is far from being Newtonian
(eq. 1.33); it is vanishingly small up to a certain
stress region and then increases vcry rapidly with
the stress. Figure 1.11 shows the curve given by
Andrade for the viscous creep rate of lead wires at
17 C as a function of the applied stress. The char-
acter of the curve resembles that of the "Bingham
material," an idealized material often referred to in
rheology (Fig. 1.12, in which the stress is plotted as
ordinate according to convention). The Bingham
material is assumed to have a sharp yield point, and
to show linear increase of the strain rate with the
stress above thc yield point. The behavior of
metals at high temperatures differs from that of the
Bingham material in that the increase of the viscous
creep rate with the stress, as shown in Fig. 1.11, is
much more rapid than a linear increase. Expres-
sions suggested for its dependence are, e.g., the
following ones:
dy/dt = AT" Norton [14J (1.36)
dy/dt = A(e"' - 1) Soderberg [15] (1.37)
or
dy/dt = A sinh (ar) Nadai [16J (1.38)
where A, n, and a are constants.
It seems certain that no such simple expression
can represent generally a process depending strongly
on complicated structural features of the material.
However, one of the above expressions, or perhaps
another simple relationship, may well be found
accurate enough for practical purposes in the case of
an individual material.
The temperature dependence of viscous crcep
showl:5 a similar picture. Like all thermal reactions,
it is ultimately governed by the Boltzmann expres-
sion for the frequency of thermal activations; with-
out further structural complications, this would lead
approximately to an exponential dependence of the
creep rate upon the reciprocal absolute temperature:
dy/dt = Ce- AlkT (1.391
where A is the "activation energy" for the creep
process, k is Boltzmann's constant = 1.37 X
10-16 erg!" C, and T is the absolute temperature.
It can be shown [17] that,. in Newtonian viscou,
flow, A is practically independent of the applied
stress whereas C is proportional to the stress; on the
other hand, in plastic deformation based on crystal-
line slip, the increase of the strain rate dy/dt with
the increase of the applied stress is due mainly to the
decrease of the activation energy A with increasing
stress [18, 19]. In the case of crystalline plasticity,
C may be regarded as a constant because its de-
pendence upon the stress is small relative to that of
the exponential. That this is true for the ereep of
metals can be seen in the following way: dy/dt is the
strain per unit of time; its reciprocal is the time
required for unit increase of the creep strain. Now
creep fracture (see subsection G below) takes place
after a strain of 1% = 1/100; the time t elapsing
between the application of the load and fracture i,
related to the mean creep rate rly / dt by
I/I00t = dy/dt
Introduction of this into eq. 1.39 gives
!/I00t = Ce- AlkT (1.39a)
Shear
Strcss
Yield SIron
flow Role
FIG. 1.12 Definition of the Bingham material.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
or, if the logarithm of base 10 is taken,
log(100t/f) + log C = O..4 34A/kT (1.3gb)
According to Larson and Miller [20j, the dependence
of the fracture time upon the temperature for vari-
ous stresses is often satisfactorily represented by
eq. 1.3gb with values of log C that vary, for different
materials and experimental conditions, between 15
and 23 if t is counted in hours. Thus, log C is in
fact almost constant. Its order of magnitude can
be derived theoretically in a simple way. It is well
known that, for processes of this kind, the activation
energy is always around 1 electron volt (ev) at room
temperature. If it were significantly higher (say,
2 ev), thermal activation would be so sluggish that
the creep rate would become too small to be observ-
able; if it were somewhat lower (say, 0.5 ev), the
creep rate would be too high to be followed experi-
mentally. At room temperature, kT is -lo ev, so
that A/kT = 40. As a representative example, let
it be assumed that the fracture strain! is 4% and
that fracture occurs after 1000 hours. With these
values, eq. 1.3gb gives
log C = 0.434 X 40 - log (25,000) = 13
For A = 1.5 ev, A/kT = 60, log C would be 22.6.
The observed values of C, therefore, correspond to a
range of activation energies between about 1 and
1.5 ev.
It should be remarked that, however narrow the
range of the observed values of log C is, it would be
dangerous to use eq. 1.3gb for extrapolating creep
test results to times exceeding the duration of the
test by a factor of 10 or more, because during the
extrapolated time interval structural changes (e.g.,
precipitation, grain boundary oxidation) may occur
and the permissible stress for a given service time
may be reduced far below the extrapolated value
(see Subsection G, "Creep Fracture").
D. Creep under Triaxial Stress. The problem
of how to obtain the principal creep rates for general
triaxial states of stress has been trcated by Soder-
berg [15J. His solution is a rational extension of the
treatment of three-dimensional cases in the theory
of plasticity, and is in fair accord with the available
experience. According to Soderberg, the basic vis-
cous stress-creep rate relationship is a functional
relationship between the effective shear-stress and
the effective shear-strain rate, where the former is
1 . 1)2
Telf = . J;:: V ("I - "2 + ("2 - "3)
2
+ ("3 - "I)
2
2v2
(1.40)
'.....
11
and the latter
'Yelf =
1
v'2 y' ('1 - '2)2 + ('2 - '3)2 + ('3 - '1)2
(1.41)
i, <:2, and t3 being the principal strain rates; volume
constancy demands that
'1 + '2 + '3 = 0 (1.42)
Thus, the general viscous creep law would be
Telf = !('Yolf) (1.43)
analogous to the three-dimensional stress-strain rela-
tionship suggested for purely plastic materials (cf.
eq. 1.8). The relative magnitudes of the principal
crecp rates are assumed to be given by the Levy-
Mises equations
'1 = Clu, - !("2 + "3)J
'2 = C["2 - !("3 + "1)1
'3 = C["3 - !('" + "2)] (1.44)
The common factor C on the right-hand side is no
longer indeterminate as in the case of ideal plasticity:
it is determined by the condition that, if the princi-
pal strain rates are substituted on the right-hand
side of eq. 1.43, the correct value of Telf must result.
Details of practical calculations are found in Soder-
berg's paper.
E. The Mechanism of Creep. Although the
details of the mechanism of transient creep are far
from being clear, there is no doubt that it is a con-
sequence of thermal vibrations enforcing slip when
superposed to a sufficiently high applied stress. In
the course of the creep process, the material hardens
and thermal vibrations are then less and less fre-
quently able to produce local slip; this is the cause
of the gradual disappearance of transient creep.
The fact that transient creep can be observed down
to the lowest temperatures is due to the circumstance
that the applied stress must always be high enough
to cause at least a small amount of sudden plastic
strain before transient creep can be observed. If
it is sufficient to cause slip without any thermal help,
very slight thermal fluctuation should be capable of
producing local slip at the points where the applied
stress is nearly high enough to induce slip without
thermal help.
It has been found that viscous creep itself is a
compound process. At least two different mecha-
nisms can produce it, and often thc two act simulta-
neously. The first type of viscous creep is called
recovery creep. After thc application of the load,
12 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the rapid plastic defonnotion produces strain hard-
ening which raises the yield stress to the level at
which it equals the applied stress "nd thus can resist
the load. If the temperature is high enough, how-
ever, thermal recovery or even recrystallization
gradually reduce the strain hardening. In order to
carry the applied load, therefore, the material must
strain-harden further until the amount of strain
hardening lost by recovery is replaced. This means
that, in every unit of time, additional plastic strain
arises, the amount of which is just sufficient to make
up for the strain hardening removed hy recovery.
The second important type of viscous creep is due
to sliding between the grains of a polycrystalline
metal when a stress acts at a sufficiently high tem-
perature. At low temperatures, the grain boundary
is a strong part of the structure: it resists the slip in
the grains. At a high temperature, however, the
boundary becomes soft and viscous and is an element
of weakness. The tungsten filaments of incandescent
lamps, which work at the highest temperature used
in engineering, can be preserved from gradual defor-
mation by their own weight only by being made of
single crystals, without grain boundaries present.
F. Evaluation and Engineering Use of Creep
Tests. Transient (cold) creep is of great practical
importance, e.o;., in prestressed reinforced concrete
design. However, since its evaluation does not in-
volve complex problems to the engineer, and since
the problems in which it plays a role are somewhat
specialized, it will not be treated here.
In many high-temperature applications of metals,
the viscous creep strain during the lifetime of the
equipment is so much greater than the initial tran-
sient creep strain that the latter is frequently neg-
lected (sometimes with no sufficient justification).
In such cases, the usual practical rule is to assume
that the long-time creep rate on which the design
should be based is equal to the "minimum creep
rate" observed in a constant-load tension creep test l
i.e., to the creep rate in the straight part of curve A
in Fig. 1.9. Although in the hands of the experienced
creep practitioner this prescription usually worh
fairly wcll, strictly spcaking it is fundamcntally
wrong. When the minimum creep rate occurs, tran-
sient creep mayor may not have disappeared. If it
has not, the minimum creep rate is not that of the
viscous component alone, but the sum of the viscous
and the residual transient creep rates. In extreme
cases, solely the acceleration of transient creep, due
to the decrease of the cross-scctionalarea, may give
rise to curves of type A, Fig. 1.9, at low temperatures
where no trace of viscous creep can be present. The
common rule, therefore, has to be supplemented by
the condition that the constant-rate part of the
creep curve must extend over a long time, sufficient
for the disappearance of the transient component,
in order that the minimum creep rate can be identi-
fied with that of the viscous creep.
Since structural parts must often have a service
life of 10 or 20 years, whereas crecp tests cannot be
extended in engineering practice beyond about one
year (often they must be obtained within a few
weeks), the extrapolation of creep test results to the
service life is the central problem of creep testing.
Some of the extreme short-time testing methods sug-
gested between the two wars failed because their
authors were unaware of the compound nature of
creep. Unless the test is extended long enough for
the transient component to become relatively small,
it cannot give even an approximate idea of the mag-
nitude of the viscous component. The present con-
ventional methods of creep testing usually avoid this
pitfall; they can be subdivided into the following
three classes:
1. Abridged tests. The creep strain is measured
as a function of time.for a few stresses around the
probable service stress, at the service temperature,
and extrapolated to the service life.
2. Mechanically acceleruled tests. The maximum
pennissible creep strain is enforced within the time
availablc for the test by a suitably increased stress.
From several such tests at different stresses, the
stress is plotted as a function of the time after which
the pennissible strain is reached, and the curve ex-
trapolated to the service life to give the permissible
service stress.
3. Thermally accelerated tests. The maximum per-
missible creep strain is enforced within the time
available for the test by a suitably Increased tem-
perature. From such tests at a few different stresses
and temperatures, the stress is plotted as a function
of the tcst temperature and of the time required for
reaching the permissible strain, and extrapolated to
the service life and service temperature.
The abridged test would give a correct extrapola-
tion if structural changes taking place in the material
during its service life could be discounted. Ther-
mally and mechanically accelerated tests are in
principle more likely to lead to errors because they
take place under stress and temperature conditions
different from those in service. However, occasion-
ally certain structural changes that would occur
during the service life but do not take placc during
the abridged test may be observed in the mechani-
cally or thermally accelerated test. Then these
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
tests, although less correct in principle, may lead to
a better extrapolation. No general extrapolation
method can take into account the highly individual
reactions of materials to stress and temperature, and
the likelihood of grossly erroneous results can only
be reduced by an intimate knowledge of the metal-
lurgical, structural, and plastic properties of the
material.
G. Creep Fracturc. The grain boundaries of
polycrystalline metals, being places of atomic dis-
order, behave like a two-dimensional glass. They
have a softening range of temperature (roughly
identical with the "equicohesive temperature") in
which they change from being.a hard structural
component to being the softest. At very high tem-
peratures their effective viscosity is so low that, at
low stresses, most of the deformation is localized in
them: the grains slide almost as rigid units on their
neighbors. This leads to the opening up of gaps
between the grains, and finally to the type of frac-
ture peculiar to high temperature creep: at first
sight, it appears almost brittle.
The strain at which creep fracture occurs depends
on the stress and the temperature. At low stress and
high temperature the deformation within the grains
is insignificant compared with the effect of sliding of
the grains upon their neighbors, and thus the fracture
strain is small. However, the variation of the frac-
ture strain in a given range of stress and temperature
is always very small compared with the simultaneous
variation of the creep rate. The latter may change
in the ratio 10,000,000 to 1 while the fracture strain
increases, for instance, from 2% or 3% to 10% or
15%. Consequently, the fracture time is usually
inversely proportional to the mean creep rate, to a
fair approximation.
The creep fracture test5 consists ill applying to
the specimen a constant tensile load and recording
the time elapsing to fracture. This test is simpler
and easier to perform than the standard ereep test
because strain measurements are omitted. It is
required for design whenever the material has such
poor ductility under ereep conditions that fracture
may occur before the maximum permissible creep
strain is reached. Since creep strains exceeding 1%
are not often permitted (pressure vessels and pipes
are an exception), and fracture occurring after less
than 1% strain is infrequent, the creep fracture
test is usually unnecessary. It is nevertheless
widely used because it can be interpreted as a crude
creep test. As mentioned above, the fracture strain
varies within relatively narrow limits, so that the
bIn the creep !ester's vernacular, "stress rupture" teat.
13
creep fracture test represents a creep test in which
the time required for a certain strain (the fracture
strain) is measured for various stresses and tempera-
tures. The great shortcoming of the test is not so
much the variation of the fracture strain as the fact
that it is always performed at high stress levels in
order to obtain fracture within 1000 or, at most,
10,000 hours. It has been shown by many experi-
menters, particularly by Grant and his collabora-
tors [21], that the creep rate may change abruptly
even after 10,000 hours owing to some structural
change (e.g., coarsening of a precipitate, or oxida-
tion). For this reason, extrapolation from high-
stress short-time tests to the long-time service
behavior is impossible, unless it is known (from a
thorough investigation of the material extending
Dver years) that no structural changes may be
expected in the time interval between the duration of
the routine creep test and the service life.
1.5 Types of Fraeturc; Molccular Cohesion;
thc Griffith Theory
Fracture is the disintegration of a body into frag-
ments under mechanical stresses. If a certain type
of fracture occurs in a given material when a stress
component reaches a eritical value, this is called the
strength or fracture stress. Many types of fracture,
however, do not take place at a characteristic value
of a stress component.
Until about 20 years ago it was not realized that
there are many fundamentally different types of
fracture obeying quite different laws. They can be
classified into two main groups: brittle fractures and
ductile fractures. The former occur with little or no
plastic (or other non-elastic) deformation; the
mechanism of the latter essentially involves plastic
deformation. The mechanism of brittle fracture was
elucidated long before that of ductile fractures,
mainly by the work of A. A. Griffith in 1920 [22J.
Griffith's effort was directed to the e~planation of the
extraordinary discrepancy between the very high
values of strength inferred from the magnitude of
the intermolecular and interatomic forces, and the
observed values of the tensile strength, which are
usually hundreds or thousands of times lower.
The way in which the tensile cohesion of a material
is determined by the attractive and repulsive forces
between its molecules is illustrated in Fig. 1.13.
Suppose that a crystal contains atomic planes with
the spacing b perpendicular to the direction of ten-
sion. As the tension is raised, the spacing b increases.
The net interatomic force acting between two parts
of the crystal across the gap between two atomic
14 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
At1roclivll force
- Griffith, however, who calculated the critical value
01---+--;......-==---
Intllrmolowlor
Spcu::ing
Ropulsivo Force
FIG. 1.13 The dependence of the intermolecular forces upon
the molecular spacing.
planes vanishes if no tension is applied; in this case,
the attractive and repulsive forces cancel. If a
tension is .applied and the atomic spacing increases,
the repulslVe forces diminish more rapidly than the
attractive ones; the excess of the attractive forces
over the repulsive ones balances the applied tension.
As the atomic spacing in the direction of tension
increases, the repulsive forces become insignificant,
and the tensile force transmitted through the crystal
lattice must then start to diminish with increasing
strain owing to the decrease of the attractive forces
with increasing separation of the atoms. Conse-
quently, the net atomic force transmitted through a
cross section must have a maximum, equal to the
highest external force the material can withstand
i.e., its strength. From the general knowledge 01
the atomic forces it can be estimated that the maxi-
mum must occur when the spacing of the atomic
planes has increased by a large fraction of its initial
value; for an order-oi-magnitude estimate, it may
be assumed to occur when the atomic spacing has
increased by some 25% or 50%. If Hooke's law
were applicable for such large strains, the tensile
strain would be between 0.25 and 0.5 and the cor-
responding tensile stress, i.e., the molecular strength
of the material,
"m = 0.25E to 0.5E (1.45)
where E is Young's modulus. Instead of approach-
ing the order of magnitude indicated by eq. 1.45, the
measured tensile strengths are extremely low. The
strength of ordinary sheet glass is about 1/1000 of its
Young's modulus; that of rock salt crystals, less
than 1/10,000. It was known to physicists before
Griffith that the most likely cause of the discrepancy
was the presence of invisibly small cracks or other
flaws which produce stress concentrations and thus
raise the applied stress to high local values. It was
of the applied tensile stress " at which a crack of
atomic sharpness and of length c, starts to propag~te.
He used the following approach. When the crack
extends, the surface area of its walls increases and
this requires energy for overcoming the attr~ctive
forces between the atoms separated by the crack.
If the grips between which the specimen is pulled do
not move during the crack propagation process, the
only source from which the necessary surface energy
can be obtained is the elastic energy released as the
crack extends. Let dS be the surface energy needed
for enlarging the crack by an infinitesimal amount,
and dW the elastic energy released simultaneously.
The crack can propagate only if dW is at least as
large as dS; thus,
dW = dS (1.46)
is the condition for the crack being ju.st able to
propagate under the tensile stress. It will be seen
that the stress needed for propagating a crack
decreases as the length of the crack increases; once
condition 1.46 is satisfied, therefore, the crack will
extend rapidly, and fracture will occur.
Griffith carried out this idea in the simple case of a
plate containing an internal crack of length 2c
(Fig. 1.14). It can be shown that the effect of such
a crack upon the fracture stress of the plate is equal
to that of an external crack of length (depth) c in
one of the side edges of the plate. A sharp and flat
internal crack of length 2c can be regarded as an
elliptical hole of major axis 2c and an extremely
short minor axis; the stress distribution around it
when the plate is put under a tensile stress " was
calculated by Inglis in 1913 [23]. From this the
excess energy in the plate, due to the presence of the
FIG. 1.14 Plaw with a nat elliptical hole (=crack).
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
crack, is obtaincd as
TV = 1r,?c IE
2 beyond the scope of this chapter [24]; the result is
.~
per unit thickness of tbe plate, where E is Young's
modulus; if c inereases by dc, the released elastic
energy is
On the other hand, the increase of the length of the
crack is 2dc, and the increase of its wall surface area
is 4dc per unit thickness of the plate; consequently,
if" is the work required for ereating a new surface of
unit area, the inerease of the total surface energy is
dS = 4adc (1.47)
Equating dTV and dS gives
u = ~2aE (1.48)
1rC
This is the famous Griffith equation for the tensile
Strength of a brittle material containing an internal
crack of length 20, or a surfaee crack of depth c. In
the calculation, it has been assumed that the problem
is two-dimensional, and that the plate is very large
in both directions, but at the same time thin com-
pared with the length of the crack; if it is thiek, the
factor (1 - v2 ) has to be applied to the denominator
under the square root, " being Poisson's ratio.
For glasses of the ordinary types, the crack length
c necessary to explain the observed tensile strength
is of the order of 1 micron. In glasses, the dangerous
eracks are almost always at the surface; tensilc
stresses confined to the interior are relatively harm-
less. This is the explanation of the high strength of
"tempered glass," obtained by quenching glass from
the softening temperature by an air blast. By the
time the interior has become rigid, the surface has
cooled down considerably; when subsequently the
rigid interior cools, it puts the surface layers under a
tangential compressive stress. Any tensile stress
produced by external forces is diminished at the
surface by the residual compression. In the interior,
the residual stress is tensile, but this is of no con-
sequence because there arc no sharp cracks present
from which fracture may start. Thus, the strength
of the glass is strongly increased.
The Griffith theory explains very satisfactorily
the strength properties of completely brittle mate-
rials sueh as glass; for detailed treatment, reference
should be made to the literature [24].
An interesting feature of the theory is the answer
it gives to the question of strength under triaxial
15
stresses. The discussion of the complete answer is
that, so long as the highest compressive principal
stress is less than three times the highest tensile
principal stress, fracture should occur when the
greatest tensile principal stress reaches the value of
the tensile strength deduced for uniaxial tension
(eq. 1.48); the algebraically smaller principal
stresses have no influence. According to the theory,
the compressive strength should be eight times the
tensile strength if the material is isotropic and con-
tains cracks randomly distributed in all directions.
Thus, the theory confirms partially a well-known
statement found in textbooks on the strength of
materials concerning the condition of brittle failure:
in the essentially tensile region of principal stresses,
failure does obey the maximum tensile stress cri-
terion. However, the maximum tensile stress condi-
tion cannot be valid for any state of stress. If it
were, the compressive strength of brittle materials
would be infinitely high. This shortcoming of the
textbook rule has been corrected by the Griffith
theory, in the way just mentioned.
One of the most important results of the work of
Griffith is the realization that the strength of a
brittle material is determined by the flaws it con-
tains. This is strikingly illustrated by glass, the
strength of which can be made a hundred times
higher than normal, if by a special design (fibre glass)
the worst cracks are made ineffective.
1.6 Duetile Fractures
The Griffith theory and the fracture condition
(eq. 1.48) are applicable only to fracture of the
cleavage type ("brittle fracture"). In addition to
this, there is a large group of fractures in which sep-
aration into fragments occurs as a consequence of
certain plastic deformation processes; these are the
"ductile" fractures. The simplest ductile fractures
are straightforward geometrical consequences of
plastic deformation; a wire of gold, e.g., breaks in
tension by the formation of a neck which becomes
thinner and thinner until it is drawn out to two
needle points in contact. Similarly, single crystals
of zinc or cadmium may break, after slow extension
at a high temperature, when one part of the crystal
slips off the other along a slip plane in which the
deformation has become concentrated.
The nature of the fracture process is less obvious
in the common fibrous fracture of ductile metals,
which produces the bottom of the cup in the cup-
and-cone fracture. However, it seems to be funda-
mentally the same type of geometrical attcnuation
16 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Constroincd yield Ilren "Y
Ten~ilo
Brittle (decvogo) fracture
Stresl (J F _ ~ _ ~ . - Brit1lo strength B
D Ductile (fibrotn)
froch,lTe
Plastic Tensilo
Strain E
FIG. l.Ip Scheme of the classical triaxial tension theory of
notch brittleness, after Mesnager [25]. Ludwik [261, and
Orowan [27].
as in the preceding examples, repeated many time"
on a microscopic scale in the surface of fracture.
Shear fracture, which forms the sides of the cup and
the cone, is a somewhat different phenomenon. The
plastic deformation leads here to the propagation of
a crack at the tip of which there is a high concentra-
tion of strain, destroying locally the cohesion of the
material.
A ductile fracture cannot obey the Griffith condi-
tion (eq. 1.48). This can be realized in the following
simple way: The plastic deformation mechanism
which leads to ductile fracture is not essentially de-
pendent on the elastic moduli of the material; it
could take place even if Young's modulus were in-
finitely high. On the other hand, cleavage fracture
of the Griffith type would be impossible in a per-
fectly rigid material; an infinitely high value of E
in eq." 1.48 would give an infinitely high tensile
strength.
One of the conditions governing ductile fracture
can be easily recognized: it coincides with the con-
dition of the particular type of plastic deformation
which is responsible for the fracture. Thus, in the
tensile fracture by neck attenuation the only frac-
ture condition is that the tensile load must reach
the value of the yield stress in the neck, multiplied
by the cross-sectional area of the neck and by the
plastic constraint factor. In shear fracture, too,
this is a necessary condition for the propagation of
the shear crack. Another condition, however, must
also be satisfied: the shear strain at the tip of the
crack must reach the critical value at which the co-
hesion disappears.
Ductile fractures usually occur after the struc-
ture has become unserviceable by excessive plastic
deformation. However, if the material has a low
ductility, shear fracture or other types of ductile
fracture may occur after very little deformation. A
threaded bolt of a low-ductility material, such as
certain precipitation hardened alloys, can be sheared
off during tightening after a small amount of plastic
twist. Another instance is that of extremely creep-
resistant alloys which may fail by creep fracture at
high temperatures after a relatively small creep
strain.
1.7 The Brittle Fracture of Steel ("Notch
Brittleness")
Low-carbon and medium-carbon steels behave ill
a maimer that is not a mere intermediate case be-
tween glassy brittleness and high ductility. A com-
mon structural steel can be very ductile in the
ordinary tensile test, with no sign of a potential
brittleness, but it can break with little or no visibJ"
plastic deformation if it contains a crack or a notch.
The classical triaxial-tension theory of noteh
brittleness was put forward by Mesnager [25] and,
independently, by Ludwik [26J. In a form modified
according to the present state of knowledge [27J, its
prineiple is illustrated by Fig. 1.15. The abscissa in
this figure is the tensile strain and the ordinate th"
tensile stress; Y represents the ordinary tensile yield
stress-strain curve. The theory assumes that a ma-
terial suffers brittle (cleavage) fracture when the
tensile stress reaches a critical value B ("brittle
strength") which, in its dependence upon the plastic
strain, is given schematically by the curve B. In
the ordinary tensile test, ductile fracture occurs at
the point D on the curve Y, before the tensile stress
reaches the value of the brittle strength. However,
if the specimen contains a notch or a crack, plastic
constraint raises the value of the tensile stress
reached during plastic yielding to q Y, where q, the
Uconstraint factor," is greater than 1. The curve qY
may intersect the curve of the brittle strength B
Compreuive
I Force
IT
Fridionat constraint
upon specimen
--
--I I I_Tend elley 10
spread
m
FIG. 1.16 The ongm of plastic constraint in a notched
tensile specimen illustrated by the frictional constraint acting
upon a flat compression specimen.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
before the plastic strain is high enough to produce
ductile fracture, and so brittle fracture may occur
at F. .....
The way in which plastic constraint arises is iilus-
trated in Fig. 1.16. Suppose that I is a coin com-
pressed plastically between two hard cylinders, I I
and III. The necessary mean compressive stress is
higher than the yield stress Y in uniaxial compres-
sion: it has to overcome, not only the resistance Y
of the material to plastic deformation, but also the
frictional resistance of the compression blocks (indi-
cated by the arrows) to the lateral spread of the coin.
The radial frictional forces, together with the axial
pressure, create a state of triaxial compression (n
hydrostatic pressure superposed to an axial pressure).
The mean axial stress reqnired for plastic compres-
sion is then not Y bnt qY > Y; of this, Y is required
for the plastic deformation itself, and (q - 1) Y
for overcoming the friction.
Figure 1.16 can also be regarded as representing a
circumferentially notched cylindrical specimen, I
being the notch core and II, III the full sections of
the specimen. If the specimen is plastically ex-
tended, the conditions are similar to the case of the
compressed coin, with the shear cohesion between
the core and the adjacent parts of the specimen
replacing the friction. As before, the axial stress
required for producing plastic deformation in the
core must be higher than the yield stress Y.
Plastie constraint is fundamentally different from
elastic stress concentration. It cannot arise without
some preceding plastic deformation; moreover, its
magnitude depends on the depth and sharpness of
the noteh in a very different way. In pure elasticity,
the stress eoncentration at the tip of a notch becomes
infinitely high as the radius of curvature of the tip
converges towards zero. In contrast to this, the
plastic constraint factor of a circumferential notch
such as is illustrated in Fig. 1.16 inereases only to a
value of the order of 3, instead of rising towards
infinity, as the tip radius is redueed to zero [27].
This is the reason why so many ductile metals
cannot be made to fracture in a brittle manner by
the application of a sharp crack: if, for any value of
Work
01
fracture
Tomporature
FIG. 1.17 Extreme types of transition curvcs.
17
TOnlilo
Slreuos
Strongly tonllroinod yield ilro""
opproximolely 3Y
Brittlo Itrongth 8 \
~ ~ .-1
~
IT.
Yield siren in tensIon Y IT
Tomporoture of Temperaturo
comploto ombrittlemenl Tranlition temperaturo
botwoon notch briHI.n~
and full dUdility
FIG. 1.18 Davidcnkov-Wittrnan Theory of the transition
between brittle and ductile fracture, as modified by the author.
the plastic strain, the brittle strength is more than
about 3 times higher than the yield stress, plastic
constraint alone cannot raise the tensile stress to
the fracture level.
An important feature of notch brittleness is the
existence of a transition temperature between notch-
brittle, and purely ductile, behavior. Figure 1.17
shows the dependence of the work of fracture, as
measured with a Charpy or Izod pendulum hammer,
on the temperature in low-carbon steels. Above a
certain temperature region it has a high value, and
the fracture of the notched specimen is entirely of
the fibrous type. At low temperatures, the fracture
work is extremely small, and the fracture is entirely
of the eleavage ("crystalline") type. Between these
two temperature regions, there is a transition zone
in which the fracture work drops rapidly with de-
creasing temperature; at the same time, the area of
cleavage in the surface of fracture increases towards
100 per cent. With some materials, the transition
zone is so narrow that one can speak of a "transition
temperature"; in other cases, e.g., of many lo\\"-
alloy ferritic steels, it is spread over hundreds of
degrees F.
Figure 1.18 shows schematically how the classical
theory interpreted the transition phenomenon [28].
Y is the curve giving the temperature dependence of
the yield stress; the curve q Y (= 2 or 3 times Y),
therefore, represents the highest tensile stress that
an atOlnically sharp crack can produce during plastic
yielding. Experiments and theory show that the
temperature dependence of the bri ttle strength B
must be less strong than that of Y or q Y; this is
schematically indicated in the figure. It is seen that
the tensile fraeture is entirely brittle below the tem-
perature T., even in the absence of any notch. If 11
notch or crack of ma.ximum sharpness is present,
brittle fracture is possible below the temperature 7'"
but not above it.
18 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Recent investigations [29J have shown that the
fundamental cause of brittle fracture in normally
ductile steels is not plastic~onstraint but the ab-
normally high velocity-dependence of the yield strcss
of ferritic steels. Thc experiment from which this
can be recognized is as follows: The edge of a low-
carbon steel plate is provided with a brittle crack by
forcing a chisel into a notch at a low tempcrature.
If the plate is subjected to tension at room tempera-
ture, it is found that the brittle crack is unable to
propagate as a brittle crack. Instead, large plastic
deformations arise around its tip, accompanied by
some fibrous crack propagation; after this, the frac-
ture suddenly reverts from the ductile to the cleavage
type and the newly created brittle crack runs across
the plate. This shows that, at low rates of straining,
plastic deformation in microscopically small regions
around the tip of a brittle crack cannot create the
degree of triaxiality of tension necessary for brittle
fracture; quite large deformations, such as can be
seen with the naked eye and felt with the fingers,
arc required. However, once cleavage cracking
starts again, it runs at high speed and without large
plastic deformations.
The simplest interpretation of these/,bservations
is that in the brittle fracture of steel the stress is
raised to the level of the brittle strength by the high
rate of plastic deformation around the tip of a run-
ning crack rather tban by plastic constraint. With-
out a sufficiently high velocity of the crack, the
production of the plastic constraint necessary for
cleavage fracture requires such extensive plastic
deformations that the fracture, though of the cleav-
age type, is far from being brittle, i.e., of low energy
consumption. Triaxiality of tension, then, is prob-
ably no more than one of several ways of initialing
cleavage fracture; the cleavage fracture is then trans-
formed into brittle cleavage fracture by the velocity
effect upon the yield stress as the crack gathers speed.
The rather exceptional combination of ductility
witb potential brittleness in steel may be understood
now as being a consequence of another exceptional
property of low-carbon steels, the unusually strong
dependence of their yield stress upon the rate of
straining [30, 31]. The yield stress of copper or
aluminum increases only some 10 to 20 per cent be-
tween "static" and ballistic testing speeds; for low-
carbon stecls, however, increases of 100 and 200
per cent have been recorded.
Why such large deformations are needed for start-
ing cleavage fracture at the tip of a crack under slow
tension is a question not yet answered. It has been
suggcsted that plastic constraint alonc cannot raise
the tensile stress to the fracture level in typical cases
of notch brittleness under static loading; it must be
aided by strain hardening, and this requires con-
siderable plastic deformation. Howcver, brittle
fracture can start in a welded structure with very
i
little plastic deformation. The plastic strains pro- i'
duced by thermal expansion and contraction during !
welding and the corresponding strain hardening can
hardly be made responsible for this, because the
thermal strains seem too small to take the material
beyond the region of yield into that of strain
hardening.
The final question is this: What is the condition
under which thc cleavage crack arising from the in-
termediate ductile crack in static loading becomes a
rapidly running crack, in which the velocity-increase
of the yield stress can replace the heavy plastic de-
formation necessary around a slowly extending crack
to produce cleavage? A crack can run rapidly under
static load only if the work rcquired for its propa-
gation is obtained from the elastic energy stored in
the specimen. It was seen in Section 1.5 that the
Griffith equation (1.48), by virtue of its derivation,
is the condition for the crack propagation work to
be supplied from the released elastic energy; how-
ever, it cannot be applied directly to brittle fracture
in steel. It has been found [27J that cleavage frac-
ture in low-carbon steel around room temperature
is not quite brittle; there is a thin cold-worked layer
at the surface of fracture, representing an energy of
cold work of about 2 X 106 ergs/cm2 • This is around
1000 times greater than the surface energy of steel;
the work of crack propagation per unit area of the
crack walls, therefore, is given by the plastic surface
work p, beside which the surface energy is negligible.
If the plastic surface work per unit area of the cleav- f
age fracture can be treated on the same footing as
the surface energy, the condition for the work of
propagation of a brittle crack in steel to be supplied
I
by the simultaneously released elastic energy is
[24, 32J
(1.49)
instead of the Griffith equation (1.48). In eq. 1.49
the factor ;/2/11' has been omitted to indicate that
the equation does not pretend to be accurate enough
for this factor to matter.
Brittlc cleavage fracture in steel, therefore, re-
quires the fulfilment of two conditions:
1. The temperature must be below the transition
range;
2. The applied stress must satisfy the crack propa-
gation equation (1.49).
j
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
The first condition is satisfied by most structural
steels, at least at low winter temperatures. The de-
signer, therefore, can avoid the possibility of brittle
fracture only by taking care that the crack propaga-
tion condition should not be satisfied. The simplest,
although practical1y not always easy or even feasi-
ble, way to do this is to avoid the presence of cracks
exceeding in length a certain limit. The smal1er the
crack length c, the higher is the (mean) tensile
stress <T in the plate at which crack propagation is
possible. Since the stress cannot rise above the
yield stress Y, the length of the smal1est crack that
can start brittle fracture is obtained from eq. 1.49 as
Co = Ep/Y' (1.50)
Cracks below this length are harmless (unless, of
course, they can grow by a non-brittle mechanism
which does not require the fulfilment of the crack
propagation condition, eq. 1.49). If, therefore, the
possibility of cracks exceeding in length the critical
value Co can be eliminated by careful fabrication or
inspection, brittle fracture cannot occur even below
the transition temperature. With E=3X107 psi=
2 X 10" dyne/em', p = 2 X 10· erg/em', and
Y = 6 X 104 psi = 4.1 X 109 dyne/em' for the
strain-hardened steel, the critical minimum crack
length Co is obtained from eq. 1.50 as
Co = 0.25 em = 0.1 in.
To avoid any crack exceeding this length is difficult
and costly, but not impossible, as is shown by the
occasional use of non-aging low-carbon steels for
pressure vessels at liquid-air temperatures.
Alternatively, the designer may attempt to keep
the stress level so low that eq. 1.49 is not satisfied
even though the longest cracks unavoidably present
might exceed the critical length Co. If, e.g., the
presence of cracks of 0.4 in. length cannot be ex-
cluded, the tensile stress must be kept below 30,000
psi; cracks of 1 in. length would set an upper safe
limit of about 19,000 psi to the strcss, and so on.
Natural1y, the propagation condition (1.49) may
not be the only condition that must be satisfied
before brittle fracture can occur. If eq. 1.49 is cor-
rect, brittle fracture cannot occur below the stresses
derived from it; however, some other, more exacting
condition may in some cases set a higher limit, so
that fracture in fact may not occur at stresses as low
as correspond to eq. 1.49. A simple example of this
is the case of a steel plate containing a brittle crack
and subjected to slowly applied tensile stress, as in
the experiments described above. Although the
stress given by eq. 1.49 may be quite low, the crack
19
cannot start to propagate before considcrable plastic
deformation takes place around its tip, and the
stress required for this may be quite elose to the
yield stress of the plate. In other words, in this
case an initiation condition must be satisfied besides
the propagation condition, and the former is more
exacting.
In recent experiments 133] in which the difficulty
of crack initiation was overcome by a wedge ham-
mered into the crack by the impact of a bullet, frac-
ture could not be provoked below a fairly clearly
recognizable stress level which depended on the con-
ditions of the experiment (notch angle, plate size,
etc.). Since the mechanics of the crack initiation by
wedge impaet is very eomplex, it is diffieult to ree-
ognize the significance of this result. The observed
stress threshold is probably due to the neeessity to
satisfy some crack initiation condition; whether this
condition is of more general significance, or a particu-
lar characteristic of the wedge impact experiment,
is an open question.
The practical importance of brittle fractures in
steel structures has rapidly increased in recent times,
owing to the widespread use of welding and of high-
tensile steels. Welding results in high residual tensile
stresses adjaeent to the seam, and it may also eause
structural damage (e.g., grain boundary oxidation).
This may lead to the formation of eracks whieh ean
run across the weld seam and wreck the entire struc-
turc in a fraction of a second. The high yield stress
of many modcrn steels, obtained by al10ying addi-
tions, cold work, or heat treatment, may lure the
designcr to the use of working strcsses under which
spontaneous crack propagation becomes possible
(cf. eq. 1.49). Clearly, an uncritical raising of the
design stresses on the ground of the increased yield
stress is entirely unjustified, unless the transition
range is also considerably lowered. If the latter
condition is not satisfied, higher yield stress may
merely mean that the working stress is no longer
determined by the yield stress but by the necessity
of avoiding brittle fracture.
Good ductility (high fracture strain, reduction of
area) in the ordinary tensile test ending with ductile
fracture does not mean increased immunity to brittle
fracture in the case of ferritic steels. The possibility
of brittle fracture can be assessed only by determin-
ing the transition curve of the steel and estimating
the size of the most dangerous crack that may be
present. For low-carbon steels, it appears that a
fracture work of 15 ft-Ib in the V-notch Charpy
test at the lowest service temperaturc gives a high
degree of protection against brittle fracture even if
20 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 1.1
.~
Static Cyclic
:Mechanical Creep fracture Ordinary cyclic
fatigue
Chemical Delayed fracture Corrosion fatigue
of glass; stress
corrosion
cracks cannot be avoided. This figure, however,
does not apply to harder steels. If a heat-treated
high-tensile steel of 160,000 psi yield stress gives a
V-notch Charpy value of 15 ft-Ib; the deformation
of the notch-bend specimen is only about one-quarter
of that of a plain low-carbon steel with the same
Charpy value but a yield stress of only 40,000 psi.
The 15 ft-Ib high-tensile steel, therefore, has a
tendency to brittle fracture comparable to that of
a hot-rolled low-carbon steel with a Charpy value
of 4 ft-lb.
If a steel is to be used in the brittle-fracture
danger zone of temperature and stress, careful
design and workmanship are of the greatest impor-
tance. Sharp stress concentrations, such as abrupt
cross-sectional changes, sharp thread profiles, or
blind root welds, must be avoided, and the formation
of cracks during fabrication and heat treatment
prevented. On important equipment, or where
failure may endanger lives, particular attention
must be given to careful inspection and to the
removal of internal stresses.
1.8 Fatigue
A. General Features. The term "fatigue" is
used if a specimen breaks under a load which it has
previously withstood for a length of time, or during
a load cycle which it has previously withstood a
number of times. There is a remarkably sharp
distinction between those cases of fatigue in which
only the total duration of loading matters while it is
of secondary importance whether the load is steady
or interrupted, and those where only the number of
load cycles matters and the duration of the cycles is
of a subordinate importance. The first type of
fatigue is called static, the second cyclic.
Purely elastic deformation cannot cause fatigue;
all it does is to strain atomic bonds, and these
cannot wear out. Fatigue can be the consequence
either of non-elastic deformations (I.e., of lattice
injuries or intergranular displacements it produces),
or of chemical or physicochemical processes ac-
celerated by the applied load. Thus, fatigue phe-
nomena can be classified according to their physical
cause as mechanical or chemical.
In this way, a twofold subdivision of fatigue
phenomena is obtained, as illustrated in Table I. L
An example of static mechanical fatigue is creep
fracture, already discussed in Section 1.4. A little-
known case of static fatigue is that observed in the
brittle fracture of steels which may occur suddenly
after prolonged steady loading. The time delay
between the application of the stress and the occur-
rence of fracture must be due to a slowly progressing
deformation process; the rate of this process may be
determined by the rate at which carbon atoms
diffuse in the iron lattice. Thus, the delayed brittle
fracture of steel may possibly represent a case of
physicochemical static fatigue.
The cause of the static fatigue of glass is un-
doubtedly physicoehemical [34J. It is known that
air (probably mainly its moisture content) reduces
the surface energy of mica by a factor of 10 or 12.
It must also reduce the surface energy of glass;
consequently, the Griffith crack propagation con-
dition (eq. 1.48) rimy be fulfilled for a given stress
u and crack length c in the presence of air (I.e., when
a has a lowered value), but not in vacuum. In this
case, the crack can only propagate at the rate at
which air or moisture can diffuse to its tip. After a
period of slow propagation with the help of absorbed
moisture, the crack length may increase to the value
at which the applied stress can propagate the crack
even without the reduction of the surface energy by
moisture; fracture then occurs suddenly. The
physicochemical nature of the delayed fracture in
glasses is verified by the observation that static
fatigue is absent in vacuum.
The best known type of static fatigue due to
chemical action is stress corrosion, of which the
"season cracking" of cold-worked brass and the
"caustic embrittlement" of steel are familiar ex-
amples. In some cases, its cause is the precipitation
of a phase in the grain boundary which deprives the
adjacent parts of the grains of an element that
increases the resistance to ehemical attack [35]. III
the case of some austenitic Cr-Ni steels, for instance.
ehromium carbide may segregate in the boundar)'
during heating in a certain temperature region, and
the boundary regions of the grains are then depleted
in chromium. Crack propagation by solution of the
more easily attaeked (more anodic) boundary laye"
cannot progress, however, without the presence of l:l
tensile stress which opens up the crack and provides
space for the corrosion products. Under the applied
stress plastie deformation occurs at the tip of the
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
crack; this may disrupt protective layers, and the
increased frec energy of the deformed region makes it
more susceptible to attack (more anodic). Whether
these two effects represent important causes of stress
corrosion is not certain.
Stress-corrosion cracking can progress not only
along the grain boundaries but also across the grains;
brass single crystals crack under tension in the
presence of ammonia much like polycrystalline
brass [36, 37J. This suggests the possibility of a
stress-corrosion mechanism similar to that of the
static fatigue of glass [38J. The effective surface
energy of the crack walls which enters into the
Griffith equation (1.48) can be lowered not only by
adsorption but even more radically by chemical
combination between the corrosive agent and the
metal atoms; .consequently, a crack may propagate
in the presence of a corrosive medium by cleavage
under a relatively low tensile stress while, in the
absence of corrosion, the propagating stress de-
manded by eq. 1.48 may be higher than the yield
stress so that crack propagation by cleavage is
impossible. Obviously, the effect of the adsorptive
or corrosive is to cut the cohesive bonds between the
atoms of the crack walls at an early stage of the
cleavage proeess, by converting them into chemical
or van del' Waals bonds between the atoms of the
crack walls and the atoms, molecules, or ions of the
adsorptive or corrosive agent.
In accordance with its chemical origin, the sus-
ceptibility of metals to stress corrosion is extremely
specific. Thus, for instance, the caustic embrittle-
ment of Cr-Ni-Mo low-alloy steels apparently can be
avoided by omitting anyone of the three alloying
elements.
Corrosion fatigue differs from stress corrosion in
that it occurs only if the stress varies cyclically. It
is fairly insensitive to the duration of the cycles (i.e.,
to the total duration of stress application). Corro-
sion fatigue starts with the appearance of surface
pits which then spread and join up to form surface
grooves not unlike the cracks on the bark of a birch
tree. These pits and blunt cracks apparently de-
"clop because they give rise to stress concentrations
SIren
Time
FIG. 1.19 Typical stress cycle.
21
log S
(Siren
omplitude)
Ill.g., Fllrritic moterials
Genctrol type, e.g., light 0110)'$
Log N (Number of cydes
10 fradure)
FIG. l.?O Representative fatigue fracture stress
curves for metals.
where the inereased elastic energy or plastic deforma-
tion locally raises the free energy; at these spots the
material is electrolytically more soluble in the eor-
rosive solution (more anodic) than its surroundings.
Another possible reason for the local attack is that
the plastic deformation at the pits or cracks may
prevent the formation of protective (passive) layers.
Those features of corrosion fatigue which are of
quantitative interest to the designer will be men-
tioned briefly after the treatment of ordinary
meehanical cyclic fatigue. The chemical mechanisms
of corrosion fatigue, like those of stress corrosion, are
too specific to allow any general treatment. In
what follows. therefore, the main emphasis will be
laid on common mechanical fatigue, which is the
most important fatigue phenomcnon from the point
of view of the engineer
The existence of mechanical fatigue of materials
under cyclic stressing was established by Rankine
in 1843, and the basic laws of the phenomenon were
investigated experimentally by L. Wohler between
1852 and 1869. To describe it in clear terms, a
simple terminology should first be introduced.
Generally, a cyclic stress is the superposition of a
steady stress s and an alternating stress of amplitude
8 and range 28 (Fig. 1.19). The stress amplitude
that causes fracture after N cycles will be called the
fatigue strength for N cycles; if it tends towards a
finite value for infinitely increasing N, this will be
called the limiting fatigue strength or, briefly, the
fatigue limit. In the literature, the fatigue strength
is usually called fatigue endurance; however,
there is no reason why the correct technical term
"strength" for a fracture stress should not be used in
this case also. The fatigue strength depends, in
general, on the steady stress superposed upon the
purely alternating stress.
If the logarithm of 8 (the stress amplitude) is
plotted as a function of the logarithm of N (the
number of cycles to fracture), curves of the type
shown in Fig. 1.20 are obtained. Plain carbon steels
22 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
However, the local tensile stresses which arise in
the course of prolonged alternating slip do not pro-
vide a sufficient explanation of mechanical fatigue.
If the material strain-hardens with plastic deforma-
tion, the first stress cycle ought to harden it so that
no further slip can occur unless the stress amplitude
of the following eycles is progressively increased;
how, then, can alternating slip continue in tests.. at
constant stress amplitude? On the other hand,
observations show that alternating slip continues,
with gradually decreasing amplitude, even in safe
ranges of stress; how can it then be explained that,
in such cases, even hundreds of millions of non-
elastic strain cycles are insufficient for accumulating
the amount of internal stress and lattice damage
necessary for fracture? Thus, the basic questions
of fatigue are (1) How is progressive slip and struc-
tural damage possible under cycles of constant stress
amplitude; and (2) How are safe ranges of stress
possible?
FIG. 1.21 Effect of high-amplitude fatigue on silver The answer to these questions is given by the
chloride sheet. general theory of fatigue [42, 24], whieh is concerned
with those typical features of the fatigue phenomenon
usually have a clearly defined fatigue limit; recent which are largely indepcndent of the individual
experiments indieate that this may be a consequence molecular mechanism of the fatigue damage. A
of the phenomenon of strain aging shown by sueh quantitative description of the theory would require
steels. Nonferrous materials may also give curves too much space to be presented in this chapter; how-
showing, .more or less clearly, two straight parts ever, a qualitative outline of the main points can be
connected by a curved transition region; however, gh:en briefly.
the second straight part is usually not quite hori- The salient point is that in cyclic stressing
zontal but slightly descending. In such cases, there progressive plastic deformation soon becomes con-
is no clear fatigue limit within the experimentally fined to relatively small regions (e.g., at the tips of
accessible values of N. The fatigue strength on small cracks, or in particularly unfavorably situated
which the design must be based is then that for the grains) which are then surrounded by more or less
number of cycles which the structure must with- purely elastic material. Now it is easily seen that.
stand during its intended life. if a largely elastic specimen is subjected to cycles of
n. The Mechanism of Fatigue. A revealing constant stress amplitude, a small plastic region
observation about the mechanism of fatigue is that embedded in it will experience stress cycles of
the fatigue crack, in general, seems to run along slip increasing and strain cycles of decreasing amplitude.
planes, not cleavage planes [39, 40]. This cRll be This is a consequence of progressive strain harden-
recognized without ambiguity in iron where slip ing: as the yield stress of the plastic region rises, its
planes and cleavage planes never coincide. elastic surroundings have to exert upon it increasing
It seems that alternating slip can lead to the de- stress amplitudes to enforce further plastic deforma-
velopment of high tensile stresses in the slip planes tion. By Hooke's law the elastic surroundings must
due to a progressive warping of the slip "packets" in then snffer increasing strain amplitudes, and so the
the course of cyclic straining. Figure 1.21 shows the strain amplitude in the plastic region decreases
waviness developed during a high-amplitude fatigue beeause the sum of the two strain amplitudes must
test in some of the large grains in a polycrystalline remain constant for a given amplitude of stress
silver chloride sheet. The development of tensile applied to the specimens as a whole.
stresses during the warping of slip planes may be The gradual decrease of the plastic strain ampli-
understood by means of the dislocation theory of tude explains why safe ranges of stress are possible.
plastic deformation [41, 42]; if the stress is high It can be shown [42, 43] that the total (integrated
enough, it can cause local fracture. absolute) amount of plastic strain in an elastically
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
embedded strain-hardening plastic region always con-
verges towards a finite value as the number of cycles
increases toward infinity. This liIPit value of the
total plastic strain decreases with the decrease of
the stress amplitude applied to the specimen.
Below a certain stress amplitude the total plastie
strain can never reach the critical value necessary
for producing that combinat\on of strain hardening
(i.e., of the local stress amplitude) and structural
damage at which fracture occurs. On the other
hand, if the local plastic region fractures, a small
crack arises and gives rise to a region of stress
concentrations in which plastic deformations may
now begin. A repetition of the above process may
lead to the extension of the crack and finally to the
fracture of the specimen.
An interesting point emerging from the theory is
that a fatigue fracture can arise without any re-
duction of the cohesion (strength) by structural
damage. Strain hardening alone may raise the
stress in plastic regions gradually to the fracture
level even if the initial strength of the material is
not redueed in the course of the alternating plastic
straining. In most real cases, however, increase of
the local stress by strain hardening and reduction
of the strength by structural injuries probably ~o
hand in hand.
Observations indicate that, in reality, the last
traees of alternating slip never disappear; there is
apparently a minimum value of the plastic strain
amplitude below which no strain hardening is
produced. This can be recognized most directly
from the fact that the width of the hysteresis loop
decreases but does not vanish during cyclic stressing.
It may be mentioned that the general theory of
fatigue leads to a semiquantitative derivation of the
typical shape of the log S-log N curve, and it also
100
CUNO 1; 0.1%
&. CUNO 2;
M
~
..,"
""
~
v
"~
;;;
'0
m
~
:;;
!
'" 0
0 Y1 50
FlO. 1.22 Dependence of fatigue strength on steady stress in plain carbon steels.
23
explains the remarkable fact (see below) that the
influence of the steady stress upon the fatigue
strength is, as a rule, very small and sometimes
imperceptible up to the value of the static yield
stress.
To sum up, it can be said that the typical features
of fatigue under cycles of constant stress amplitude
follow directly from the fact that plastic deformation
is not uniformly distributed but, after an initial
deformation that may possibly extend over most of
the specimen, becomes confined to a few local
regions. Once plastic flow becomes locally con-
centrated, the conditions governing the development
of fatigue cracks can be investigated by a general
consideration of the change of stress and strain
amplitudes in plastic regions embedded in elastic
surroundings subjected to cycles of constant stress
amplitude. As far as the general. features of the
fatigue phenomenon are concerned, the molecular
nature of the fatigue process is of secondary im-
portance; in particular, fatigue fracture might con-
eeivably occur without any decrease of the cohesion,
solely by the rise of the local stress by strain harden-
ing to the fracture level.
C. Influence of a Superposed Steady Stress.
Figure 1.22 shows the dependence of the fatigue
strength (limiting stress amplitude) of three plain-
carbon steels on the steady stress (mean stress of the
cycle) according to the experiments of Pomp and
Hempel [44, 45, 46]; the dash-dotted lines at 45°
to the coordinate axes are the loci of the points at
which the maximum stress of the cycle (including
the steady stress) reaches the conventional elastic
limit (in the present case, the 0.2% proof stress).
The curves reflect, first of all, a general feature of the
dependence of the fatigue strength upon the steady
stress: up to the elastic limit, they represent straight
O.21C
UJ
Y2 Y3 100 150 200
$, Mean SIren of Cycle. 10 3 p1i
24 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
.~
elOO
{ stress concentration present. Figure 1.24 shows fa-
u ------:--~-~
\
o
f threaded rods of the carbon steel which, in the form
~ so
'j
" o±o----:':---_.,.---~·---_--.::.u
.,;
50 100 150
s. M~(ln SIren 01 Cycle. 10) Pi;
FIG. 1.23 Dependence of fatigue strength on steady stres£'
in patented (0.62% C) steel wire.
lines which slopc downwards only slightly with
incrcasing stcady stress. Occasionally this line is
horizontal; in all cases, the influence of the mean
stress on the fatigue strength is small.
Another feature of Fig. 1.22 is the rapid change
of the character of the curve at the elastic limit.
The slope changes abruptly with the onset of sig-
nificant plastic deformations; the curves show a
distinct increase of the fatigue strcngth (limiting
safe stress amplitude supcrposed to the steady stress)
at the end of the elastic region. This "step" at the
elastic limit is followed by a second abrupt change
of slope, during which the fatigue strength declines
with further increase of the steady stress.
With strongly cold-worked metals, proof stress
and ultimate stress nearly coincide. In such cases
only the first part of the "step" seen in Fig. 1.22
can be observed. An example is shown in Fig. 1.23
("patented" steel ,,~re, 0.62% 0) [45J.
If a rod is eircumferentially notched (e.g., if it
is threaded), its static yield and ultimate stresses
referred to the smallest cross section are higher than
Ploin bers
" of eyelc. S
."
u "
vi 25
" end If Whitworth threoded
bers. overogo vol"e:
0:':0
Y pla'n
-:':":---:;:::O;:'--'>L_,,~-L:.~-~,,
Mean SI'en. I, of eytle. 10 3 Pi;
FIG. 1.24 Comparison of fatigue strengths of plain and
threaded bars of 0.1 % C steels.
those for the smooth rod (owing to "plastic con-
straint" exertcd by the adjacent larger sections);
its fatigue strength, however, is rcduccd by the
tigue strength curves for 1 in. and Ii in. Whitworth
of smooth cylindrical specimens, gives curve 1 in
\ Fig. 1.22 (this curve is repeated in Fig. 1.24) 1461.
\ The designer is mainly interested in stresses
within the elastie limit; for this reason, the present
200
considerations will be confined to the first part of
the curves in Fig. 1.22. This can be represented
schematically as a straight line connccting the point
P of the fatigue strength in purely alternating
stressing with a point Q on the abscissa nxis (cf.
Fig. 1.25); as before, the dash-dotted 45° line
represents the elastic limit beyond which curve
deviates from the line PQ. In the str~ss range of
interest to the designer, the effect of the steady
stress is therefore given by the equation
S = So ( 1 - S:) (1.51)
where S is the fatigue strength at the steady stress s,
So its value for s = 0, and Sp = OQ, a stress param-
eter that determines the position of the line PQ.
For many decades in the past, the dependence of
the fatigue strength upon the steady stress was
usually represented by the Goodman diagram in
which the assumption was made that the strcss
parameter Sp = OQ can be identified with the ulti-
mate stress; the Goodman diagram is indicated
in Figure 1.25 by the dashed line PU where OU is
the ultimate stress. Goodman's idea was that the
line would have to go through the point at which
f1failure" would occur in purely static tension. As
can bc seen from the discussion in Section 1.3, this
argumcnt is invalid: the ultimate stress is not a
stress at which fracture occurs but merely the
\0.,
Sl,cU
Ampliludc Elc~lic limit S"" S (I_"!")
p of (yel(\'
Elallic limil
~ 'cr:::------""" (initial yield '!fem)
~'t'
:
So Goodman liM ~. "'~:
............'i
-.....:::,j ~
0 ..... ,
Obl(\'N(\'d
:
1 O;'------"I-~
..........................
Mean (,!cody) Sire". ,
u........ Q
FlO. 1.25 The influence of steady (mean) stress upon
the fatigue limit.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
(conventional) stress at which the maximum load is
reached and necking begins in the static tensile
test. For this reason, the ultimate stress point U
has no place on any curvc showing the dependence
of the fatigue strength upon the steady stress, and
much less on the straight line that forms the initial
elastic part of such curves. In the experimental
curves shown in Fig. 1.22, for instance, the extension
of the initial straight part may intersect the abscissa
axis quite far from the point U of the ultimate
stress; the stress parameter Sp in eq. 1.51 and the
position of thc point Q can only be derived from
fatigue tests. The only point that can be made in
defense of the Goodman line is that its errors, how-
ever large, usually lie in the safe direetion.
D. Influence of a Compound State of Stress.
Relatively little is known about the eondition
of fatigue fracture for cyclieally varying triaxial
states of stress. However, a practically important
case, that of a shaft subjected to cyclic torsion and
bending simultaneously, has been investigated in
detail by Gough and Pollard [47]. They found that
for a given (large) number of cycles, those corre-
sponding values Sand T, respectively, of the tensile-
stress amplitude due to bending and of the shear-
stress amplitude due to torsion at which fraeture
oceurs are determined approximately by the re-
lationship
(1.52)
where So is the fatigue strength for the same number
of cycles in pure bending, and To the fatigue (shear)
strength in pure torsion.
E. Influence of Notches and of Surface Flaws.
Stress raisers are relatively unimportant in ductile
metals under static stress, because plastic flow levels
down the stress at thc stress concentrations. In
cyclic stressing, the situation is different: local
cyclic straining produces progressive strain harden-
ing with consequent rise of the local stress. If the
strain hardening could continue with cyclic plastic
deformation at a finite rate, no matter how small
the plastic strain amplitude, it would finally raise
the yield stress until no plastic deformation could
occur. The local alternating stress amplitude and
the effective stress concentration factor would then
be the same as in a purely elastic body of the same
geometry.
Experience shows that this is not the case in
fatigue. The effect of notches, cracks, and surface
flaws is usually much greater than in static stressing,
but it is still far below what it would be for a purely
25
elastic material. The simplest explanation of this
remarkable fact is to assume that cyclic straining
ceases to produce strain hardening when the strain
amplitude becomes too small (sec above); if this is
the case, the material at the tip of thc crack never
becomes quite elastic and thc stress can never reach
the level of the elastic stress concentration. Dif-
ferent materials have different "notch sensitivities" O
(not to be confused with the notch sensitivity for
static brittle fracture). Some of them, like grey
lamellar cast iron or certain bronzes, are almost
insensitive to the presence of small sharp cracks or
notches; their q value will therefore be close to zero.
Others, like hard steels, arc very sensitive, with q
in the neighborhood of 1.
Similarly, the surface quality has an influence
upon the fatigue strength of ductile metals that is
between those for a completely brittle material
likc glass and for a ductile metal under static stress.
Occasionally, the fatigue strength of extruded light-
alloy rods with the extrusion skin has been found
to be as low as one-half of the fatigue strength of a
machined specimen of the same rod. In some cases,
the fatigue strength can be raiseO considcrably by
surface rolling or shot blasting (e.g., for heat-treated
spring steels); in others, such a treatment has no
significant beneficial influence (e.g., with many
light alloys). Excessive surface rolling or shot
blasting in materials of limited ductility may even
reduce the fatigue strength by producing surface
cracks.
There is a difference of great importance between
the fatigue strength of a ductile metal and the
(static) strength of a brittle material like glass. In
the latter case, the strength can be raised sometimes
by a factor of 10 or even 100 if surface cracks arc
very carefully avoided. In ductile metals, it is
relatively easy to improve the quality of the surface
so that any remaining flaws have no influence on the
fatigue strength. However, this does not raise the
fatigue strength spectacularly because plastic defor-
mations set in as soon as the elastic limit is exceeded,
and they produce cracks after sufficiently prolonged
cyclic stressing in a way that is now more or less
understood. For this reason, there is no hope that
the fatigue strength may be raised much above the
elastic limit. If, on the other hand, the elastic limit
is raised by strain hardening, precipitation hardcn-
6A conventional quantitative definition of the relative notch
sensitivity q. in cyclic stress is q = (kl - l)/(k e - 1) where
k e is the elastic stress concentration factor for a given notch
llnd kl is the factor by which the fatigue strength is reduced
by the prcsence of the notch. Of course, q depends in gencral
on the size and shape of the notch.
26 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
ing, or in any other way, a decrease of ductility is
unavoidably associated with the increase of the
fatigue strength. .~
F. Fatigue Tests on Specimens VB. Fatigue
Tests on Structural Parts. The strength of
structural parts under static load can usually· be
calculated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of
tests performed on specimens. Stress concentrations
either do not matter (in very ductile materials), or
they can be ealculated by methods given in the
theory of elasticity. The situation, however, is very
different in cyclic stressing. The effective stress con-
centration factors depend here not only on the geom-
etry and On the elastic constants, but in the first line
on the Hnotch sensitivity" of the material, which
depends On the size of the notch. Whenever a
structural part has a strongly non-uniform stress
distribution, therefore, its fatigue properties cannot
be calculated from tests on specimens with any
reasonable accuracy. If the structural part cannot
be overdimensioned so as to exclude any danger, it is
necessary to carry out full-scale fatigue tests on it
[48]. This is particularly important, of course, in
the case of aircraft structures. As already mentioned,
attention must be given in any case to possible dif-
ferences between the fatigue behavior of specimens
with carefully machined surfaces and specimens or
structural parts with surfaces as they will be present
in the structure.
There is a morc trivial reason why so often conclu-
sions drawn from experiments with specimens are not
fulfilled by structures. Fatigue tests are usually con-
stant stress tests, occasionally constant strain tests.
On the other hand, if a structure is subjected to cycles
of constant load or deformation amplitude, some of
its elements (for instance, regions of stress concentra-
tions) will be under cycles of increasing stress
amplitnde and decreasing strain amplitude, for the
reason explained above in connection with the general
theory of fatigue. It follows, then, that the results
of constant amplitude tests cannot be applied directly
to the calculation of the fatigue strength of structurcs
with non-uniform stress distribution. A general
method of calculation iu such cases has been given
[43]; for the present, however, lack of experimental
data prevents the practieal use of this method except
in the simplcst cascs.
G. Periodically Varyiug Thermal Stresses.
If a body is rigidly clampcd at two points, incrcase
or decrease of its temperaturc gives rise to thcrmal
stresses in it. The magnitude of these stresses de-
pends not only on the temperature change and on the
material, but also on the shape of the body; in a
multiply bent, relatively thin tube the stresses are
much lower than in a straight bar fixed at two cross
sections.
Obviously, the action of a stress upon a material
is quite independent of how it is produced; conse-
quently, the fatigue effect of a thermal stress cycle
is identical with that of a mechanical load cycle
involving the same stresses at the same temperatures.
Compared with the ordinary fatigue test, the only
new factor introduced by the thermal eycling of a
rigidly supported specimen is that, together with the
stress, the temperature also varies during the cycle.
If the temperature amplitude is relatively small, the
fatigue effects of a thermal cycle will be the same as
those of an isothermal load cycle involving the same
stresses at a constant temperature equal to a suitably
chosen mean temperature of the thermal cycle. That
this can be so even for cycles of considerable tempera-
ture amplitude is indicated by recent experiments of
Coffin [49J. The equivalent mean temperature of
the cycle, however, is not necessarily the mean value
of its highest and lowest temperatures. If the magni-
tude of fatigue damage is determined mainly by the
amount of plastic deformation, the temperature of
the equivalent isothermal cycle will lie nearer to the
maximum than to the mean temperature of the
thermal cycle because the material is softest, and
plastic deformation greatest, in the high temperature
part of the cycle. The opposite behavior (the low-
temperature part of the cycle being of dominating
importance) may conceivably also occur. If the
specimen is a straight rod or tube with fixed ends, it
is always in tension during the low-temperature part
of the eycle. If now the tensile part of the cycle is
more likely to produce fatigue damage than the com-
pressive part, the effect. of the thermal cycle may be
closer to that of an isothermal cycle with the same
stress range taking place near the lowest temperature
of the stress cycle.
A new factor appears (both in thermal and in
purely mechanical cycling) if the temperature is so
high that the strain hardening and the structural
damage due to plastic deformation are currently re-
moved during the cyclic straining. In this case, the
progressive changes which represent cyclic fatigue
cannot develop. Nevertheless, fracture may occur
owing to a different phenomenon which has been
treated already under the heading of creep fracture.
At very high temperatures (in the hot creep range),
the grain boundaries become soft, and the consequent
relative displacements between the neighboring
grains open up cracks which finally can lead to
fracture ("static fatigue"). At first sight, it might
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
seem that this eannot occur under purely cyclic stress
because the displacements produced by the tensile
part of the eycle are reversed ''by the compressive
part. However, the compressive part cannot undo
all damage done by the tensile part, and so fatigue
fracture can also occur under purely cyclic stress,
although much more slowly than under a steady
tensile stress.
Lazan and Westberg [501 have carried out experi-
ments in the interesting transition region just below
the hot-creep range; they applied both purely cyclic
and purely static stresses and intermediate types of
loading with a static stress superposed upon a steady
,;tress. Figure 1.26 illustrates some of their results.
~\s in room temperature experiments, a relatively
low mean stress has only a slight influenee upon the
fatigue strength if the duration of the test is not too
long. If the time to fracture is 150 hours or longer,
creep predominates over cyclic fatigue, and the
steady component of the cycle becomes important
from the beginning. The vertical parts of the curves
show that the static fatigue strength is almost un-
influenced by the cyclic component until the cyclic
stress amplitude becomes higher than about one-half
of the static stress. The observed curves, therefore,
consist essentially of a nearly horizontal part repre-
senting cyclie fatigue (except in very prolonged tests,
as mentioned above), and of a vertical part repre-
senting creep fracture. The transition between the
horizontal and the vertical part is the region in which
cyclic and static fatigue are of comparable impor-
tance.
If a material has been cold worked and then sub-
jected to plastic deformation at a higher tempera-
ture, it may soften more than if it had been subjected
to the effect of the higher temperature alone without
Speed of Cycling
.~
30 214,000 reversals/hr.
~ J::::::",=:::",,::,=f:::::':'"}(5. 50,
.;
'0
~
u 20
'0
E Anisotropic metals such as zinc, or metals that
;;;
.~
g 10
"•
.,;
o OL--~-:-,0:'--L,-L--'c20:-"--.'--'3~O­
.. Meon Siren of Cycle, 10 3 psi
FIG, 1.26 Fatigue-creep rupture interaction curves for
N-155 at 1500 F. After Lazan and Westberg.
27
fatigue fraduro SIren Curvo
Domage Line
Log N (N = Number of slreu cydM)
FIG. 1.27 The damage area in fatigue.
further deformation [19b, 51]. In the course of the
deformation, its relatively highly hardened structure
changes to the less hardened structure characteristic
of deformation at the higher temperature. A similar
strain-softening effect can also be observed in fatigue
tests with previously strongly cold-worked materials
[52]. This, however, does not mean that strain
hardening is not an important factor in fatigue.
Local regions of stress concentration, e.g., at the tip
of a fatigue crack, may well harden under cyclic
stressing, while the static yield stress of the pre-
strained bulk material decreases by thermal recovery
with or without strain softening.
H. Thermal Fatigue. The most severe case of
cyclic thermal stressing takes place when the surface
of a metal is rapidly heated to a high temperature
and then cooled again. This occurs in hot rolls, gun
barrels, etc.; if the temperature amplitude is high,
the usual effect is the formation of surface cracks
("crazing") which gradually spread inwards. Fre-
quently this cannot be prevented; the life of the body
can be prolonged, however, if the surface is machined
off before the cracks become too deep. In other cases,
Time 10 frodufe
thermal cracking would occur with most materials
150, 500. 1500 hrs
but can be avoided by the use of special metals, such
as, e.g., the 12% Cr steel used for rolls in continuous
sheet glass manufacture.
suffer phase transformations in the temperature
range to which they are subjected, can suffer plastic
deformations on a microscopic scale within the grains
which are confined and distorted by their neighbors,
even if there is no significant temperature gradient
present. This may result in progressive structural
damage during thermal cycling.
J. Damage by Overs tress. If a material is sub-
jected to stress amplitudes above the fatigue limit,
28 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
it may suffer permanent damage which reduces its
fatigue strength for suhsequently applied cycles of
lower stress amplitude. It seems that those combina-
tions of stress amplitude and number of cycles above
which permanent damage occurs lie in the area D
(Fig. 1.27) between the high-stress part of the
log S-log N curve and a line below it which joins the
curve at the bend [53]. This line, shown dashed in
Fig. 1.27, is the "damage line." The permanent
damage suffered in the damage area D eonsists proba-
bly in the formation of small cracks.
K. Corrosion Fatigue. If the cyclically stressed
material is in a chemically active solution, its fatigue
strength may be substantially lowered. Whether in
this case an approximate fatigue limit exists is not
certain; as in stress corrosion, the phenomenon is so
strongly influenced by the individuality of the metal
and of the surrounding solution that the only general
statement that ean be made about it is a warning
against premature extrapolations to even slightly
different metals and solutions.
References
1. M. Cook and E. C. Larke, "Resistance of Copper and
Copper Alloys to Homogeneous Deformation in Com-
pression/' J. Inst. Afetals, Vol. 71, p. 371 (1945).
2. M. Tresca, /IM6moire SUf Ie poin~nnage et la thCoric
mccanique de la d6£ormll.tion des metaux," Campt. rend.,
Vol. 68, pp. 1197-1201 (1869).
3. R. von Mises, "Mcchanik der festen Korper im plastisch-
deformablen Zustand," Nachr. kgl. Ges. Wiss. Afath.-Phys.
Klasse, 1913, pp. 582-592.
4. R. Hill, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, p. 20.
The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1950.
5. J. L. M. Morrison, liThe Yield of Mild Steel with Particular
Reference to Effect of Size of Specimen," Proc., Insf.
Mech. Engr,. (Landon), Vol. 142. pp. 193-223 (1940).
6. O. Hoffman and G. Sachs, Inlroductwn to the Theory of
Plasticity for Engineers, McGrnw~Hill Book Co., New
York, 1953.
7. M. Considcre. "L'emploi du fer et de l'acier dans les con-
structions," Ann. Ponts et Chaussees, 6th Series, Vol. 9,
pp. 574-775 (1885).
S. G. Sachs and J. D. Lubahn, IIFailure of Ductilc Metals in
Tension," Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, pp. 277-279 (1946).
9. H. W. Swift, HPlastic Instability Under Plane Stress,"
Journal of Mech. & Phys. of Solids, Vol. I, No.1, pp. 1-18
(October. 1952).
10. W. R. D. Manning, uThe Overstrain of Tubea by Internal
Pressure/' Engineering, Vol. 159, pp. 101-102, 183-184
(1945); also uThe Design of Compound Cylinders for
High Pressure Scrvice/' Engineering, Vol. 161, pp. 349-
352 (1947).
11. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
uThe Plastic Flow of Thick-Walled Tubea with Large
Strains," J. Appl. Phy,;;., Vol. 19, pp. 291-297 (1948);
also uPartially Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes," J. Franklin
IMt., Vol. 245, pp. 135-158 (1948).
12. E. N. do. C. Andrade, liThe Flow in Metals Under Large
Constant Stresses," Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 90,
pp. 329-342 (1914).
13. P. Phillips, "The Slow Stretch in Indiarubber, Glass, and
Metal Wires when Subjected to a Constant Pull," Phil.
Mag., 6th Series, Vol. 9, pp. 513-531 (1905).
14. F. H. Norton, Creep of Steel at High Temperatures,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1929.
15. C. R. Soderberg, "The Interpretation of Creep Tests
for Machine Design," Trans. ASME, Vol. 58, pp. 733-743
(1936 ).
16. A. Nadai, "The Influence of Time upon Creep. The
Hyperbolic Sine Creep Law," S. Timoshenko 60th Anni-
versary Vol., Macmillan Co., New York, 1938.
17. E. Orowan, uDiscussion on Plastic Flow in Metals,"
Proc. Roy Soc., Series A, Vol. 168, p. 307 (1938)j also
Proc. First Nat. Congr. Appl. Mecl!., June, 1951, p. 453.
J. \V. Edwards, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1952.
18. R. Becker, uUber die Plastizitiit amorpher und kristal-
liner fester Korper," Physik. Z., Vol. 26, p. 919 (1925);
also Z. Tech. Physik., Vol. 7, p. 547 (1926).
19. E. Growan, "The Creep of Metals," Z. Physik., Vol. 98,
p. 382 (1935); also "The Creep of Metals'" Trans. West of
Scotland Iron Steel IMt., pp. 45-96 (1947).
20. F. R. Larson and J. Miller, "A Time-Temperature Rela-
tionship for Rupture and Creep Stresses," Trans. ASME,
Vol. 74, pp. 765-771 (1952).
21. N. J. Grant and A. G. Bucklin, On the Extrapolation of
Short-Time Stress-Rupture Data, ASM Preprint No. 18,
1949.
22. A. A. Griffith, uThe Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in
Solids," Trans. Roy. Soc., Seriea A, Vol. 221, pp. 163-198
(1920-21); also First Internal. Congr. Appl. Mech., p. 55,
Delft, 1924.
23. C. E. Inglis, flStresses in a Plate due to the Presence of
Cracks and Sharp Corners," Trans. Inst. Naval Archil.,
Vol. 55, Part I, pp. 219-230 (1913).
24. E. Orowan, uFracture and Strength of Solids," Reports
on Progress in Physics, Vol. 12,. pp. 185-232 (1949).
25. A. Mesnager, Rtunum des Membres Franrais et Belges de
l'Association Intemationale des Methode d'Essais, pp. 395-
405, December, 1902.
26. P. Ludwik and R. Scheu, no-ber Kerbwirkungen bei
Flusseiscn," Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 43, pp. 999-1001 (1923).
27. E. Orowan, "Notch Brittleness and the Strength of
Metals," Trans. Inst. Engrs. Shipbuilders Scot., Paper
No. 1063, pp. 165-215, December, 1945.
28. N. N. Davidenkov and F. \'littman, "Mechanical Analy-
sis of Impact Brittleness," Phys.-Techn. Ins!. (U.S.S.R),
Vol. 4, p. 308 (1937).
2D. D. K. Felbeck and E. Orowan, "Experiments on Brittle
Fracture of Steel Plates," Welding J. (N.Y.), Res. Suppl.,
Vol. 20, No.7 (1955).
30. M. J. Manjoine, IIInOuence of Rate of Strain and Tem~
perature on Yield Stresses of Mild Steel," J. Appl.
Jfechanics, Vol. 11, pp. A211-218 (1944).
31. G. 1. Taylor, "Testing of Materials at High Rates of
Loading." J. Inst. Civ. Engrs., Vol. 26, pp. 486-519.
(1946).
32. E. Growan, "Fundamentals of Brittle Behavior in
Metals," in William M. Murray, cd., Fatigue and Fracture
of Metals: A Symposium, pp. 139-167, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1952.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
33. F. J. Feely, Jr., and M. S. Northup, HStudy of Brittle
Failure in Tank Steels," presented at the Midyear Mtg.,
Am. Petro lost., in Houston, Texas, May, 1954.
34. E. Orowan, flA Type of plastiC Deformation New in
Metals/' Nature, London, Vol. 149, p. 643 (1942).
35. G. Akimow, HEine neue Theorie der StrukturkarrOs1Qn/'
Karrosion u. MetaUschutz, Vol. 8, p. 197 (1932).
36. G. Wassermann, HUntersuchungen tiber den Vorgang cler
Spannungekorrosion/' Z. Metalll..:unde, Vol. 34, p. 297
(1942).
37. G. Edmunds, /lSeasan Cracking of Brass," ASTM Symp.
on Stress-Cfm'. Crad.:ing in Metals, p. 67 (1944).
38. E. Orowan, in a paper presented before The Electrochem.
Soc., BostoD, Oct. 4, 1954.
39. J. A. Ewing and J. C. \V. Humfrey, "The Fracture of
Metals Under Repeated Alternating Stress," Trans.
Roy Soc., Series A, Vol. 200, pp. 241-250 (1903).
40. F. A. McClintock, "On Direction of Fatigue Cracks in
Polycrystalline Ingot Iron/' J. Appl. }.{echaniC8, Vol.
19, pp. 54-56 (1952).
41. E. Orowan, HDislocations and Mechanical Properties" in
Dislocaticns in Metals, AIMEI New York, 1954.
42. E. Orowan, ICTheory of the Fatigue of Metals," Proc.
Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 171, pp. 79-106 (1939).
43. E. Orowan, IlStress Concentrations in Steel under Cyclic
Load," Welding J., (N.Y.), Res. Suppl., Vol. 17, pp. 273,-
282s, June, 1952.
44. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, flDauerfestigkeitsscbaubilder
von SUihlen bei verschiedenen Zugmittelapannugen unter
BerUcksichtigung der PrUfstabform/ ' Mitt. Kai.ser-
Wilhelm-Inst. Eis<njorsch. Dusseldorf., Vol. 18, pp. 1-14
(1936).
29
45. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, "Dauerprtifung von Stahldreh-
ten unter wechselnder Zugbeansprunchung,l' }.[iU. Kaiser-
Wilhelm-Inst. Ei.senjorsch. DUsseldorf, Vol. 19, pp. 237-
246 (1937).
46. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, HDauerfestigkeitsschaubilder
von Gekerbten und Kaltverformten Stahlen Bowie von
1"- und 11 11- Schrauben bei Verschiedenen Zugmittel-
spannungen," MiU. Kai.ser-Wilhelm-Inst. Eisenforsch.
Dusseldorf, Vol. 18, pp. 205-215 (1936).
47. H. J. Gough and H. V. Pollard, "The Strength of Metals
under Combined Alternating Stresses," Proc. Inst. Mech.
Engrs. (London), Vol. 131, pp. 3-04 (1935).
48. R. L. Templin, IIDesigning for Fatigue" in William M.
Murray, ed., Fatigue and Fracture of Metals; A Sym-
posium, pp. 131-138, John Wiley & Sonsl New York,
1950.
49. L. F. Coffin, Jr., IIA Study of the Effecta of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses on a Ductile Metal," Trans. ASME, Vol. 76,
No.6, pp. 931-950 (19M).
50. B. J. Lazan and E. Westberg, HEffect of Tensile and Com-
pressive Fatigue Stress on Creep, Rupture and Ductility
Properties of Temperature-Resistant Materialft," Proc.
ASTM, Vol. 52, pp. 837-855 (1953).
51. J. E. Darn, A. Goldberg, and T. E. Teitz, liThe Effect of
Thermal~mechanicalHistory on the Strain Hardening of
Metals." AIME Tech. Pub. No. 2445, 1948.
52. N. H. Polakowski, HSoftening of Certain Cold-worked
Metals Under the Action of Fatigue Loads," ASTM
Preprint No. 74, 1954.
53. H. J. French! "Fatigue and Hardening of Steels," Trans.
Am. Soc. Steel Treating, Vol. 21, pp. 899-946 (1933).
 CHAPTER
Design Assumptions, Stress Evaluation,
and Design Limits
HE previous chapter passed over the problem
T of ealculating stresscs and strains from the
applied load in order to concentrate on cer-
tain fundamental knowledge from the physics of
solids which, it was pointed out, is relatively new
and as yet largely unformulated for use in routine
design engineering. The present chapter offers a
general examination of the factors which enter into
the evaluation of stresscs in piping systcms due to
various external and internal loadings, their associa-
tion with design limits and Code rules, and finally,
their significance and application to practical design.
\Vith the increasing complexity, size, and economic
significance' of piping installations, it is necessary
to look beyond the limits of ordinary piping design
practice and to give attention to the expericnces of
designers in related fields, particularly that of pres-
sure vessel design. Indeed, there is often no logical
distinction between pressure vessels and piping.
Therefore, appropriate comments relative to com-
parative piping and pressure vessel design approaches
are given frequently in the discussions which follow.
In further consequence of the economic importance
of present-day piping installations it is necessary,
just as in the design of structures and pressure cquip-
ment, to effect a careful and realistic compromise
betwcen design features (not overlooking materials,
fabrication, and inspection requirements) and the
overall plant economics (first cost plus maintenance
and contingency for damages to property and per-
sonnel in event of failure). Safety of operating
lPiping is n. major item in process plants, running from 50
to 75 per cent of the total plant cost.. Similar significant
expenditures are incurred in power generation and marine
propulsion installations.
30
personnel and the interests of the general public
dictate that all feasible precautions be exercised.
Maximum assurance of safety, however, would
require complete examination of all materials and
fabrication by the best available means and with
duplicate independent inspection. Even so, abso-
lute assurance of safety could not be attained due to
personnel fallibility and the limitations in sensitivity
of available methods of nondestructive examination.
With this realization, in the practical approach of
achieving adequate safety economically, lower levels
of quality are aceepted on the basis of including com-
pensating safety factors in design, which are the
combined result of experience and reasoning. Many
inconsistencies still exist in current practice relative
to quality requirements of materials and fabrication,
and in the value placed on various degrees of inspec-
tion, tests, and nondestructive examination.
It should be appreciated that Codes and Standards
can establish only a level of minimum requirements
for average service, based on knowledge, experience,
and the consensus of qualified individuals. Many
circumstances relating to service operation, materials
and fabrication, inspection limitations, or to unusual
design deserve special consideration if the resulting
piping systems are to be reasonably free from main-
tenance, and provide satisfactory length of life with
safe operation. To assist the piping engineer in the
exercise of good judgment on these special problems,
this chapter offers approaches which largely depend
on well-established practical experience.
2.1 Codes and Standards
The objective of Code rules and Standards (apart
from fixing dimensional values) is to achieve mini-
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
mum requirements for safe construction; in other
words, to provide public protection by defining those
material, design, fabrication, and inspection require-
ments whose omission may radically increase operat-
ing hazards. Absolute assurance of safety would
require perfect design, materials, and fabrication;
this is seldom, if ever, achieved. On the other hand,
experience with Code rules has demonstrated that
the probability of disastrous failure can be reduced
to the extremely low level necessary to protect life
and property by suitable minimum requirements and
safety factors. Obviously, it is impossible for general
rules to anticipate other than conventional service,
and it would be uneconomic for them to provide for
corrosion, erosion, fatigue, shock, or potential brittle
fracture, except to the degree that such conditions are
known to be present. Suitable precautions are, there-
fore, entirely the responsibility of the design engineer
guided by the needs and speeifications of the user.
A listing of all Standards and Specifications con-
eerning piping design, together with their mandatory
effective edition references, appears in an appendix
of the Code for Pressure Piping (ASA B31.1).
Those which affect the mechanical design of piping
are briefly commented on in the following para-
graphs, relative to their basic approach and sig-
nificant details.
One of the difficulties which often confronts de-
signers of vessels and piping, as related to Code
requirements and particularly local governmental
regulations, is the proper classifieation of borderline
pressure equipment. Currently (1955), neither the
ASME nor the ASA Code contains definitions for
vessels or piping which are helpful in this respect.
While the Code Committees have considered this
matter, no common agreement has been reached.
Some items in piping systems often considered and
fabricated as part of the piping, e.g. pulsation damp-
eners, are classed as pressure vessels in some States.
In doubtful eases it is advisable for the user to cheek
with the local authorities, especially in localities
having regional pressure vessel laws.
ASI\1E Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section I,
Pmver Boilers, cont.'\ins rules for the pressure design of boiler
piping within the specified boiler limits which are associa.ted
with appropriate steam and feed-water stop valves. The
design, fabrication, and inspection requirements of the ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, are often used by
reference in company specifications to supplement the Piping
Code. Section IX of the ASME Code is the universal basis
for qualification of welding procedures and operators of all
pressure equipment.
ASA B31.1: Code for Pressure Piping. This is the
standard "Piping Code" which includes sections on Power,
31
Gas & Air, Oil, District Heating, Refrigeration, Oil Transmis-
sion, Gas Transmission and Distribution Systems (ASA
B3 1.1.8-1955), and Chemical Piping. Its basic or general
supporting sections deal with requirements for internal
pressure, flexibility, materials, fabrication, and testing.
At the present writing (1955), this Code is in the process of
evolution from a Design Practice to a Safety Code. The
Gas Transmission and Distribution Section has been adopted
by several States and ie under consideration by others; the
entire Code is used as a basis of enforcement in several U. S.
cities and in the Provinces of Canada. In recognition of this
trend, a Conference Committee similar to that of the ASME
Boiler Code and composed of the Chief Inspection Authority
of each State and each Canadian Province which has adopted
the (Piping) Code, has been appointed. At the same time a
procedure was established to provide interpretations in the
form of Cases, which again parallels the ASME Boiler Code
procedure.
This transition is largely due to recognition by publie
authorities that pipe line failures associated with a sudden
release of stored energy arc potentially as dangerous as pres-
sure vessel failures. Experience with piping systems also
demanded a change in the former attitude that thermal ex-
pansion strains could not be responsible for a major failure.
Although this type of failure is due to fatigue rather than to n
single application of strain loading it can be a definite hazard
in most services.
ASA B9: Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration.
This Code contains, in Section 9, brief rules for pressure and
general design of p1ping for this specific service.
Piping for Ships. Such piping requires spedal considera-
tion because of added strains from the motions of the ship.
Naval vcssels are subject to added shock due to Budden
maneuvering, gunfirc, explosions, etc. Requirements for
merchant and naval vessels are contained in the following:
Standards:
U. S. Navy, BUfCSU of Ships: General Machinery Specifi-
cations; Gcneral Specifications for Building Naval Vessels.
American Bureau of Shipping: Rules for Building and elMs-
ing Vcssels.
United States Coast Guard: 1Inrine Engineering Regula-
tions and Material Specifications.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping Rules
Flange and Fitting Standards. The B1G group of ASA
Standards apply to pipe-fitting details. Although their signifi-
cance is primarily dimensional, they involve design factors
which should be appreciated. These are summarized in the
following sections:
Sleel Flanges. The proportions of scparate flanges and those
integrated with fittings were established many years ago, bascd
on simplified cantilever analysis. In 1953 the stecl flangcs
were reinvestigated according to prcsent ASME Boiler Code
formulas. New ratings were established for two general
classes of gaskets and facing details. These appear in ASA
Standard, B1G.5-1953, and also in the AS ME Codes. The
basis of the neW ratings is rC'~orded in Appendix D of the
B1G.5 Standard. The calculated stress in the flanges shows
appreciable variation with size, series, and facings. A stress
of 8750 psi at the primary pressure rating was selected for the
purpose of establishing Class A ratings. Class B ratings are
approximately 83% of Class A ratings. In the creep range at
or above the primary rating temperature, ASME Power
Boiler Code strcsscs are adhercd to. For temperaturcs up to
32 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
650 F the ratings :ire based on allowable stresses, which nrc
approximately 60% of the yield strength. This is similar to
the allowable stress basis of the Piping Code, Section 3, Oil
Piping. Ratings between 650 F a'nd the primary service
temperature are established by a straight line transition.
In general, the bolting, particularly when alloy steel, is of
substantially greater strength than the flanges, which cnn be
distorted by overtightening. This excess bolt strength is
significant in the ability of ABA flanges to transmit line mo-
ments, as discussed later in Chapter 3.
Steel Flanged Fitling 1'hickness. Fitting thicknesses were
originally established for cast-carbon steel by npplicntion of
the Barlow (outside diameter) formula with nn allowable
stress of 7000 psi at the primary pressure rating, and applying
a 50% increase in thickness as a "shape factor. J' This approach
was later extended to other cast and forged materials. The
fitting thicknesses in the 1953 issue of BIG.5 are based on this
same allowable stressJ which is 80% of the value used for
rating Class A flanges, using the primary service pre.ssure
and the modified Lam6 formula now common to the Codes.
An excess thickness of 50% is provided for all flanged fittings
in recognition of the reinforcment required at the side outlets
of tees, bonnet necks of valves and similar branch connections J
as well as for elbows, whether or not they have side branch
connections.
Steel Butt lVelding Filling Thickness. For cast- or wrought-
butt welding fittings the thickness required by ASA Standar r1
B16.9 at the welding ends is the same as that of the pipe size
and schedule with which they are intended w be used. In-
gtead of establishing minimum wall thicknesses or "shape
factors" as is done for flanged fittings J this Standard requires
only that the bursting strength be not less than that of a pipe
of the corresponding material, size, and schedule number; the
pressure-temperature rating then becomes identical with that
of the intact pipe.
API-ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels. This
pressure vessel Code is sometimes used as a reference in
company specifications. Except (or the absence of mandawry
random examination requirements, its provisions are essen-
tially the same as Section VIII of the ASl\,fE Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code.
API Standards. In addition to material specifications for
line pipe, threads J etc., the American Petroleum Institute has
standards for certain types of iron or steel valves for refinery
or drilling and production service (API Standards 600, fiC
and 6D) and (or ring-joint flanges (API Standard 6B). The
flanges and ratings utilized in Standard 600 are based on ASA
standards. Standards 6C and 6D assign separate pressure
ratings for "pipe line service" and IIdrilling and production
service" at 100 F. In addition w utilizing ASA St.andard
flanges, API Standard 6B includes a special "2900 lb" series.
This is similar to the original assignment of a 4000 lb rating
to 1500 lb series flanges, drilled one size smaller, which was
advanced and used by The M. W. Kellogg CompanYJ except
that the design was refined J in accordance with calculations
.using ASME Code formulas, by Messrs. Petrie and Watts
of the Crane Company and Standard Oil Company (Indiana),
respectively. The API Standard assigns a 100 F rating of
7500 psi for pipe line service, and 10,000 psi for drilling and
production service. For the latter service, materials with
higher tensile and .yield strengths are required. The API
ratings for ASA flanges are the same as ASA ratings for pipe
line service; for drilling and production service the 600 Ib and
higher series are required w have increased physical properties
and accordingly nrc assigned ratings about 33% higher.
Other Standards: Other Standards which contribute to
piping design are those of the Manufacturers Standardization
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (1\1SS Standard
Practices)J American Water Works Association (AWWA),
American Gas Association (AGA), Federal Specifications
Board (FSB), and Association of American Railroads (AAR).
These are (or the most part dimensional standards and rating
hlbles (or specific piping and fittings.
2.2 Design Considerations: Loadings
A piping system constitutes an irregular space
frame into which strain and attendant stress may
be introduced by the initial fabrication and erection,
and also may exist due to various circumstances
during operation, standby, or shutdown. In its
erected position, a piping system is subject to loads
due to dead weights (pipe, fittings, insulation), snow
or ice J contents of the line J wind load for exposed
piping, and earthquake or other shock loading in
special situations. Internal (or external) pressure
loads may be imposed in service or off stream. The
restraint of thermal expansion provided by terminal
and intermediate anchors, guides, and stops intro-
duces thermal stresses in piping due to temperature
changes. Further stress may be introduced by the
movement2 of terminal equipment, foundations or J
buildings nnder temperature changes or other load-
ingJ or from any influence affecting the relative posi-
tion of the line, anchors J or intermediate restraints.
The dead load effects, except contents, are usually
maintained at all times, while wind or earthquake
effects will be variable and reach maximnm design
values infrequently, if ever. Pressure and tempera-
ture changes usually occnr simultaneously, bnt may
be independent or have a variably dependent rela-
tionship. They may be relatively uniform for entire
service periods, or involve swings of variable
duration.
Dead load and wind or earthquake effects 011 pip-
ing are no different than for conventional structures J
while pressure effects are essentially the same as
those encountered on pressure vessels or boilers.
Overall expansion effects differ from those on struc-
tures exposed to ambient temperature changes, in
that the range of temperature variation on piping is
much greater.
For many problems, the designer must consider
more than one service condition, as well as start-up,
shutdown, and emergency conditions; for example,
a specific plant may involve more than one feed
2Frequently termed Hextrancous" movement by piping
designers.
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
stock or several alternate products which may re-
quire different processing pressure and tempera-
tures. Many plants involve~highly inflammable,
toxic, or otherwise unusual fluids, or specialized
machinery and equipment which must be carefully
isolated from air or contaminants. Start-up and
shutdown may require protracted periods of warm-
ing up, cooling ofT, or operations such as purging,
washing down, piekling or passivating, solvent clean-
ing, air-steam decoking, ete., each of which may
introduce entirely different combinations of temper-
ature and pressure over given portions of piping sys-
tems. Temperature differences, or other loading
more· severe than normal service conditions, may
result where circumstances dictate that parts of a
system be heated successively. A proper apprecia-
tion of these various possibilities requires an ade-
quate knowledge of the process design, operation,
instrumentation, and control of the connected
equipment or entire plant. It is not unusual for
start-up and shutdown procedure to be governed
by mechanical design limitations rather than to suit
process only.
For exhaust steam vacuum service, opinion differs
as to whether the design temperature for thermal
expansion effects should be based on the normal
operating temperature under vacuum conditions
plus an occasional rise to 212 F, which temperature
would be approached with loss of vacuum, or on
212 F, as though it were the normal operating tem-
perature. The first approach is consistent with the
handling of other operating upsets, it being recog-
nized that at reduced capacity or after lengthy
periods of operation or with abnormally high cooling
water temperatures, higher absolute pressures and
corresponding temperatures may occur. It is there-
fore concluded that design considering the 212 F
case as an abnormal short duration (not an operat-
ing) temperature is reasonably logical.
The Piping Code (ASA B31.1-1955) is deficient
in adequate rules for protection against overpressure.
The requirements of the ASME Boiler Code, Sec-
tion VIII, for safety valves, etc., are a useful guide
but require modification to suit common piping
practice. Pipe wall thickness is generally established
for a design pressure equal to the maximum (non-
shock) service pressure, without provision for a
margin between service and design pressure, and
safety valves are generally set to relieve at about
10% above the design pressure. This is in contrast
with pressure vessel practice, where at least onc valve
must be set to open at or below the design pressure.
Differenoes,;also exist in the maximum overpressure
33
allowed while a safety valve is blowing; for oil piping
a 33}% increase is often used, compared to 10% on
pressure vessels, except under exposure to external
fire when 20% is allowed. This situation will prob-
ably be rectified when adequate rules for protection
against overpressure are provided in the Piping Code.
The static effect of individual loadings forms only
one phase of the broad subject of the design of pip-
ing systems. It is equally important to consider the
duration, frequency, and manner of application of
each loading, and their mutual occurrence. Both
pressure and temperature stress, if applied in a suf-
ficient number of repetitive applications, may result
in fracture by fatigue. Failure may be accelerated
by the dynamie influence of very sudden changes of
pressure or temperature. Dynamic effeets may also
introduce the possibility of direct shock failure,
apart from the brittle fractures associated with met-
allurgical considerations or ferritic steels at tempera-
tures below the transition range. While failure due
'0 corrosion or metallurgical changes is not a subject
for this book, it should be mentioned that the level
of stress in the piping or the occurrence of plastic
flow may be a contributing factor in some cases.
Failure by stress corrosion is an important example.
The loading; which have been diseussed can be
segregated for design purposes into two categories:
1. Those representing the application of external
forces which, if excessive, would cause failure inde-
pendent of strain.
2. Those representing the application of a finite
external or internal strain. These are generally
introduced through temperature change.
The design consideration of individual loadings
may be approached on the basis of the duration,
frequency, nature, and probability of their occur-
rence. Individual loadings may be:
a. Present during extended normal operation but
not during off-stream condition.
b. Maintained throughout the service life.
c. Occasional and of short duration as well as low
cumulative duration (including start-up and shut-
down conditions).
d. Emergency or abnormal conditions of short
duration.
For proper establishment of design assumptions,
it is necessary to have an adequate appreciation of
all direct and contingent requirements to which the
piping system will be subjected, and also to under-
stand the interrelations between the behavior of
structures and materials, according to our present
state of knowledge. It is the aim of this chapter to
provide useful assistance toward the first objective.
34 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Chapter I, together with the references cited, should
prove valuablc in establishing a reasonablc and
broad fundamental understanding~of the flow and
fracture of metallic materials.
2.3 Design Limits, Allowable Stresses, and
Allowable Stress Ranges
In the preceding section of this chapter, piping
system loadings have been grouped into two cate-
gories: external effects which, if excessive, might
oause direct failure, and strain effects attcndant to
temperature change. Categories for individual
loadings were also suggested, depending on the dura-
tion, frequency, and nature of the loading. This
section is devoted to the discussion of the nature of
stresses for the various forms of loading common to
piping, as well as to a consideration of allowable
stresses and an examination of the design limits
which are not directly provided for by conventional
allowable stresses and nominal safety factors.
When considering basic allowable stress values, it
is appropriate to distinguish between primary,
secondary, and loealized stresses. Although there
is probably no aecepted definition of primary and
seeondary stresses in piping systems, the following
eriteria will be advanced for purposes of this dis-
cussion:
Primary stresses are the direet, shear, or bending
stresses generated by the imposed loading which are
necessary to satisfy the simple laws of equilibrium
of internal and external forces and moments. Among
the primary stresses due to external effects are the
direct longitudinal and circumferential stresses due
to internal pressure and the bending and torsional
stresses due to dead load, snow and icc, wind, or
earthquake. In addition there are the direct, bend-
ing, and torsional stresses due to restrained thermal
loading, the external forces being supplied in this
case by the line anchors or other restraints. In
general the level of primary strcsscs directly measures
the ability of a piping system to withstand the
imposcd loadings safely. Accordingly, those stresses
due to sustained external loading (categories (a) and
(b) of Section 2.2) are controlled to the Code allow-
able stress value for the operating temperature.
Some overstress is allowed for temporary external
loadings (categories (c) and (d)).
Secondary stresses are usually of a bending nature,
varying from positive to negative across the pipe-
wall thickness and arising generally because of dif-
ferential radial deflection of the pipe wall. A most
important example of secondary stresses is that of
the eircumfcrential bending stresses in a curved
pipe subject to bending, discussed in Chapter 3.
Secondary stresses are not a source of direct failure
in ductile materials upon single load application.
If above the yield strength they merely effect local
deformation which results in a redistribution of the
loading and a reduction of the stress in the operating
condition. If the applied loading is cyclic, however,
they establish a local strain range corresponding
essentially to their full original magnitude. They
thus constitute a potential source of fatigue failure.
Localized stresses are those which die away rapidly
\\~thin a short distance from their origin. Examples
are the bending stresses in the hub of a flange, at a
sharp eone-to-eylinder junction, or at the inside
diameter of a branch connection. Localized bending
stresses can be considered equivalent in significance
to secondary stresses. It is possible in some eases for
the plastic flow which may result from an initial over-
stress to alter the contour of the pipe to a stronger
shape. This would lower the local strain range dur-
ing subsequent applications of the loading and the
fatigue resistance would be raised accordingly.
Allowing large initial amounts of localized deforma-
tion carries the risk, however, of propagating flaws
in the base material, particularly in welds, and of
initiating cracks in less ductile heat-affected zones
adjacent to welds.
The Pressure Vessel and Piping Codes contain
tables of albwable stresses at various temperatures
which are related only to the primary static-loading
stresses (categories (a) and (b) of Section 2.2). The
level of localized stresses at nozzles, branch connec-
tions, in heads, etc., is only loosely and indirectly
controlled by formula and shape requirements and
may easily be 100% or more above that of the
primary circumferential pressure membrane stress.
Due to the lack of adequate analyses or to the diffi-
culty attendant to their evaluation, many secondary
and localized stresses are neglected by the Codes,
such as the bending stresses in vessel or pipe shells
due to piping reactions, although the Code may warn
the designer to consider such loadingo.
Two criteria are associated with piping stresses.
One is the so-called "Code allowable stress" at the
operating temperature, familiar to all designers of
pressure equipment; the other one is the somewhat
less known Hallowable stress range," which is derived
from Code allowable stresses and which has appeared
in the Piping Code since 1942 as the basis for expan-
sion and flexibility design. The application of each
of these criteria is covered later in this section in
connection with specific loadings.
The allowable stress is a function of the matcrial
.... _~
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
properties and safety factors as associated with spe-
cific design, fabrication, and inspection requirements.
Experience with the pressure ves""l Codes as pres-
ently constituted has shown that pressure and other
maintained loading can be sustained by average
equipment within this allowable stress limit for an
indefinite period. Also, it is not uncommon to allow
moderate short durations of overload or overtem-
perature due to abnormal or emergency circum-
stances. In a more precise approach, however, such
overloads should properly be assessed on an inte-
grated basis with respect to duration and frequency.
In the following pages, the various considerations
influencing the serviceability or safety of piping sys-
tems are summarized and augmented by current
opinion as to advisable limits of stress, or other de-
sign criteria.
For Pressure Loadiug: In the 1952 ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the basis for the
allowable stresses for ferrous materials in both Sec-
tion I, Power Boilers, and Section VIII, Unfired
Pressure Vessels is given in Appendix P of Sec-
tion VIII. This appendix is important as a general
reference not only for its explanation of the basis of
allowable stresses given in the Code but also for its
guidance in setting stress values for similar materials.
For nonferrous materials Appendix Q (Section VIII,
Unfired Pressure Vessels) similarly establishes the
basis of allowable stresses.
The allowable stresses for Section 1, Power Piping,
of the ASA B31.1-1955 Code for Pressure Piping
are identical with those of the ASME Power Boiler
Code; those of Section 3, Oil Piping, within refinery
limits, are in agreement in the creep range with
Section VIII of the ASME Code. At lower temper-
atures, the safety factor on tensile strength is lower
than that of the Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, allow-
able stresses being limited to one-third of the mini-
mum tensile strength or 60% of the minimum yield
strength. The other sections of the Code for Pressure
Piping are intended for either ambient or relatively
moderate temperature service, with allowable stresses
in varying percentages of the yield strength Sv or
tensile strength Su as indicated below.
Section 2. Ga~ and air piping: 0.6 to 0.72 Sv
Section 3. Oil transmission lines outside refinery
limits: 0.85 Sv
Section 4. District heating systems: 0.25 Su
Section 5. Refrigeration piping systems: 0.25 Su
Section 8. Gas transmission and distribution pip-
ing systems: 0.72 Sv max.
The assignment of higher allowable stresses for high
L
35
yield-strength materials operating at temperatures
below the creep range, and recognition of yield
strength enhanced by cold work and/or heat treat-
ment, reduces the margin of safety provided by the
Piping Code for unassessed stresses and for fatigue
life under cyclic conditions. In addition, Sections 2
and 8 use nominal rather than minimum pipe-wall
thickness, which further diminishes safety margins.
The dependence of fracture (and bursting) stress
upon the shape of the part is quite properly recog-
nized in Chapter 1. This effect, however, is one that
is commonly ignored in ordinary design praeticc and
in the Codes whieh represent such practice. Hence,
the Code safety factors against bursting, related
only to fracture of conventional tensile test speci-
mens, must be regarded as nominal values which are
not necessarily the actual safety factors for the burst-
ing of a cylindrical vessel under pressure, or for any
other general shape. While an exact evaluation of
the disparity between safety factors for a tensile test
specimen and those for a tube requires a complete
knowledge of the plastic stress-strain properties of
the material, a general evaluation for a wide range
of materials is made possible by certain reasonable
assumptions.
At first, the material under consideration is con-
sidered to obey the effeetive stress-strain relationship
of eq. 1.8, stresses being dependent upon strains in
accordance with the deformation theory of Hencky-
Mises (eq. 1.7). Further, it is assumed that a func-
tion of the type
(2.1)
where 0'1 = true stress in uniaxial tension
E*l = logarithmic strain in uniaxial
tension
Band n = assumed material constants,
can adequately describe the stress-strain curve in
uniaxial tension. The types of stress-strain curves
obtainable from eq. 2.1 through a variation of the
constant n (sometimes referred to as the strain-
hardening exponent) are shown in Fig. 2.1. 3
From the foregoing assumptions, it can be shown
that the engineering (conventional) stress in a ten-
sile bar, at the instant of attaining the maximum
load, is given by
Su = B(n/e)" (2.2)
where Su = ultimate (conventional) tensile stress
e = 2.71828 = base of natural logarithms
Band n are as previously defined.
aB, also called the Hhardncss factor/' is simply the true
stress value at a logarithmic axial strain of 1.0.

36 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
n = O. Ideol PIOllitity
= 1.0 l---::......::.::......::.=~::::=:;;::::=:::::::;?""~
;;. I
•
•
;;;
•
.8
.6
~
..5
C
~
.4
.2
~ bursting of thin-walled cylinders. With other ma-
o~--:------:-------
o .2 ..4 .6 .8 1.0
logarithmic Strain, E~
}i'IG. 2.1 Analytical representation of the tensile stress-strain
curve for various values of n.
This instability stress value is identical with the
conventional "ultimate tensile stress."
In a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel the
conventional circumferential stress at instability (at
the maximum sustainable pressure) can be expressed
as
For a structure in uniaxial tension a design based
on 11k of the ultimate tensile stress (as given by
eq. 2.2) represents a true safety factor of k. For
pressure vessels the safety factor should appropri-
ately be applied to eq. 2.3. If, instead, safety fac-
tors are related to the ultimate tensile stress for
pressure vessel design, then the quotient
Q = S,ISu = 1.155(0.577)n
will indicate whether the real safety factor against
bursting, on a single application of overpressure, is
larger (Q > 1) or smaller (Q < 1) than the nominal
or presumed value of k, Le.,
(S.F.",,,,,) = Q X (S.F.t,n,'on)
A plot of eq. 2.4 in Fig. 2.2 gives values of Q for
values of n ranging from 0 to 0.5 and shows that
(for materials behaving as assumed) the safety fac-
tor for bursting of thin cylindrical vessels will be
larger th~n the tensile safety factor when n is less
than 0.263 and smaller when n exceeds this value.
In commonly encountered materials the strain-
hardening cxponent n varies from about 0.05 to 0.15
for greatly eold-worked or tempered materials and
is within the range of 0.2 to 0.45 for soft annealed
metals. Carbon and low-alloy stecls generally have
n values from 0.15 to 0.25. Within this range Q has
a value barely exceeding 1.0. Thus, if t of the ulti-
mate tensile stress is used as a basis for design, an
actual safety factor equal to or somewhat higher
I
than 4.0 on bursting will apply to cylindrical pres-
I
sure vessels (of carbon or low-alloy steel), as proved
by numerous static destruction tests. Similar com-
ments apply to Codes using a different fraetion of
the ultimate tensile stress as a design basis. Thus,
for the ASA B31.1 Code, Section 3, which limits de-
sign stresses to t of the ultimate tensile stress, a
safety faetor of around 3.0 will be available against
terials or with departures from the simple eylin-
drical tube, however, it would appear that the shape
effect may bear investigation for more accurate
assessment of bursting conditions.
In the creep range a similar safety factor does not
exist. That is, if ereep continues while the pressure
is maintained, fracture will inevitably take place
after a suffieiently long time. Hence, the design
stress is selected to avoid failure within the service
life period.
For the case where 100% of the extrapolated 10'
hour creep fracture stress is allowed by the Code,
(2.3) and if this value governs the design stress (i.e. it is
lower than the stress causing 1% creep extension
in 10' hours), it would appear that the "life factor"
(actual vs. desired life) may be no more than 1.0.
In other words, if the desired design life is also
10' hours (about 11.4 years), fracture should follow
when the design life is exhausted. Admittedly, there
are only a few ferrous metals whose extrapolated
stress value for creep fraeture is less than the stress
producing 1% creep in 10' hours. However, even
(2.4) for these metals, no case of fracture following in-
tended life is known in the annals of the industry,
although many pressure vessels have operated in the
creep range for periods eonsiderably exceeding
11.4 years.
One reason for this lies in the fact that the allow-
(2.5) able long-time design stress values (for both creep
and creep rupture) are obtained by extrapolation
1.2
------=:---
.2
Vclue of n
ol-_~--~-+~--~-~-
o .1 ~
,
~.3 .. .S
FIG. 2.2 The "safety factor ratio" Q as 1\ function of n.
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
from short-time tests. Although not strietly admis-
sible, this extrapolation generally leads to acceptable
results for the ereep values as shO\V!l in Fig. 2.3. On
the other hand, in the very short-time creep rupture
tests comparatively high stresses are used. As men-
tioned in Chapter 1, this tends to promote intra-
crystalline deformation, with an ensuing high
ductility. At the longest commercial testing periods
(generally 10 4 hours) the stresses are much lower;
intracrystalline deformation is largely absent, and
the ductility is considerably lower, although the
stresses are still higher than those producing 1%
elongation in the same time. The respective posi-
tion of these stress values does not change even
when the loading period is increased to 10' hours.
However, the conventional log-log extrapolated value
based upon test results up to 10 4 hours in duration
may in some cases yield a fictitious rupture strength
at 105 hours which is below the 1% creep stress
value, as shown in Fig. 2.3. The unrealistic aspect
of this extrapolation pal,tially explains why pressure
vessels do not fracture after 11-12 years even if
extrapolated test data would prediet this in eases
where the creep fracture value governs design.
Structural Effects. The Piping Code rules
ASA B31.1-1955 require that primary stresses due to
weight of pipe, fittings and valves, eontained fluid
and insulation, and other sustained external loadings
be maintained within the hot allowable stress Sh.
Occasional effects sueh as wind and earthquake
should have little influence on the fatigue life of the
piping system or ereep at high temperature. There-
fore, they ean be treated more liberally, similar to
AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction)
practiees, where 33!% higher stress is allowed for
the separate effects of wind or earthquake super-
imposed on the basic lo~ding.
In average piping systems, structural loading is
not investigated in an overall fashion; instead it is
eontrolled by standardized practices and details. In
extreme cases of large or stiff piping it is advisable to
evaluate the complete loading. Attention should be
directed to those loadings which can occur simul-
taneously, so as to obtain an integrated equivalent
eyelic strain as discussed in Section 2.6 and under
"Temporary Loadings" in this section.
Structural instability or collapse of piping under
longitudinal loading, such as is encountered in
columns, is possible only under unusual circum-
stances. Collapse by circumferential buckling is
more likely to occur, although tbe thickness-to-radius
ratios ordinarily used in piping applications are
usually high enough to prevent this. As a design
L
37
o Creep Fracture Tel! Data
~ )( Creep Role
"'-cu~......
Creep Siren ElClropololcd
for 1% Creep Rolc ~Cfccp""frQclUrC CUNC
~ rTruc Crcllp-Fracture
........... ~_
----J'--;, - ' ,____ Curve
Siren lor 1% Creep Rale _...
in 10 5 hours ...
E:drapolotcd Siren for Frodurll in 10' hour1 J
(d1l1ign slreu)
10 10 2 10 3 10' 10'
Time, hau'" (log. scolc)
FIG. 2.3 Comparison of extrapolated and actual creep-fmc-
ture curves for a typical material at constant temperature.
criterion to guard against circumferential buckling,
it is suggested that primary longitudinal compressive
stresses should not be permitted to exceed 0.07 Etlr,
where E is Young's modulus of elasticity, t is the
wall thickness, and r is the radius.
The allowable stress range was suggested initially
by Rossheim and Markl [I] as a measure of the
permissible strain range in a cycle of load application
to guard against the possibility of a fatigue failure
after a given number of cycles. It is selected so that
it will be applicable to ductile materials and to
average commercial pipe surface conditi'ons at the
location of highest stress (strain) range. The prin-
cipal cyclic loadings are restrained thermal expan-
sion and pressure, although weight of contents and
occasional effects such as wind and earthquake are
also repetitive in nature. A cycle of external loading
usually varies from the full presence of the loading
during operation to its complete removal under off-
stream conditions; the distribution of the associated
internal strain between the cold and hot ends of the
cycle may on the other hand vary due to the depend-
ence of strains on the material properties at each
temperature and the presence of initial fabrication
stresses or residual stresses set up as the result of
plastic flow.
With the erection and completion of the final
joint of each leg of a piping system, internal stress
may be introduced by cold pull, weld shrinkage, or
flange makeup. This establishes an initial state of
stress, limited only by the yicld point of the material.
With temperature change on the first period of
operation, expansion strain is superimposed on the
residual fabrication strains. If the total exceeds the
elastic limit at any point, yielding occurs, leading to
relaxation of the initial fabrication stresses and a
redistribution of the thermal strain. Prolonged
elevated temperature will serve to further reduce the
38 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
A,_
~AI_ I tion by self-springing. Credit for prespring is, how-
l, ~
~,
FIG. 2.4
t=l I
Representation of bar for ca.lculation of plastic
strain concentration factor.
hot stresses by creep, at a rate proportional to the
combined stress (expansion, pressure, weight, etc.).
The reduction of the stress due to thermal strain
loading by plastic flow or creep at the operating
temperature is termed "relaxation." The relaxed
strain reappears at the cold end of the temperature
cycle with reversed sign.
For moderate-temperature piping, the division of
thermal strain between the hot and cold condition is
adjusted during the initial cycle in an amount
dictated by the initial residual fabrication stress and
the thermal-stress magnitude. The imposition of a
temporary overload during operation can effect a
further strain shift from the hot to the cold condition.
For higher temperatures, where creep occurs, strain
adjustment continues until the combincd stress at
the operating temperature is reduced to the relaxa-
tion limit. For convenience in design this is generally
assumed to be the Code allowable stress level. Al-
though such adjustment takes place, it is important
to grasp the fact that the strain range per cycle does
not change and that the ability of the pipe material
to sustain t·he range is a function of both its hot and
cold properties. The process wherein the pipe line
seeks an equilibrium condition, and the resulting
self-adjustment accomplished by yielding and creep,
is termed "self-springing."
Self-adjustment may he minimized by prespringing
(cold springing) which consists of incorporating pre-
stress during erection. Since this practice is par-
ticularly useful in controlling initial reactions so as
to protect connccted equipment it will bc discussed
in that regard under the heading of Piping and
Equipment Intereffects in Section 3.14.
As to whether prespringing offers advantages
beyond controlling thc initial hot reaction, a general
answer cannot readily bc given. In the 1942 edition
of thc Piping Code, the allowable stress range could
in effect be increased when 50% or more prespring
was provided by the permissible reduction in the
expansion loading to two-thirds. The 1955 edition
provides a uniform stress range regardless of the
initial strain condition. This is based on the reason-
ing that fatigue life is primarily dependent on the
range of strain which is unaffected by prestress, and
that the piping system seeks an equilibrium condi-
ever, still permitted when estimating maximum hot
and cold reactions on terminal equipment. By
prespringing, the plastic flow which the line may
have to undergo on the first, or first few cycles, in
order to effectively sclf-spring itsclf, can be avoided
entirely or appreciably reduced. This is sometimes
considered advantageous in minimizing the risk of
an early failure due to "follow-up elasticity" effects
should there be a highly localized weak link in the
system. Howevcr, from a fatigue standpoint, no
benefits are attributed to cold springing once self-
spring has been effected. The advantage of pre-
spring in this respect is more important for piping
which is to operate at temperatures in the creep
range. The proposition has also been advanced that
the hot plastic flow associated with self-springing
will detract from the final available ductility under
high temperature ucreep" conditions; in reality, the
mechanism of self-springing is probably more nearly
akin to fabrication hot forming operations. In this
light, the only clearcut conclusion that can be drawn
is that prespringing can have only advantageous and
no deleterious effects, especially as concerns initial
terminal reactions. Therefore, it is a desirable
practice when economically justified and effectively
carried out.
The 1955 Piping Code rules call attention to the
possibility of an undesirable amount of creep in areas
of reduced strength, such as short runs of reduced
size in highly stressed zones under certain conditions.
The possibility of the unit strain in local highly
stressed areas being magnified under conditions of
plastic flow by reason of the follow-up elasticity of
the more lowly stressed areas is not generally appre-
ciated. In order to gain a better understanding, it
is of interest to study a simple analogue consisting
of a bar having a section of reduced area, as ShO\Vfi in
Fig. 2.4, restrained at the ends and subjected to
cyclic heating and cooling. The bar will be assnmed
to be made of an ideally elastic-plastic material
(non-strainhardening).
Let this bnr now be subjected to cyclic henting
nnd cooling of constant amplitude, to a level which
causes plastic flow in member 1 on each cycle. It
can be shown then that during any thermal halfeyele
(from heating to cooling or vice versa), other than
the first heating operation, the total (elastic plus
plastic) unit strain in member 1 is given by
(2.6)
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
where " = elastic strain range limit
= Su' + SUh . _ (2.7)
E, Eh
e = unit linear thermal expansion for a
temperature rise of !J.T.
L = total length.
L" L 2 = lengths of members 1 and 2.
AI, A 2 = cross-sectional areas of members
1 and 2.
Suo, Suh = yield strength at the cold and hot
temperatures, respectively.
Eo, Eh = Young's modulus of elasticity at
the cold and hot temperatures
respeetively.
Had this bar been analyzed on the assumption that
all strains remained elastic, the ealculated unit strain
range in member 1 would be given by:
L All that is necessary is that plastic flow occurs prefer-
e-
Ll
£c = _.....:~- (2.8)
1+ AlL,
A,L I
The strain given by eq. 2.6 is higher than that
indieated by eq. 2.8, and the ratio of the two can be
termed the strain magnification factor f3, which is
given by the following equation, valid for " ;:0: "
f3, = 1+ AlL,
AzL I
[1 - ~J
Ec
(2.9)
This is an extremely interesting result, since Ec is the
maximum unit strain calculated by applieation of
elastic theory and Ec is the maximum unit-strain
range which the material can accept without allowing
plastic flow on each cycle. So long as " does not
exceed " there is no magnification factor. The
magnification factor for Ec greater than £c is given by
eq. 2.9. Figure 2.5 is a plot of this equation for a
speeific ratio of AliA, = 0.5 and shows the magni-
fication factor as a function of .,1., and L2 /L,; high
values can be reached which would materially reduce
the fatigue life of such a bar. The magnification
factors increase as area Al approaches area A z . At
first thought this might be unexpected; the explana-
tion is that, as A,IA 2 approaches unity, the portion
of the calculated strain in member 2 which is never
developed, but instead causes plastic flow in member
1, increnses ns a dircct function of At!A,.
From this simple analogue it can be generalized
that, in any system which is stressed so that plastic
flow occurs over a portion of the total length only,
the unit strain is magnified in the portion undergoing
L
39
All values eokuleled
7
for A,/A 2=0.5
o ~,-,:--73--':'--:'--:.:--:7:--,:--79-':':O-:'l1'--:12::"'-J~.
',/t. Relio of CelClJlahtd Elastic Strein Ronge 10
Available Eleslie Siroin per HoI! Cydo
FIG. 2.5 Strnin magnification in a locally weakened bar.
such flow by the follow-up elasticity of the more
lowly stressed portion. It is not necessary that the
area of the critical portion be less than the remainder.
. entially in the critical portion rather than over the
rest of the system. Lower mechanical properties can
have the same effect as reduced area. Systems
stressed in bending are subject to this effect even
when of uniform properties and size due to the non-
uniform stress distribution which prevails. Strain
magnification will occur whether the plastic flow is
due to exceeding the elastic limit or is due to opera-
tion at high temperature where the plastic flow and
strain magnification factor would be a function of
time per cycle.
Similar conclusions were obtained in a receht
paper by Robinson [2J. Analyzing a few selected
piping systems operating at elevated temperatures
(in the creep range), he found that severe strain
concentrations can exist in layouts where the. maxi-
mum stress is limited to a very short length of the
piping, and where the follow-up elasticity of the
remainder of the system is great. These findings
are in agreement with those of the previously pre-
sented analysis for strain concentrations under
plastic flow conditions.
The allowable stress range limits established by
the Piping Code are such that plastic flow duc to
expansion effects is not permitted to occur with each
cycle. Both yielding and creep effects have been
considered in bnsing the hot portion of the allowable
range on the hot yield or creep strength, whichever
governs. Repetitive strain magnification over sub-
stantial lengths of the piping should, therefore, not
occur. For lines \vhich are not presprung, it is, how-
ever, possible for some such strain magnification to
occur during the initial operating period, while the
40 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
line is undergoing self-springing. Since this occurs
only once it must be considered in an entirely differ-
ent light and would have no influence on fatigue
life.
The bar analogue presented above was used to
derive magnification factors aSSUming that the weak
area was initially known and that an elastic analysis
of stress conditions was made. The analogue could
be readily modified to show the extremely high local
magnification factor which would exist at a defect
in a bar of uniform area, which is sufficiently serious
to cause local plastic flow. It is well known that
fatigue failure follows rapidly in the presence of such
a defect.
The allowable stress range, as associated \\~th the
various types of repeated loading, is discussed in de-
tail in the following treatment of specific loadings.
Expansion Stresses. Since thermal expansion
occurs as a finite strain load associated predomi-
nantly with bending effects, fracture on initial appli-
cation is unlikely to occur in ductile materials.
Fractures resulting from repeated applications of
thermal strain loading are similar to fatigue failure
under mechanical loading. Therefore, the allowable
stress or strain range must be related to the number
of cycles anticipated during the life of the piping
system. Failure will occur in the zone of highest
cyclic strain, whether primary, localized, or second-
ary. For this reason it is necessary to apply stresE
intensification factors for any individual piping com-
ponent wherever stresses above the level of the pri-
mary stresses are introduced. Due to the importance
of such stresses from a fatigue standpoint, Chapter 3
is entirely devoted to recording present knowledge
of stress intensification in various components of
piping systems as well as their influence on flexibility.
Overall design is based on the stress range for the
critical component, as established by its intensifica-
tion factor and the nominal primary stress at its
location.'
The basic allowable stress range established for
thermal expansion stresses in the 1955 Piping Code
1.25S, + 0.25Sh
where S, = allowable stress at ambient temperature
Sh = allowable stress at operating tempera-
ture,
has been selected with the objective of providing a
~Since the pressure vessel codes do not provide rules for
thermal expansion loading, it is desirable to check the effect
of comparatively stiff piping on vessel shells of low thickness/
radius ratio. This is accomplished in the manner outlined in
Chapter 3 for terminal connections.
minimum of 7000 cycles of operation without failure.
Local and secondary stresses are kept within this
limit by the stress-intensification factors. For a
number of cycles greater than 7000 the stress range
is reduced by a factor relating the allowable stress
range to the number of cycles as determined by
ambient temperature fatigue tests on carbon-steel
pipe. The reduction factor has a lower limit of 0.5.
Some adjustment of these factors, particularly for
materials other than carbon steel, will undoubtedly
be necessary as further fatigue information is
obtained.
The possibility of fatigue failure under the cyclic
straining conditions present in piping systems has
been questioned by many individuals. The propo-
sitions were variously advanced that the internal
strain loading associated with thermal cycling can-
not initiate fatigue cracks, or that the stress-relieving
and annealing effects at elevated temperatures would
prevent the propagation of such cracks. As indi-
cated in Chapter 1, reasoning should lead to the
opposite conclusion; furthermore, experimental veri-
fication that fatigue under constrained thermal
loading does occur. is provided by the work of
L. F. Coffin, Jr. [3, 4,], who demonstrated that
fatigue failure is primarily associated with the range
of cyclic plastic strain, while stress or strain relief is
of a secondary order of influence.
The Code allowable stress range cited above as-
sumes that longitudinal stresses due to pressure and
other sustained external loadings are not over the
basic hot allowable stress, Sh. For hot lines the
expansion stresses at operating temperatures are
assumed to be gradually lowered by yielding and
creep, so as to be carried essentially as an off-stream
or cold stress. If the longitudinal stress due to sus-
tained loadings is less than Sh, the Code permits the
unused portion to be applied to extend the stress
range available for expansion effects. Therefore the
Code, in effect, permits a total maximum allowable
stress range equal to 1.25(S, + Sh), for thermal
expansion stress combined with stresses from other
sustained loadings. For service temperatures below
the occurrence of significant creep, the total per-
missible longitudinal stress (both bending and direct)
is equivalent to approximatcly 1.25 times the yield
strength for power piping and 1.38 to 1.5 times the
yield strength for oil piping.
In general, Code design is simplified for general
use; at best it considers only average static condi-
tions and establishes minimum design r~quirements,
placing dependence on the safety factor to take care
of unassessed stress conditions. The cyclic nature
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
of loading and the possibility of fatigue failure are
not specifically considered, except in thc Piping
Code's treatment of piping llexibility for thermal
expansion. It might be asked why the fatigue design
approaeh is currently limited to piping expansion
analysis. This is due to the fact that the Unfired
Pressure Vessel Code rules limit primary pressure
stresses in ferritic materials to 62~% of the yield
stress and 25% of the tensile strength. This pro-
vides a reasonable margin against the possibility of
fatigue due to loealized and secondary stresses, which
may be 100% or more above this allowable stress,
for the type of cyclic conditions normally encoun-
tered in most pressurc vessel services. By compari-
son, thermal strains playa greater role in the design
of piping, which would be seriously affected econom-
ically (and would be virtually impractical in the
case of large stiff systems) if total stress including
expansion effects were to be held within the Code
allowable stress at the operating temperature.
Spurred by this necessity, experience and analytical
work have led to the Piping Code's more advanced
treatment of thermal strains, and to rules which
recognize the influence of number of cycles, hot and
cold material properties, and local stress intensi-
fications.
It remains for the piping engineer and designer to
reeognize any unusual demands imposed by the de-
sign or service on piping systems. The following
topics, in particular, are not at present adequately
covered by the minimum Code design.
Shock or Dynamic Loading. Shock or dynamic
loading conditions warrant special consideration be-
cause of the added stress which can be introduced
by the rate of application of the motivating influence
and the fact that the yield point of steel can be ap-
preciably raised by very rapid loading. Localized
yielding at points of stress concentration may be
inhibited under such conditions and fracture more
readily initiated. The general subjcct of vibrations
which are a source of concern from a fatigue stand-
point is treated in Chapter 9. The more significant
dynamic loadings which enter into piping design can
be listed as follows:
Earthquake. The accelerations associated with
earth tremors are generally of the order of 1 to
S ft/sec 2 • These values represent about 3% to 25%
of the 32.2 ft/sec 2 acceleration of gravity. For this
reason, earthquake design is commonly approached
by applying a horizontal force acting at the center
of gravity of the structures; this force is 10% to 20%
of the structure weight, depending on the maximum
accelerations recorded for the locality considered.
L
41
Earthquake loading is not normally assumed in de-
sign unless it is specifically required for the locality
concerned. Some consideration has been given to
requiring that all structures be checked for some
minimum lateral thrust of this type, lower than in
recognized earthquake zoncs, but this is not the
practice at present.
Gun Fire. Piping on warships is somctimes
checked for the dynamic effect due to the firing of
guns.
Waler Hammer or Flow Surge EjJec/',. The Piping
Code contains water hammer allowances for cast
iron pipe, in the form of a required increase in design
pressure. On steel pipes no standard allowance is
made for flow surge or hammer, and allowances arc
usually made only on high-head water flow lines,
such as penstocks. The shock pressure due to sud-
den stopping of a liquid is a function of its velocity,
stoppage time, and the elasticity of the pipe. Pres-
sure surge effects are present wherever reciprocating
pumps or compressors are used. The accompanying
mechanical vibrations may in certain cases be sufR
ficient to result in fatigue failure, if not promptly
corrected. This subject is treated in more detail in
Chapter 9.
Brittle Fracture in Ferritic Steel. The poten-
tial dangers of the brittle fracture of steel structures
were made clear during World War II and after by
the numerous failures of merchant ships, and by
occasional partial or complete failures of bridges,
pressure spheres, gas-transmission piping, and stor-
age tanks. The phenomenon and conditions under
which fracture may occur were discussed in Chap-
ter 1. From the practical design standpoint it has
becn realized for a long time that, as ambient tem-
peratures are reduced, the hazard of brittle fracture
in ferritic stcels is increased. As a result, the Pres-
sure Vessel Codes have required for many years that
for services below -20 F (excluding applications
for service at prevailing ambient temperature, such
as outdoor pressure storage tanks), ferritic materials
have an impaet value of at least 15 it-Ib, at the low-
est intended service temperature as determined by
keyhole or U-notch Charpy specimens.
The numerous fraetures of ships and other strue-
tures have resulted in extensive investigations for
the causes underlying brittle behavior. While no
complete praetical remedy for avoidance of brittle
fracture has resulted, several factors have been ree-
ognized to have important influence. Although in-
dividual impact or equivalent testing of each plate,
bar, or tube at the lowest service temperature still
provides the best assurance as to its transition tem-
42 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
perature, there is definite evidence that average
transition temperatures are lowered and the inci-
dence of failures significantly reduced, within the
range of ambient temperatures, by using open-
hearth or electric-furnace steels, controlling the
manganese-carbon ratio of plates over ! in. thick,
and by employing killed steels made to fine-grain
practice, particularly for 'thicknesses over 1 in. (see
ASTM Spec. A131-53T for example). Normalizing
is also desirable for important plate applications over
1 in. although none of the ASTM Specifications for
structural steel at present requires this in any thick-
ness; however, ASTM Specification A131-53T in
paragraph 4 (b) mentions that plates over 1i in. may
be required to be produced to special specifications.
The ASTM Specification A373-54T covers struc-
tural steel for welding and is similar to AI31 except
that it makes no reference to fine-grain practice for
plates over 1 in. or to special requirements over
1i in. The development of these specifications and
their gradually more widespread use in the construc-
tion of ships, tankage, and other structures at insig-
nificant increase in cost is an encouraging trend.
Though it represents only a modest start it indicates
that much more could be accomplished by economic
steel specification control and that its extension to
all pressure services is a necessary undertaking.
The experimental work also showed that a signifi-
cant improvement in performance can be achieved
through careful design by the avoidance of high
stress concentration or areas of high local restraint
(e.g., ship hatch corner design). Significantly, all
such failures have been triggered off by a relatively
minor flaw or notch, the majority of which were
associated with welds. Apparently, in addition to
the possibility of welds containing small cracks, the
local residual stress pattern associated with them is
a factor. The latter plays a significant role, not only
in initiating crack propagation, but in accelerating
the crack propagation speed to a level where it can
continue as a spontaneous process through a much
lower stress field. This is in keeping with the theory
given in Chapter 1.
Non-ductile Materials. Cast iron and other
non-ductile materials are usually confined to rela-
tively low temperature service when used for pres-
sure parts. Bending stresses for these materials
must be kept within well-defined allowable values
(for cast iron, usually I! times the allowable stress
for tension). Bell-and-spigot or packed joints of a
design incapable of taking longitudinal stress are
provided with anchors at the end of each run, with
expansion absorbed by movement at the packed
joints. For low-temperature underground lines
expansion provision is usually not necessary.
Temporary Loadings. An allowance of 33!%
above the basic allowable hot stresses established
for oil piping in the Piping Code has been suggested
for temporary loadings due to wind or earthquake.
Stresses due to occasional brief overloads in opera-
tion can be similarly treated; such might be occa-
sioned by minor upsets in operating conditions or by
starting-up or shutdown conditions. For power
piping applications the ASME and ASA Codes
specifically recognize occasional operating variations
in pressure and temperature, allowing the following
increase in the calculated stress due to internal
pressure:
1. 15% during 10% of the operating period.
2. 20% during 1% of the operating period.
This permissible overstress is intended to cover the
surges expeeted to occur due to the heat lag of large
boilers when the output is suddenly decreased. It is
not recommended as a general design practice for
normal operation variations in pressure or tempera-
ture as it is better to design for the maximum pres-
sure and temperature conditions expected to occur
in regular operation. However, brief temperature
or pressure upsets may be treated on this basis.
provided they are such as to require quick reme-
dial adjustments in operation to restore normal
conditions.
Severe upset or emergency loadings sometimes call
for immediate drastic corrective measures and may
require shutting down the unit. Wherever prac-
ticable the same limit as proposed for temporary
loadings should be observed, but the nature and
probability of the emergency often requires special
consideration. In the case of piping where design io
controlled by creep and stress-rupture properties.
analysis of the ability of the system to sustain an
occasional short duration emergency can be based on
the short-time properties of the materi&1 or, if more
frequent, on the permissible creep stresses for the
shorter time period involved, by evaluation of the
cumulative creep for service and unusual conditions.
No standard guide can be given. More study and
tests are desirable to assess the cumulative effect of
short-duration high overloads and long-duration
normal loads. It is known that, for a given total
period of overloading, the number of times the
loading is applied has a significant effect, being more
damaging as the frequency of application increases
for a constant total duration of the overload.
Where basic allowable stresses are set higher or are
established by cold-worked properties (e.g. gas
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
transmission line piping), overstress due to tem-
porary loading should be avoided.
Abnormal temperature differences may occur due
to upsets or during start-up operations, which can
cause thermal expansion stresses higher than assumed
for the normal design eondition. When infrequent
compared to the normal design condition, some
increase in the permissible stress range can be justi-
fied. For example, when working to the rules of the
1951 ASA Piping Code, The M. W. Kellogg Com-
pany designed for emergency thermal expansion con-
ditions using a 50% increase over the basic allowable
stress range. A more appropriate design approach
would be one which would determine the number of
cycles at the Code allowable strESS range which
would be equivalent to the number of cycles under
the diverse conditions aetually anticipated. Assum-
ing a basie relation between number of cycles Nand
stress range SR of the form
N = (K/S R )"
the equivalent number of cycles N, at a stress SA
ean be established roughly as
N, =
S,)" Nt + (S,)"
( SA SA N, + ... (SD)"
SA N D
(2.10)
where K and n are constants for the material.
Nt is the number of eycles producing an over-
load stress St.
N 2 is the number of cycles producing an Over-
load stress S2, etc.
N D is the number of expected operating cycles
on the normal design basis.
S D is the corresponding calculated stress.
SA is the Code allowable stress range for
7000 cycles.
Since the Code stress range is intended to provide for
a minimum of 7000 cycles at a stress SA, if N, does
not exceed 7000, the design may be considered
equivalent to a Code design. Tests on carbon-steel
pipes [5] indicated that n can be taken equal to 5.
Without similar test data, the use of n = 5 for other
materials is open to some question.
2.4 Stress Evaluation
Stress evaluation is commonly limited to primary
direct, bending, and torsional stresses which, in pip-
ing, result from the effect of pressure, weight, and
thermal expansion. Localized and secondary stresses
which do not affect the overall system are not ordi-
narily evaluated directly although their influence on
L
4:1
the cyclic or fatigue life under thermal expansion is
taken into account through so-called stress intensi-
fication factors. The following discussion presents
background information and comments to aid under-
standing of the current approach in treating various
loadings.
2.4a Internal Pressure up to 3000 psi Maxi-
mum. In their present status, the Pressure Vessel
Codes already mentioned are stated to be applicable
when the pressure does not exceed 3000 psi. Pres-
sures above this may require special attention to
design and fabrication details, closures, branch con-
nections, etc., in view of the heavier wall and thick-
ness/diameter ratio involved. Actually, any such
limit is strictly arbitrary and should more properly
be established as a pressure/stress limit so that the
influence of different materials and the effect of
temperature would be included.
For the most common surface of revolution,. the
cylinder, the so-called inside diameter (or membrane)
and outside diameter (or Barlow) formulas were
first used for thickness/diameter below and above
0.1 respectively. These were later supplanted by
the mean diameter formula and, more recently, by
the universally adopted formula approximating the
results of the Lame formula. All these formulas
may be expressed in a common manner as follows:
S = (pr;/t) + Kp (2.11 )
where p = internal pressure.
r i = inside radius.
t = wall thickness.
K = constant having values between a and 1.
If K is given the value of 0, the inside diameter for-
mula is obtained; for K = 0.5, the mean diameter;
for K = 1.0, the outside diameter. When the value
of 0.6 is used, stresses are obtained which correlate
reasonably well for values of t up to about 0.5r, with
the recognized inside circumferential stress formula
of Lame. This approximation, discovered by H. C.
Boardman, was rapidly adopted for moderate-
temperature piping by both Pressure Vessel and
Piping Codes, while for piping in the creep range it
is considered applicable if a further adjustment of
K is made as covered later in this section. Similar
relationships, which approximate the direct cireum-
ferential pressure stress at the inner-wall surface for
other shapes of revolution, are presented in Table 2.1.
For dished heads it may be noted that the Code also
relates the design of torispherical and ellipsoidal
heads to the sphere formula, which is suitably modi-
fied by a correction factor to correspond with the
44 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 2.1 Internal Pressure-Circumferential
Stress Formulas for Elastic Conditions
Shape P S
SEt
Cylinder
SE - 0.6p r, + 0.6t -P [r,
EA
+ 0.6tl
Cone*" Use (~) in place of Tj in the cylinder formulas.
CaSa

2SEt
Sphere
2SE - 0.2p r,-+-0.2t
- 2~t 11', + 0.2tl

Torus (pressure inside)f W' [RR-- 0.5r'J SEt E.. [(R R-- 0.5r,) r, + KtJ
BE pK fi R- 0.5,,) r,+ Kt Et f'i
( R - Tj

General shape of revolutiont pr,

SB - IJK
[I - 2R,
..>:!...J (r2R )
S
;t[(1-2~},+KtJ
1 -
1
r, + Kt
where Ti = inside
radius (usc meridional radius in general formula, i.e., radius from axis of revolution and normal to
surface, see Fig. 2.6).
E = weld joint efficiency.
R = torus center line bend radius.
R 1 = actual radius of curvature in meridional plane at the point in question (positive if concave to pressure)
(Fig. 2.6).
a = ! cone included (apex) angle.
K = 0.6 + C L,/R) (use absolute value).
S circumferential stress.
=
p = internal pressure.
"'Not covered by Piping Code at present.
tNot given in nny code at present.

membrane stresses associated with their contour.

The pressure design of shell openings for nozzles,
manholes, and branch connections is based on the
simple maintenance of the original cross-sectional
area, by replacement of the removed metal by rein-
forcement Immediately adjacent to the weakened
area. Flanges and cover plates involve primarily
bending stresses; the direct stresses in these com-
ponents are commonly neglected due to their lesser
magnitude. Speeifie formulas are given in the Codes
for their pressure design.
2.4b Internal Pressure over 3000 psi. The
Codes at present (1955) do not cover the design of
high-pressure vessels, although this subject has re-
ceived considerable attention in the last two decades.
Many problems arise at high pressure for which con-
ventional code details are either totally unsuited or
present an undesirable choice. Examples are: nozzle
reinforcements which, within Code limits for rein~
forcement, entail extremely abrupt changes in sec-
tion, cones, etc., involving inside corner radii which
are small in comparison with the wall thickness. As
the pressure is increased, practical limits are reached
for design as covered by Code rules. In the follow-
ing it is attempted to summarize the practices which
FIG. 2.6 The meridional radius of curvature for
l'hells of revolution.
are followed in the design of shells, heads, closures,
and connections of high-pressure piping.
The Lame formula and the Rankine (Maximum
Principal Stress) criterion, on which the ASME
Boiler Code and ASA Code for Pressure Piping are
based, no longer predict general yielding or rupture
within reasonable limits when the thickness/diameter
ratio exceeds approximately 0.20. Although the
error is on the safe side, the deviation becomes
greater the more the thickness/diameter ratio is in-
creased. For initiation of yielding the Maximum
Shear or Maximum Shear-8train Energy Theories
are in good agreement with experimental evidence,
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 45
Circumfcrlmliot
as mentioned in Chapter 1. Either of these theories Slro"
may be used to practical advantage as general yield-
ing or bursting criteria when appliiJtl ineonjunction
with plastic stress analysis.
For thick cylinders, yielding of the inside fibers Axial l-++-iH-i
leads to eompressive residual stresses in the plasti- SlrMS

cally deformed portion of the wall when pressure is

I
Ton~ilc
I
removed, increased stress in the outer fibers under Zora

pressure loading, and greater uniformity of shear I

Compreuivo
stresses throughout the wall thickness. This redis- Radial I
Siren
tribution of stresses due to plastic flow is termed
Hauto-frettage"; it was first employed for casting
guns in the early nineteenth century. Later, greater
eontrol and uniformity of stress distribution was at-
tained by shrinking suceessive closely maehined shell
layers on to each other, thus producing a thick-
walled cylinder, whose inner layers are in a state of
precompression.
The fact that initial yielding of the inner fibers
occurs at only a fraction of the pressure correspond-
Elastic CO$e
ing to general yielding distinguishes thick-walled
vessels from thin-walled shells. Since the pressure to FIG. 2.7 Typical stress variation in a pipe under elastic
produce failure in thick-walled vessels is more or creep conditions.
properly associated with plastic rather than elastic
criteria, a valid design of these structures can be For a severely cold-working material the assumption
based on plastic analyses, and related to the general that the strain is the sum of an clastic strain obeying
yielding and bursting conditions. The various Hooke's law and a plastic strain can be considerably
approaches which have been suggested are discussed in error. Special analyses have also been worked out
in the following paragraphs. for strain-hardening materials.
Modifl£d Elastidty. This approximate solution Plasticity analyses are generally based on the
assumes that a safety factor of 4 on bursting is main- assumptions that (1) elastic strains are negligible in
tained so long as yielding of the inside fibers is eomparison with plastic strains; (2) the volume of
avoided at the design pressure. This approach also the matcrial remains constant during deformation;
requires that the stress at the mean wall thickness, and (3) the length of the pipc is unchanged under
as calculated by the Lame formula, does not exceed the application of pressure. The distribution of cir-
the usual allowable (0.25S.) value. The safety cumferential stresses changes completely from the
factor assumed by this analysis is likely to be in elastic results, the maximum in the plastic range
error on the unsafe side. occurring at the outside fiber. The shear strcss also
A ulo-freUage. The wall is assumed to be in two tends to be constant through the wall thickness, but
layers with the inner layer taken to be in a state of remains a maximum at the inner fiber. Figure 2.7
preeompression, attained by applying a suitable illustratcs the difference in stress distribution. For a
overpressure and yielding the inner fibers. The thick-walled cylinder of an ideally plastic (non-work-
stress is then calculated by the Lame formula con- hardening) material, Ni,dai [6J gives the following
sidering the initial prestrcssed condition. Thc results formulas at the onset of general yielding:
will be similar to the preceding approximate ap- S = p[1 - log, (r,/r)J
proach for the same safety factor. (2.12)
<x log, (r,/ri)
Partial and Complete Plasticity. Stress analyses
of eylinders having an inner plastie-elastic zone and -p[log, (r,/r)J
(2.13)
an outer elastic zone are available in many text log, (ro/ri)
books dealing with plasticity. These solutions are
generally based on the assumption of an idealized P
2S, = S'X - S'X = 1age ( /)
To Ti
(independent of r)
material which is elastic up to the yield stress and
plastic (non-work-hardening) at the yield value. (2.14)
46 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
where Sc% = circumferential stress at any radius r.
S" = radial stress at any point T.
8, = shear stress. ,""'
r0 = outside radius.
r~' = insidel radius.
r = radius at point in question.
The value of 2S, is equal to S, at the outside radius.
If this is accepted as a suitable criterion of general
yielding or bursting, it is interesting to know that
eq. 2.14 can be closely approximated by the simple
mean diameter formula.
Spnrred on by an interesting paper by Burrows
and Buxton [7J on available formulas for cylinders
under internal pressure, the ASA B31 Committee
appointed a special task group to study the subject
and recommend a simple appropriate formula for the
design of heavy-walled piping in the creep range.
This task group recommended that the value of K in
the simple formula of eq. 2.11 be gradually modified
from 0.6 to 0.3 at temperatures over 900 F for
ferritic steels and over 1050 F for austenitic steel.
This recommendation was approved and the formulas
for piping in the ASA Piping Code, Sections 1 and 3,
and the ASME Power Boiler Code now include this
provision.
The formulas given in eqs. 2.12 to 2.14 will provide
a reasonably good answer for the behavior of thick-
walled cylinders made of materials with only a mild
strain-hardening tendency. Where a more e~act
evaluation of probable performance is desired; the
stress distribution should be evaluated from t.he
actual stress-strain characteristics of the ma-
terial [8, 9, lOJ. An analysis of thick-walled cylinders
under internal pressure in the creep range has also
been advanced by Bailey [11J.
Concerning the practical design details of thick
shells, an effort should be made to avoid stress raisers
in the form of abrupt changes of section at the loca-
tion of openings, nozzles, and intersections. The
observance of these rules, coupled with careful con-
trol of materials and fabrication, and with adequate
testing, may permit a reduction in the overall
nominal safety factor without diminishing (and
possibly improving) the real safety factor. With the
trend to higher pressures and temperatures, more
adequate use of material is imperative. Lower safety
factors for simple surfaces of revolution or for con-
struction of controlled low stress intensification is
also necessary [12J.
2.4c External Pressures. External pressure
loading involves, in addition to control of direct
stresses, the consideration of stability. Direct
stresses for external pressures are governed by the
same formulas as for internal pressure, except that
the signs of all of the equations containing the pres-
sure p have to be reversed, indicating compression
stress.
Stability of cylinders -against collapse is well
covered by the rules of the ASME Boiler Code,
Section VIII, which provide for the design of both
unstiffened and stiffened cylinders of all Code
materials. For an explanation of the Code charts,
reference should be made to a paper by E. O. Berg-
man [13J. This paper also contains an extensive
bibliography on this subject. Similar to columns,
the limiting compressive load which a cylinder will
sustain is related to its equivalent slenderness, end
conditions, and deviations from true contour. In
the case of long unstiffened cylinders (length/
diameter over about 10), the collapsed contour
approximately follows a figure 8 outline, consisting
of two complete lobes. Consequently, an unstiffened
cylinder may be compared with a fixed-end column
whose length eqnals one-half of its circumference.
For stiffened cylinders, the nnmber of lobes increases
as the length-between-stiffeners/diameter is de-
creased, with a corresponding increase in collapse
pressure. The Code design of a stiffened shell
establishes a shell thickness and combined moment
of inertia for the stiffener and shell to assure the
stability of the entire shell section. This results in
heavier stiffeners than wonld be obtained by a
design approach wherein the stiffener loading is
based on division of load between the connected
shell and stiffener under pressure, and the elastic
conditions up to the point of collapse. The col-
lapsing pressure of heads (which in early Code
editions involved a flat reduction in allowable
external pressure to 60% of that allowed for internal
pressure) is now predicated on the collapse pressure
of a complete sphere having a radius equal to that of
the spherical part of the head.
The ASME rules attempt to maintain the same
nominal safety factor of 4 against collapse under
external pressure as is used against bursting under
internal pressure. There is some reason to question
whether this is entirely logical, since the effect of
localized stresses or stress concentrations, such as at
branch connections, may be entirely different. Also,
the degree of hazard in the event of failnre will
generally be appreciably less for external pressure,
although hazard mnst still be judged independently
for individual applications. In addition, the Code
rules maintain the same safety factor for failure by
elastic instability as for failure by plastic yielding,
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
except for small tubes where a variable lower safety
faetor is reeognized. The practice of the Structural
Steel Codes in reducing the saf"t'y factor on columns
as the length/radius-of-gyration is reduced appears
logical. For vessels or pipes a similar practice could
be followed by lowering the safety factor to 2 on the
yield point as a suitable function of diameter/thick-
ness, but this practice is not yet recognized.
2.4<1 Expansion. The evaluation of external
reactions at terminal points and intermediate re-
straints of piping systems is given in detail in
Chapters 4 and 5. The expansion forces in space
systems will generally result in 3 force and 3 bcnding-
moment components at each terminal point. The
number of such components is reduced with partial
end fixation.
The evaluation of the terminal reactions permits
the ealculation of the three moments (2 bending and
1 torsional) at any point in the pipe line by the
application of statics. These moments, in turn,
permit the designer to calculate the stresses by
utilizing the section moduli of the pipe. The con-
tribution of direct forces for the expansion stresses
in piping systems is generally insignificant, unless
the piping layout is extremely stiff.
For simplicity the Piping Code provides that
expansion stresses be calculated with the cold
(ambient temperature) modulus of elasticity. The
design values of Poisson's Ratio and the torsional
modulus for expansion stresses likewise refer to this
temperature. The Code also provides thermal
expansion data for evaluating the change in length
over any temperature range. This usc of room-
temperature data avoids the necessity of using
elevated-temperature properties, which may be less
accurately determined. With the principal strain
generally present at atmospheric temperature due to
pre- or self-springing, the Code practice of using the
lI cold" values of mechanical properties is entirely
sound.
2.4e Other Loading. Other loading which may
act on piping systems includes: the weight loads of
the piping, including structural members; the weight
of the insulation, and contents; snow and ice loading;
wind loading if exposed; loading due to aeceleration
imparted by earth tremors; speeial shock loading,
sueh as gun fire or moving vehicles; and unbalaneed
statie pressure or flow effects.
It is possible to include any or all of these loads in
a complete solution, following the methods of
Chapter 5. Ordinarily, these effects are not suffi-
ciently critical to warrant the extra engineering cost
of this more precise approach. Instead, they are
47
indirectly controlled in a standardized way (e.g.,
support standards) or individually estimated and
controlled so that the sum of all effects will approxi-
mately meet the same combined stress criterion.
For large-diameter or otherwise stiff piping systems,
particularly where expensive materials are involved
or where the inereased spaee for additional flexibility
would require enlarged buildings or other eonsider-
able expense, every contribution to the overall strain
should be evaluated by a simultaneous solution.
Weight effects are eonveniently minimized by the
provision of adequate supports. Where sueh supports
just balanee the weight reaction, they ean be validly
ignored in the expansion analysis. This condition is
seldom achieved even with elaborate compensating
spring hangers. However, average piping is suffi-
ciently stiff so that the local restriction due to some
support friction or unbalance is not a serious factor.
For separate estimation, conventional column and
beam analysis of individual critical. members, or
frame analysis of combinations of members is recom-
mended. Wind and dynamic effects can be similarly
treated. Unbalanced pressure effects are resisted
wherever possible by rigid stops or ties which are
taken into account in the flexibility analysis, unless
such provisions would adversely affect the behavior
of the line. In the latter case a careful analysis may
be made to determine whether the pipe itself ean be
designed to earry the loads. If not, the unbalanced
pressure effect must be handled by special design
arrangements.
2.5 Combination of Stress: Stress Intensifica-
tion and Flexibility Factors
The 1955 Piping Code rules for flexibility eontain
the following equation for the combination of stresses
due to thermal expansion:
SE = VSb' + 4St' (2.15)
where SE = equivalent stress to be compared with
the allowable thermal expansion stress
range, psi.
Sb = resultant longitudinal bending stress
psi = {3M b/Z.
S, = resultant torsional shear stress psi =
M,j2Z.
M b = resultant bending moment, lb-in.
M, = resultant torsional moment, lb-in.
Z = section modulus of pipe, in. 3
{3 '" stress intensification faetor.
This equation is based on the Maximum Shear
Theory and for convenient comparison with Code
48 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
allowable stress range, eq. 2.15 represents two times
the maximum shear stress due to expansion loading.
As stated in Section 2.3, the Pipillg Code establishes
a separate limit of Sh for the maximum longitudinal
stress due to pressure, weight, and other external
sustained loadings, with the provision that., if sueh
loadings do not add up to Sh, the differenee may be
used to increase the allowable stress range for expan-
sion effeets. This approach has been adopted for
convenience in praetical design ealeulations. It is
obvious that, when using combined-stress formulas
and a specific yield criterion, stresses from all load-
ings should be included to determine the principal
stresses before combining them. On the other hand,
from a fatigue failure standpoint, the loadings which
cause cyclie stresses are the most significant. There
is, therefore, reasonable logie in eombining these
separately for comparison with an allowable stress
range. Actually, so long as the allowable stress range
is adjusted to suit the methods of calculation and
stress combination which will be used, designs arrived
at by various approaches ean be made substantially
the same. Simplicity of applieation has been the
objeetive of the Code.
The Code's use of the maximum shear-stress
criterion for expansion stresses represents a departure
from the evaluation of stresses elsewhere in the Code,
where only principal stresses are considered. While
a uniform eriterion would be preferable to avoid con-
fusion and permit better assessment of safety factors,
there is greater need for closer evaluation of eyclie
strain loadings whieh may lead to a fatigue failure.
The approach laid down above is reeommended for
ordinary practice, in view of the mandatory require-
ments of the Code and the relative simplicity of
handling expansion stresses separately. For critical
applications, or where loadings are simultaneously
analyzed, it is more appropriate to evaluate all
stresses prior to eombining them and compare them
to the total allowable stress range 1.25 (S, + Sh).
The additional provision that the principal stress
due to long-time sustained loadings other than expan-
sion should not exceed Sh, must also be observed.
For convenient reference the following formulas
are given:
Let S L = maximum longitudinal stress due to
pressure, weight, and other sustained
loading plus expansion stress Sh as de-
fined above.
Sp = cireumferential pressure stress.
S, = shear stress due to torsion as previously
defined.
Then the resultant principal stresses at the outside
fiber ean be written as
S, = 0.5[SL + Sp + V4S," + (SL - Sp)2J
S2 = 0.5[SL + Sp - V4S," + (SL - Sp)21 (2.16)
S3 = 0
and the eombined "equivalent" stress for the respee-
tive yield eondition beeomes
Maximum Shear Theory (Tresca)
The greater of S, as given above or
(2.17)
Distortion-Energy Theory (Mises)
V3S," + Sr} + S? - SLSp (2.18)
Use of the maximum shear theory is favored for
eonsisteney with the Piping Code.
In the sample ealeulations in Chapters 4 and 5 the
Piping Code rules are followed. The examples in
Chapter 4 involve expansion alone; in Chapter 5,
Sample Calculations 5.14, 5.15, and 5.16 include
weight or wind effects.
In the General Analytieal Method, the influence
of localized effeets on deflections and rotations is
provided for by the inclusion of flexibility factors
with t.he shape constant.s. In effect, this eompensat.es
for the additional displacements by providing an
increase of the length of the member to a so-called
virtual length, producing the desired relative deflec-
tion. The net influence of t.his increased flexibility
is to decrease reactions and nominal primary stresses.
This greater flexibility of local components, such
as bends, is the result of localized stresses whose
magnit.ude above the nominal primary stress level is
expressed by a stress-intensification factor, whose use
is mandat.ory in the new Piping Code rules. These
rules cont.ain suggest.ed flexibility and stress fact.ors
for usual piping component.s, wit.h the provision of
allowing the alternate use of experimentally deter-
mined factors.
2.6 Evaluation of Deflections and Reactions
Line movements or deflections are of interest in the
design of yielding supports, sueh as spring hangers,
and in establishing clearances for the free expansion
movement of a large-diameter or eomplex line.
Sample Caleulation 5.10 in Chapter 5 illustrates that
the evaluation of deflections by the Kellogg General
Analytical Method requires little extra effort after
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
the reactions havc been determined. Line move-
ments at any point are also readily determined hy
Model Test for any condition of lil1iding, as discussed
in Chapter 6.
It must be appreciated that calculated deflections
establish only a range of movement; the absolute
position of any point at a given time is, in addition,
dependent upon the combined effects of initial fabri-
cation stress, relaxation and creep, changes in dead
load, adjustment of hangers, and local temperature
differences at the cross section. Except for temporary
overload of terminal equipment, etc., a line may be
adjusted to any desired initial position so that the
movement range occurs over the desired location.
Equipment may be protected against erection over-
load by thermal unloading (controlled local stress
relief) as discussed in Chapter 3.
Since maintained loads, such as piping weight and
insulation, are essentially constant, deflection calcu-
lations are ordinarily confined to expansion effects.
In general, the effect of maintained loads (such as
piping weight and insulation) and transient loads
(such as contents, snow, and wind loads) are effec-
tively limited by properly placed and designed sup-
ports, guides, or tics. The significant movements
will then be associated only with thermal expansion,
and deflection calculations can be confined to this
effect.
The calculations in Chapters 4 and 5 and the model
tests in Chapter 6 give, as their first reSUlt, the
reactions of the supports on the piping system.
These forces and moments arc determined on the
basis of a strain equivalent to the total expansion
and using the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's
ratio at atmospheric temperature. They do not
include the influence of initial stresses due to fabrica-
tion. The resulting reaction range will be immedi-
ately realized in its full magnitude only for piping
systems subjected to 100% cold spring. Beyond this
consideration, it is important to know the maximum
reactions to be expected in the hot and cold condi-
tions for the purposc of examining their effect on
terminal equipment. The Piping Codc provides the
following rules on this subject:
(2.19)
R, = CR, or (2.20)
(2.21)
The value of R, is taken from equations 2.20 or 2.21,
·i9
whichever is greater, and with the further condition
that
Bh E, . h
- X - IS less t an 1
BE Eh
where C = cold spring factor varying from 0 for no
cold spring to 1 for 100% cold spring.
BE = maximum computed cquivalent expan-
sion stress (per eq. 2.15).
E, = modulus of elasticity in the cold condi-
tion.
E h = modulus of elasticity in the hot condition.
R, = range of reactions corresponding to the
full cxpansion range based on E,.
Rc and Rh represent the maximum reactions
estimated to occur in the cold and hot
conditions, respectively.
Obviously, the Codc formulas for reactions, based
upon a division of strains between the ambient and
service temperatures, are somewhat arbitrary.
Equation 2.19 attempts only to establish the initial
magnitude of the hot reaction for purposes of check-
ing the capacity of equipment to take such effects.
Equations 2.20 and 2.21, in turn, are aimed at estab-
lishing the maximum value of cold reactions, either
as obtained through initial cold springing, or due to
subsequent self-springing under service conditions.
The signs (directions) of the hot and cold reactions
are always opposed to each other. For temperaturcs
in the creep range, the hot reaction will eventually
be lowered to a value roughly corresponding to the
design allowable creep stress Bh • This value approxi-
mately corresponds to Rh = SBh R" whereas the cold
E
reaction increases to the value given by cq. 2.2l.
Equations 2.19 and 2.20 arc applicable to a multi-
plane system only when the prespring is applied as a
uniform percentage in each direction. In practice
therc may be instances where prespringing in a pre-
ferred direction only may be sufficient and be utilized
because it is simpler to carry out. For such a case
the reactions for the actual prespring to be applied
should be calculated by an appropriate analytical
mcthod in place of eq. 2.20. For the most complctc
control of prespring, an analysis of the type shown
in Samplc Calculation 5.13 is recommended.
When prespring is not specified, or is not adequately
controlled, the reactions due to fabrication may in
exceptional cases correspond to yield-point stress in
the system, unless thermal unloading has been em-
ployed. Fabrication residual strains will be reduced
when the piping system is first heated if the combined
50 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
expansIOn and residual stresses exceed the yield
strength. The fabrication strain so relieved is not
reestablished during subsequent'"$ervice, nor will it
affect the fatigue life of the piping system. Its
significance lies largely in the load which it introduces
on equipmcnt or foundations as long as it lasts.
The individual hot and cold reaction values are of
interest mainly for judging their effect on sensitive
equipment, such as pumps and turbines which involve
maintaining close clearances and alignment; they are
also of interest in connection with foundation. design.
In regard to localized stresses in the shell of terminal
equipment, however, the reaction range rather than
the magnitude of the individual hot and cold reaetions
is the signifieant faetor. This aspect is dieusssed in
more detail in Chapter 3.
2.7 Design Significance of Inspection and
Tests
Wall thiekness caleulations, when dealing with
pipe or a eylindrical shell, have always included a
so-called "joint efficiency" for welded seams which
has usually been applied only to eircumferential
pressurc stresses. For structural loading the joint
efficiency is sometimes neglected. It is also generally
disregarded in flexibility calculations or compressive
loading and most situations where only bending
stress is involved.
The term "joint efficiency" is a holdover from
riveted construction, where a definite breaking
strength could be associated with a speeific design.
On welded joints, where weakening effects sueh as
rivet holes are absent, it is not difficult to provide
design strength equal to the base material as
evidenced by procedure tests of sample welds, even
for lapped joints. Better criteria of the reliability
and performance of a welded joint are its eapaeity to
take deformation as a measure of its safety against
cracking, the absence of weakening defects as assured
by examination, pressure tests, and mechanical tests
of occasional complete joints or specimens; for high-
temperature service the tests should be carried out
both at room and serviee temperature, but this is not
eurrent praetice except for special applications.
Assessment of performanee tests and degree of
examination would lead to establishment of a
Hquality factor/' rather than a "joint efficiency."
Where repetitive loading is involved, the potential
influence of the design details, fabrication quality,
and basic strueture of the weld- and heat-affected
zone of the parent metal ean apparently be aecurately
evaluated only by full-scale fatigue tests under com-
bined loadings and temperature eycling. However,
scale tests and the use of small specimens have
proven valuable in investigations of certain aspects
of this problem, partieularly for establishing general
trends or for the quality eontrol of procedures and
actual fabrieation.
The level of quality of design, materials, and fabri-
eation attained, as assured by adequate inspection
and tests, is at maximum economic effectiveness when
the individual factors are eontrolled to the same de-
gree [12J. Overemphasis on any aspect does not
ordinarily lessen the hazards attendant to the
negleeted factors, so that the probability of failure
is not proportionately redueed.
There is some opinion that pipe girth joints are less
eritieal than longitudinal welds. This view stems
from the fact that longitudinal pressure stresses are
approximately only half the circumferential stress.
It ignores the fact that expansion and struetural
effects usually make longitudinal stresses the eriterion
of design, and that weakness in a longitudinal direc-
tion causes a local weakness circumferentially. In
addition, initial flaws, in propagating, tend to change
orientation for maximum influence from the maxi-
mum stresses present.
Adequate pressure testing, as praetieed on pressure
vessels, often presents economic problems in piping.
Shop tests of irregular or large-diameter runs require
special fittihg~ or else extra welds for closures.
Adequate field. pressure tests require the installation
of blinds and often extra flanged joints, in order to
protect lower pressure vessels and terminal equip-
ment; they sometimes require special rigging for
inspection access, and temporary supports. Such
eases require individual treatment. When the field
test is adequate the shop test ean be waived by
mutual agreement. In judging the adequaey of the
field test, the degree of inspection and level of test
stress should be jointly considered.
A water- or liquid-pressure test fulfills dual fune-
tions. The design, materials, and fabrication are
checked to a reasonable minimum extent by a pres-
sure test based on 1.5 times the design. pressure in-
creased by the ratio of cold to hot allowable stresses
(S,/S,,). During t.esting, there is an opportunity t.o
detect leaks due to cracks, poro;;ty, or other flaws
whieh extend through the wall. These objeetives
are accomplished at minimum hazard when the
testing fluid is essentially incompressible, thereby
limiting the stored energy. During such a test,
should a break initiate, there is immediate loss
of pressure, usually before extensive damage is
done or fragments detaehed and propelled through
space.
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
The detection of leaks can be accomplished with
equal or greater effectiveness at lower pressures by
using liquids of lower surface tension properties, or
by reducing the surface tension by additives, or by
the use of air or other gas. Air pressures of 5 to 10
psi usually suffice for the detection of leaks with
equal or better effectiveness than water at full test
pressure. The Vessel Codes permit air tcsts as a
snbstitute for water tests at a rednced stress level
(83.3% of hydro test for ASME Code and 73% for
.\.PI-ASME Code), while Section 3 of the Piping
Code limits air tests to 50 psi. The Vessel Codcs
require that pressure be applied in successive stages
to minimize high-energy rnpture hazards. The pre-
cautions exercised should be in step with the size,
volume, stored energy, test stress level, and quality
of inspection.
The effectiveness of a test in proving the sonndness
of a strncture decreases rapidly as the pressure recedes
from I! timp," the equivalent cold working pressnre.
It is donbtful that air tests, at the level prescribed
in the Codes, accomplish much in this direction other
than detection of gross omissions or deficiencies.
These, for the most part, shonld have been revealed
by carefnl visual inspection. In addition, one appli-
cation of pressure at or near normal design stress will
often not reveal poor welds or even lengthy cracks,
unless already extending through the wall. Higher
pressure tests are more effective as a result of greater
overstress in weak areas, and the initiation of plastic
flow in distorted or poorly fit-up areas. However,
there is certainly no complete assurance that a strnc-
ture is safe as a result of successfully passing a single
pressure test.
Equal or greater assurance of soundness can be
obtained by radiographic examination of all welds
coupled with a pressure test at the design pressure.
For magnetic materials where thicknesses do not
exceed! in., a magnetic powder examination inside
and outside in lieu of radiographic examination can
also be considered acceptable. This is not intended
to imply that weld inspection and tests are inter-
changeable. Instead, they mnst be considered
51
simultaneously in evalnating safety. For heavy-
walled or critical-service piping, all practicable
inspection procedures and tests are desirable and
necessary for adequate safety.
References
1. D. B. Rossheim and A. R. C. 1Iarkl, liThe Significance of,
and Suggested Limits for, the Stress in Pipe Lines due
to the Combined Effects of Pressure and Expansion,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 62, No 5 (1940) .
2. E. L. Robinson, IlSteum Piping Design to :Minimize Creep
Concentrations," presented at Annual Mtg. of A81-IE,
New York, 1954.
3. L. F, Coffin, Jr., u1\ Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses on a Ductile Metal," ASME Paper No. 53-A-76,
presented in December, 1953.
4. L. F. Coffin, Jr., "The Problem of Thermal Stress Fatigue
in Austenitic Steels at High Temperature," presented at
AST!vf meeting, Chicago, June, 1954.
5. A. R. C. Markl, "Fatigue Tests of Piping Components,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, No.3, pp. 287-303 (1951).
6. A. Nadai, Plasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1931.
7. W. J. Buxton and \V. P. Burrows, flFormula for Pipe
Thickness," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 575-587 (July,
1951).
8. \V. R. D. Manning, "The Overstrain of Tubes by Internal
Pressure/' Engineering, Vol. 159, pp. 101-102, 183-181
(1945).
9. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
"Partially Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes," J. Franklin Insl.,
Vol. 245, pp. 135-158 (1948).
10. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
"The Plastic Flow of Thick-Walled Tubes with Large
Strains," J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 19, pp. 291-297 (19·18).
11. R. W. Bailey, "Creep Relationships and Their Applica-
tion to Pipes, Tubes, and Cylindrical Parts Under Internal
Pressurc," Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London), Vol. 164,
pp. 425-431 (1951).
12. J. J. Murphy, C. R. Soderberg, Jr., and D. B. Rossheim,
IIConsidcmtions Affecting More Economic but Equally
Safe Pressure Vessel Construction Utilizing; Either Pres-
ent-Day Ductile or New High-Strength Less-Ductile
Materials," API Paper presented at St. Louis, l\by 10,
1955.
13. E. O. Bergman, liThe New-Type Code Chart fOf the
Design of Vessels Undcr External Pressure," ASME Paper
No. 51-A-137, presented at Atlantic City, Novembef,
1951.
 CHAPTER
Local Components
T
HIS chapter will consider important com-
ponent~ of a piping system other than straight
pipe, including flanges, bends, miters, corru-
gated pipe, branch connections, and terminal con-
nections, all of which are designated herein as "local
components" since individually they usually occupy
a limited length of the total pipe run. The localized
stress pattern which they introduce often signifi-
cantly increases the flexibility of the entire piping
system at the expense of stress intensification or
strain concentration at their location. It is the
intent of this chapter to offer a digest of current
knowledge about each local component, and discuss
practical application to the design of piping. Aceu-
rate evaluation of stress and deflection for localized
effects is often complex, or even impossible with
present knowledge; as a result simplifying assump-
tions and shortcut solutions are resorted to, some
of which will be discussed herein.
3.1 Pipe Bends: Structural Loading (Static
and Cyclic)
Pipe bends are curved bars with an annular cross
section, whose reaction to external loading is com-
plex. Visual observation, as well as scattered tests,
established quite early that the elementary theory of
elasticity is inadequate to account for the peculiar
properties of tubular bends. Despite this fact, con-
siderable time passed before a satisfactory analysis
was undertaken. While theories are sufficiently
advanced today to account for the major aspects of
the behavior of pipe bends, many refinements of this
problem still demand clarification and a further ex-
tension of theoretical inquiry.
Systematic investigation of pipe bends began in
1910, when Bantlin [1] observed and reported on the
phenomenon of ovalization, and on the fact that it
52
leads to greater flexibility than could be accounted
for by bar theorics. A year later, the first theoretical
treatment of the subject was published by von
Karman [2], who investigated the stress distribution
in curved tubes subjected to in-plane bending. l
At about the samc time Lorenz [3] and Marbec [41
independently furnished a solution of this problem,
using Castigliano's t[worem in their work instead of
the principle of minimum potential energy as used by
Karman. Hovgaard continued Karman's work and
arrived at an identical solution through a different
approach [5] while Karl [6] refined the solution by
considering morc terms in the series expansion for the
basic variables. In 1943 Vigness [7] extended the
theory to include the case of out-of-plane bending of
curved pipes. These theoretical investigations read-
ily establish the following points:
1. The elementary bending theory for bars, which
assumes a linear variation of longitudinal stresses~
cannot account for the actual stress distribution in
curved tubes under external bending loads. In
reality, the longitudinal bending stresses in the
extreme fibers are greatly relieved by the ovalization
(flattening) of the cross section, which, undcr differ-
ent loading eonditions, takes the forms shown in
Fig. 3.1. At the same time the maximum stresses
are shifted nearer the neutral axis, as shown in Fig.
3.2.
2. This altered bending-stress distribution, in
turn, decreases the bending-moment resistance of
the section. The ratio of the resulting increased
lIn-plane bending refers to the case in which the pipe is
subject to bending by forces or moments applied in the plane
of the bend. Out..of-plane bending designates the case in
which the forces or moments act perpendicularly to the plane
of the bend. Obviously, these two cases enn be combined to
give a solution for forces at moments acting in any arbitrary
plane.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
deflection to that predicted by conventional beam
theory is termed the "flexibility factor" for that
member. .~
3. The maximum longitudinal stresses in pipe
bends will differ from those generated in straight
tubing of equal dimensions. High circumferential
bending stresses are set up as well. For pure (in-
plane) bending, theory indicates that the peak
stresses will be the circumferential stresses near the
neutral axis (a = 0) of the pipe. The ratio of the
maximum stress in the curved pipe bend to that
which would exist in straight pipe subjected to the
same moment is termed Hstress intensification fac-
tor. JJ
These findings were subsequently reexamined by
Beskin [8], who found that the previously established
results were applicable only when the bend charac-
teristic2 was comparatively large; as the character-
istic diminished, the results became increasingly di-
yergent. Instead of a maximum flexibility factor
for in-plane bending of 10, and a maximum stress
intensification of about 3.5, as implied by earlier
analyses for the mathematical limit of h = 0, Beskin
found that both flexibility and stress intensification
factors become infinite at this extreme value.
Further investigation showed that Karman's solu-
tion would have yielded rcsults identical with those
of Beskin, had the Fourier expansion been carried
to more terms than one.
Treating the problem of in-plane bending of curved
lubes by means of the theory of thin shells, Clark
and Reissner [9, \OJ found that the Lorenz, Karman,
Karl, and Beskin solutions merely represented
higher order approximations (in the order men-
tioned), and confirmed Karl's findings [6J that alter-
2The bend characteristic is h = tR/rm2 , where t = wall
thickness of pipe, R = radius of bend, and rm = mean radius
of pipe.
SECTION A-A
(a) In-plane (b) In-plane (el Ov'-of-ploM
Bending Bending
(I(lngenh
Bending
'longcmh
forced forced
Al, together} opClf1)
I (3.3)3
I
A
J k=l+
FIG. 3.1 Ovalization (flattening) of pipe bends under external
bending moments:. Exaggerated.
53
(0) Elemenlory (b) Theory of
Bending Curved
Th~'Y Pi~
MOl(. longitudinal "reu OCCUI1
at angle at (leCl Fig_ 3.8)
FIG. 3.2 Distribution of longitudinal stresses in curved pipes.
nate solutions by the principle of minimum potential
energy (used by Karmim) and the principle of least
work (adopted by Lorenz, Karl, and Beskin), estab-
lish upper and lower limits for the true rigidity of
the tube. The Clark-Reissner solution is obtained in
terms of a trigonometric series expansion for the
stress function and meridional angle change. By
retaining only two terms of each series expansion,
and limiting the range to h > 0.5, the Clark-Reissner
approach becomes equivalent to Karl's solution.
For h < 0.5, the number of terms needed for satis-
factory accuracy increases rapidly; therefore, an
asymptotic solution was investigated. Making
assumptions which hold true when h is much smaller
than I, closed-form solutions were obtained which
are startlingly simple. All analyses dealing with the
problem of bending of curved tubes predict equal
flexibility factors for in-plane or out-of-plane bend-
mg.
!{arman's original solution (first approximation)
for the flexibility factor, k, is
9
(3.1 )3
k= 1+ 12h2+1
Second, third, and nth approximations [11] have the
form
2
k 9+0.255/h (3.2)3
= 1+ 12h2+ 1.3400+0.00750/h2
k 9+0.3003/h2 +O.OO\o587/h·'
= 1+ 12h2+ 1.4004+0.0l3946/h2+O.00001276/h 4
9
12h 2 +I-j
(3.4)3
In eq. 3.4, j is a function of h; for known values of h
3In eqs. 3.1 to 3.4 the rigorous mathematical analysis would
demand that h(l - v2 )-Ji be used instead of h.
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the magnitude of j can be obtained by interpolation Out-?f-plane {LOngitudinal 13, = L08/h % (3.8)
from the following table: bendmg Circumferential 'Y, = L50/h% (3.91
~.

h 0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0

j 1 0.7625 0.5684 0~074 0.1764 0.07488
Beskin's solution for the flexibility factor cannot
be expressed in closed form; his numerical results,
which merge with IG\.rmfm's nth approximation, are
plotted in Fig. 3.3. Clark and Reissner's asymptotic
solution yields the following expression, valid for
small values of h:
k = L65/h (3.5)'
Stress intcnsification factors, unfortunately, differ
for in-plane and out-of-plane bending. In general,
in-plane bending leads to higher circumferential
stress maxima than out-of-plane bending for identical
pipe bends subjected to equal bending moments.
For longitudinal stresses exactly the opposite of this
statement holds true, as witnessed by eqs. 3.6 to 3.9.
The stress intensification factors at the outer surfaces,
valid only for small values of the bend characteristic
(h < 0.5), have the following expressions:
In-plane {LOngitudinal 13, = 0.84/h%
bending Circumferential 'Y' = L80/h%
= 0.3 is assumed in eqs. 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.10.
.tv
5Rigorously, the correct value in eq. 3.7 should be:
'Yi = -L80 (1 - v2 )-n
"
h"
60
0.03526 0.02026 In this same range the variation of angle a,
(pertain-
ing to the largest longitudinal stress, as shown in
Fig. 3.2) with the characteristic h can be given !to
a, = 0.82h li (3.10)
Equations 3.6, 3.7, and 3.10 are obtained from the
asymptotic analysis of Clark and Rcissner. Equa-
tions 3.8 and 3.9 represent empirical proposals made
by The M. W. ICellogg Company, and Markl [12J.
respectively. The various stress intensification fae-
tors are charted in Figs. 3.4 to 3.7, whereas io a,
plotted in Fig. 3.8.
These results convey that for either in-plane or
out-of-plane loading, the circumferentialstrcss in the
neighborhood of IX = 0' will first exceed the yield
point. Tllis stress is a pure bending strcss (excluding
internal pressure effects), varying from a positive
maximum at the outer surface to a negative maximum
at the inner walL A slight amount of yielding, leay-
(3.6)
ing the elasticity of the pipe wholly unimpaircd, will
materially relieve this-stress, as has been observed in
(3.7)5 experiments [13J. Similar deductions can be made
concerning the maximum longitudinal stress at the
outer surface. Pronounced yielding will ensue only
when the maximum longitudinal stress at the middle
surface also exceeds the yield point. Therefore, in
(1) - -Asymplolic Solulion 1.:5 (Clark _ Reislnor)

{2)----BelOkin's (lorge.radius bends)

(3)---Symoflds and Parduo's (Small-rodius bends)

20 (') --Von Karman's nih Approximation

{S)----Approximolo, l.~O (Vinat _ DelBuono)

(For small·radius thkk-woUed bends)

FIG. 3.3 Flexibility factorB for in~plane or out--of-plane bending.

 LOCAL COMPONENTS 55

the opinion of many investigators the stress intensifi-
cation factor of greatest practical significance is the
one pertaining to maximum longiwdinal stress exist-
ing at the middle surface of the pipe wall thickness."
Closer scrutiny of the theoretical developments
6Fatiguc tests do not support this. In fatigue, cracks opcn
up perpendicular to the actual maximum stress which is the
circwnferential stress at the inner pipe wall. This is to be
expected, since under reversed strain loading beyond the
elastic fange, as applied in a fatigue test, initial plastic flow is
of little help in alleviating the range of strain at each point.
described above reveals that, in addition to dealing
only with pipes having a eonstant eurvature of the
center line, constant cross-sectional properties, and
being made of an isotropie and homogeneous mate-
rial obeying Hooke's law, the analyses are based on
the following assumptions:
1. Plane seetions remain plane and the neutral
axis retains its original length after loading.
2. Longitudinal and eireumferential stresses are
principal stresses.

0.8.
10 (l) _ _ koymplotic Solulion h2/J (Clark - Roinner)

6 (3)_ •. _Symond$ and Porduo', (Smoll-rodiu, ~nch)

1.2
(4) Approllimalo. h27i (Viuol- 001 Buono)
(For unoll-rodiu$ lhick-walled bend,)

---
.02 •06 .08 .1 .2 •• .6 .8 1.0 2 •
-,
h -~
'.
FIG.3.4 In-plane bending: outer surface longitudinal stress intensificg,tion factor.

1.80
(l)-A5ymplotk Solution h2/J (Clork - Rlliunllr)

3) (2) - - Be$kin', (large.radiul bllndd

10
B {:n----Symond5 and Pardue', (Short-radiul bllnd$)

6 (4) ApproximoI1l, ~~B (Vinal - Del Buono)

(for smoll·radius thick-walled bend$)

~
't1
.E
•
•
0

~
~
.~ 2 1)
:;;
E
;;;

.6

.6

.4

.3 ':-J,-L.-:':-.LJ,.u.__-!---IL-LJi.....L...L.!--.LL-_-..L--l--l
.03 .04 .06 .08 .1 .2 .4.6.6 1.0 2 4
h=~
,~

FIo. 3.5 In~plane bending: outer surface circumferential stress intensification factor.
56 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
3. The bending moment has a constant value for the curved pipe is acted upon by pure bending
the entire length of the bend. moments. According to St. Venant's prineiple, local
4. Radial and longitudinal strains are uniform disturbances imposed at the boundaries will cancel
through the wall thickness. a short distance therefrom. In this light, assumptions
5. Circumferential strains produce pure bending, 2 and 3 can also be adopted as having reasonable
and thus vanish at the middle surface of the pipe validity.
wall. The remaining assumptions deserve closer scrutiny.
6. The radius of the bend is much greater and the Assumptions 4 and 5, dealing with the strains devel-
wall thickness is small compared with the diameter oped under loading, are idealized simplifications of
of the pipe. the actual strain distribution, and will be in accord
Assumption 1 is fundamental to the theory of with the actual strains only when R/r.. > 10 (i.e.,
elastieity and can be accepted as being true. The larger than a "five diameter" bend). For short-
second and third conditions will be satisfied only if radius bends, characterized by 1 < R/r.. < 10, it
10
....
• -"""-"",/-'1.)
(1)- - 8eskin', {large.radilli bondd

.... .... (2)----Syrnonds and Parduo', (Small-radius ben<h)

"" (3)--Appra:dmafo. ~.~~ (Weil)

lL-.L.l....JL.L.LL.L-_ _L--l.----'-----'---'-...L.I--'-:"~__===.t;=_"'=='
.03

FIG.3.6 Out-of-plnnc bending: outer surface longitudinal stress intensification factor.

. 1..50
(l)--ApproximQlo, h'2/3 (Mark!)

10 (2)- -Beskin', (large rgdiV$ bends)

• (3)----Symonds and Parduo's \,)mall radius bends)

6

! 1.0

••
•6

••
•3 '----.J~_'_-'-.L.JLL.LL_ _---.J_ ____'__-'--'--l.-1__LLL_ _____'__ ____'____l
.02 .0-4 .06 .08 .1 :2' . . . . 6 . 8 1.0 2
h =.!!.
.'•
FICi.3.7 Out-of-plane bending: outer surface circumferential stress intensification factor.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
has been shown [7, 13] that under in-plane bending
(reducing the radius of curvature) the circumferen-
tial strcsses do not vanish at the middle layer (see
assumption 5).
The last assumption plainly limits the accuracy of
the foregoing theories to thin-walled, large-radius
tube bends; the generally accepted view is that these
analyses are proper only if both conditions, namely
that Rlrm and rmlt be greater than 10, are simulta-
neously satisfied. Sinee Beskin's derivation indicates
that at h > 1.0 the flexibility and stress intensifica-
tion factors become generally negligible, it is of
interest to note that this development is not con-
ditioned upon the above-stated limitation on wall
thickness.
To extend the validity of previous analyses,
Symonds and Pardue [14] undcrtook to investigate
the effect of Rlrm ratios considerably less than 10,
(2'::; Rlrm ::; 3). It may be pointed out that under
these conditions the wall thickness ratio assumes a
much greater importance; the fact that the "short-
radius" development is based on thin-shell theory
plainly limits the range of accuracy to about
h = 0.2 for Rlrm = 2, or h = 0.3 for Rlrm = 3.
The Symonds-Pardue theory represents a first-order
approximation to the influence of Rlrm, and shows
that for short-radius bends (long- and short-radius
welding elbows), the flexibility factor suffers little
change, but stress intensification factors are generally
higher than for large-radius pipe bends, as seen in
Figs. 3.3 to 3.7. As might be expected, the results
of this work merge with Beskin's solution, as Rlrm
increases to 10.
Lastly, all of the theories described apply rigorously
only to endless toroidal sections. If the curved tube
is not endless, the theory is accurate only if the end
conditions allow the development of idealized strains
90·
80· (I) --Clark - Reinner
70·
60· (2)----Asymplotic Solution O.82h l/1
so· (Clark and Relnnerl
li0,,(0 0
~
.5:.30°
<i
20·
10·.';-_ _-=:_-'--!:-l-!:,.-'-:':-'--:------:--..L-J'-.LLJ~.Ll:_--_!:_--'--,J
.01 .02 .04 .06 .08
FJO. 3.8 In-plane bending: angle 'l:l
57
and displacements (flattening or ovalization). Jo.:nd
restraints tending to oppose ovalization, (straight
pipe tangents to a minor degree, flanges or terminal
connections to a severe dcgrcc) will lower flexibility
and stress intensification factors; in these cases the
theory will give higher values than those actually
operative. Thus deviations between theory and
actual behavior will be greater the more severe the
end restraint, or for a given end restraint, the lesser
the subtended arc of the pipe bend.
Having elaborated on the underlying assumptions
and results obtained from an analytical approach,
it is enlightening to examine how the theories com-
pare with results obtained from experimental work.
Investigations must be separated into tests per-
formed under static r.onditions and those relating to
fatigue conditions, since they represent fundamen-
tally different types of loading.
The first significant static tests were made by
Hovgaard [5, 13, 15, 161. who proved that experi-
ments were in close agreement with theoretical pre-
dictions for the flexibility, distortion and stresses of a
given system, although calculated stresses showed
smaller extremes than those actually observed. It
must be added that Hovgaard's tests were performed
mostly within the limitations of his theory: stro.ss
distribution measurements were confined to sections
remote from the disturbing effects of type-of-loading
or end-fixity conditions, and most of the experiments
were limited to large-radius bends (Rlrm > 10).
Similar observations were made by other investi-
gators [17, 18, 19,20,21,22], who again found the
longitudinal stresses to be slightly in excess of theo-
retical values. It was also observed [21] that the
flexibility of pipe bends for in-plane bending was
greater than that predicted by theory. This devia-
tion was small, but consistent, and was ascribed to
(I)
.
.1 .2 ....6.8 1.0 2.0 ".0
h= !!
,~
corresponding to location of m!\ximum longitudinal fiher stress.
58 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the fact that the theory of curved tubes did not take
into account secondary influences predicted by the
theory of curved bars. Tests condticted under out-
of-plane bending [7J, in turn, showed that the rigidity
of pipes was greater (Le., the flexibility less) than
indicated by analysis. This was attributed to the
restraining effect of straight tangents applied to the
ends of the quarter pipe bend. Stresses meanwhile
were smaller than was anticipated from theoretieal
research.
A thorough investigation on the effeet of end con-
ditions was carricd out by Pardue and Vigncss [23J.
Dealing first with flexibility factors, they found that
even the most detailed theory [14J was capable of
predicting flexibility factors for out-of.-plane bending
only if the pipe bcnd merged with a straight tangent
of sufficient length. Substituting a flange for the
tangent at either end resulted in a drastic drop of
flexibility; when both ends were flanged, flexibility
dropped even further. Right-angle bends were
subject to these reductions in a greater degree than
U-bends, confirming the logical expectation that the
smaller the subtended angle of a pipe bend the
greater will be its sensitivity to disturbanees caused
by end restraints.
Almost identieal statements apply to the stress
intensification factors. The theory is in agreement
with actual behavior only insofar as the bend is
furnished with sufficiently long straight tangents,
the experimental values being generally a shade on
the high side. With an increased degree of end
fixity, this correlation breaks down. Applying
flanges to both ends of the bend initiates a much
greater reduction of the stress intensification factor
than using one flange and one straight tangent; and
again, right-angle bends were subject to these modi-
fying effects to a greater degree than U-bends.
Additional confirmation of theoretical results
was provided by a series of tests carried out by
Gross and Ford [24, 25, 26J. These tests proved
that, in line with theoretical predictions, the cir-
cumferential stress in the vicinity of " = 0 was the
largest absolute stress; in the tests carried to failure,
the cracks always ran along the side of the bend at
about the location of the neutral axis. Contrary to
assumption 5 of the theory, however, the circum-
ferential stress at the middle layer did not vanish.
Application of strain gages to the external and inter-
nal faces proved that the maximum stresses were
always situated on the inner surface of the bend,
which may explain the observation [25, 27J that
cracks in pipe bends are initiated on the inner face
and penetrate outwards. To account for this defi-
ciency in the theory, Gross [25J suggested that the
transverse compression, ignored in the analytical
work, be taken into account. He also presented an
approximate derivation for this quantity, and proved
that adding this stress component to the others
included in the theory actually brings experiments
and analysis into good accord.
The examination of test results also eonfirmed
that the theory of maximum distortion energy pre-
dicted quite accurately the load and location at
which incipient yielding occurs. No such criterion
could be advanced for the ultimate load-carrying
eapacity of the bends, except for noting that failure
(which took place by collapse under a moment short-
ening the chord of the bend) occurred at a load whieh
was generally twice as large as that required to
initiate yielding.
Vissat and DelBuono [28J describe the results of
tests on welding elbows with a ratio of R/rm equal
to 2 or 3. Restricting the tests to in-plane bending
and fitting experimental points by analytical ex-
pressions, the following relations were proposed for
flexibility and stress intensification factors:
Flexibility factor
k = 1.40/h (3.11)
Stress intensification factors (in-plane bending)
f3, = 1.2/h" (3.12)
'Yi = 1.07/ho. 78 (3.13)
As seen in Figs. 3.3 to 3.5, these proposals result in
lower flexibility and circumferential stress intensi-
fication factors, but higher longitudinal stress in-
tensification factors as compared with the data of all
other theories. While these results can be uscd on
welding elbows having the characteristics investi-
gated, some reservation should be exercised, since
on the thick-walled short-radius bends used in this
work the restraining influence of straight tangents
or flanges has not received sufficient evaluation.
The next point of interest is to examine whether
the conclusions drawn above remain valid if the
bend is acted upon by repeated cyclic loading rather
than a single static load. Obviously, fatigue con-
ditions will hardly modify the flexibility of a sound
local component. What is sought through a fatigue
test, therefore, is the practical effect of stress in-
tensification on the number of cycles to failure.
In addition to manner of loading, fatigue tests
differ in two aspects from static tests: in the manner
of measuring stress intensification, and in the weight
given to plastic flow. In static tests, the stress
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
intensification factor denotes the ratio of actual peak
stresses to those developed in a straight member of
identical dimensions (for pure beftding, the reference
stress is MIZ).' In fatigue, the effective stress
intensification factor relates the stresses causing
failure over a given number of cycles in a straight
pipe tangent (or polished bar) to those initiating
fracture in the test piece subjected to an equal
amount of stress cycles.
As regards the significance of plastic strains,
static~stress measurements are strongly dependent
upon the presence of plastic flow with its attendant
,·edistribution of loading and stress-mitigating effect.
In the fatigue test the local strain range per cycle is
the significant value determining performance;
therefore, a redistribution of stresses due to plastic
strains has only a minor significance. While it is
common practice to use and establish design prac-
tices in terms of stresses based on elastic theory,
it should be appreciated when dealing with fatigue
that in reality these stresses are being used as a
suitable index of the strains involved.
Fatigue tests on piping components were initiated
by Rossheim and Markl [29], followed by a detailed
research program carried out by Markl [12, 30].
Since it was felt that the stress peaks developed in
local components as compared with straight runs of
pipe constituted the desired fundamental informa-
tion, stress intensification factors were based on a
comparison with S-N diagrams obtained for straight
commercial finish pipe, containing butt welds, a
clamped edge or similar stress raisers. A stress
intensification factor of unity was assigned to the
latter for practical reasons.
The first finding of interest was that, while the
S-N curves for both straight pipes and welding
elbows of carbon steel seemed to reach no endurance
limit within the number of cyclcs cmploycd (2 X 10"
cycles max), both curvcs wcrc approximately straight
and parallcl to cach other on a log-log plot. This
indicated that the stress intensification factor could
be given as a constant, rcgardlcss of the number of
stress cycles involved.
In comparing test results with theory, it was
found that Beskin's or the Symonds-Pardue theory
predicted quite accurately the flexibility of the bend
or elbow, as well as the type and location of failure.
The agreement between tests and theory for stress
intensification factors was less satisfactory; however,
a reasonably good correlation was obtained if the
test results were drawn into comparison with only
one-half of the maximum theoretical stress intensi-
7Where Z = I ITo is the section modulus of the cross section.
59
fication factor (referring to circumferential stresses
for both in-plane and out-of-plane bending).
When considering the signifieanee of this finding,
it is important to note that Markl's reference point
of unity for the test results is not a theoretical but
a practical, one. In the first place, Markl [30] found
that the clamped edge used in the earlier tests in-
volved a stress intensification factor of about 1.5, as
compared to pipes with a tapered end. The remain-
ing factor of about !.4 needed to bring experiments
and theory into agreement may perhaps be attrib-
uted to the stress raisers inherent in commercial
finish pipe as compared to the theoretically con-
sidered smooth homogeneous tube. Markl could
have changed his reference point of unity and as-
signed different test factors; however, he found that
butt welds involved the same stress intensification
as the clamped edge. Therefore, he reasoned that a
base line which would include the effect of such
normally encountered stress raisers would be much
more satisfactory for practical design. This reason-
ing has been supported by practical designers and
by the ABA Code for Pressure Piping Committee.
It is, nonetheless, an important point which should be
kept in mind, particularly in connection with the
practical application of any theoretically derived
factors for other piping components.
Recourse to eqs. 3.7 and 3.9 indicates that the
experimentally found reduction factor of 2.0 leads
to design stress intensification factors (when referred
to the aforementioned base line) of the following
magnitude:
'Ii = 0.90/"% for in-plane bending,
'10 = 0.75/"% for out-of-plane bending
It happens that these stress intensification factors
are very close to the theoretical value of the longi-
tudinal factor for in-plane bending, which has long
been in customary use instead of the more proper
circumferential factor. The seeming justification
of this latter practice stemmed from Hovgaard's
findings that permanent overall deformation of the
pipe bend occurred only when the longitudinal stress
at the middle surface exceeded the yield stress.
The recommendations of the revised ASA B3l.!
Code for Pressure Piping are derived principally
from these experimental observations. For both
in-plane and out-of-plane bending, the Code recom-
mends that the stress intensification factor
fJ = 'I = 0.90/"% :::: 1.0 (3.!4)
he used, the choice of a single factor having been
60 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
2R+t.. The resulting stress dbtribution is shown in Fig. 3.9.

:~O
A more elaborate investigation [32J and tests carried
__,Ir'-"_+_'"-'.II: out on curved pipes under internal pressure [251
confirmed the general validity of eqs. 3.15 and 3.16,
and showed that maximum stresses will be reached
_--t--'~"-'-\- a = 0
at the line of the bend having the least radius of
curvature (crotch), as predicted by eq. 3.16. Yield-
u~~o ing will first occur at this point. Despite this, it is
not normal practice to apply these formulas to thc
• 2R-r..
2(R-r",1
u:
0 design of pipe bends.
When external loading and intcrnal pressure arc
imposed simultaneously on a pipe bend, experimental
results [26J show (as should be expected) that maxi-
mum circumferential stresses occurring for external
FIG. 3.9 Distribution of circumferential stresses in pipe bend
subjected to internal prCS811.re. moment loading alone will be reduced by the pres-
cnce of intcrnal pressure. While the prcsence of
internal pressure will slightly reduce tbe flexibility
accepted for practical rcasons only. The flexibility
of the bend [13, 24J, the stress, whether referring to
factor, as proven by theory and experiments, is principal stresses or combined stress, will also be
given as
mitigated [26].
k = 1.65/h (3.5)
3.3 Miter Bcnds
Additional fatigue tests again proved the restraint
Particularly for the less severe services, changes in
of straight tangents upon the full developmcnt of
direction are not infrequently made by mitering
the flexibility and stress magnification factors; as in
straight pipe (Fig. 3.10). Yet miter "bends" have
static tests, this influence was increasingly accen-
received much less attention in the literature than
tuated with reduction of the subtended angle of the
curved pipes. Nevertheless, it was shown by Zeno
pipe bend. As a rough measure, it could be stated [33J, who investigated the flexibility of a five-section
that both flexibilty and stress intensification factors right-angle miter bend (h = 0.0158), that the theo-
were reduced from their full value for a quarter-bend retical flexibility values of curved pipes were ap-
elbow to unity, as the subtended angle of the bend
approached zero. This rule was upset only at thc
very small arc bends, where the disturbing effect of
closcly spaccd wclds obliterated the restraining
influence of the straight tangents, causing a con-
comitant risc in the stress intensification factor.
3.2 Pipe Bends: Internal Pressure
The foregoing theories and experiments dealt
solely with pipe bends subj ected to external loadings.
In addition to this effect the pipe wall will be stressed
by the pressure of the fluid in the system. For a ,

-~2""
curved pipe subjected to a pressure p, the longi-
tudinal and circumferential membrane stresses are
givcn approximatcly by [31J ... 2r,p,
R __ 2«J ...
(3.15)s - -
'. 5 = miter lp<long
2R+rm siua TmP cp=mitor anglo
qc=
2(R + rmsina)
-
t
(3.16)s R=equivalont ~nd rodilJ5 = t cot r,p
'm=moon radiln of pipe
8Notice that these formulas are identical with the equa~
tiona for straight pipes, except for the first fraction ap!>caring
in eq. 3.16. FIG.3.10 Geometry of miter bends.

I
~
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
proached as the tangents were made sufficiently
long" Similar indications were obtained by Gross
and Ford [26], who measured str&ses and flexibility
on a miter bend of h = 0.0483, and found them
reasonably well predicted by the theory of curved
tubes.
Little additional information is available concern-
ing the properties of welded miter joints under static
loads, since in addition to difficulties encountered
with plain pipe bends, miter joints arc subject to
yariations introduced by differences in fit-up and
welding as well as in the arrangement of segments.
..\.vailable evidence, however, seems to indicate that
the flexibility is less and stress intensification is
greater for miters than for plain bends of the same
major dimensions.
Miter bends have also been subjected to intensive
cyclic testing [12J with the finding that their be-
havior could be predicted with reasonable accuracy
through analogy with curved pipes when the propel'
characteristic variables were included. From geom-
etry (see Fig. 3.10) the radius of the tangent arc of
a bend can be expressed as R = ts cot </>, where
8 = miter spacing at center line, and ¢ = miter
angle. If there is but a single miter 01' if the miter
spacing becomes large, however, this radius loses its
significance and an effective radius was suggested,
empirically expressed as R = rm (1 + cot </»/2.
Thus the bend characteristic assumes the following
form:
tR cot </> Is ..
Ii = - 2 = - - - 2 for small miter spacmg,
Tm 2 Tm
s reasons, referred to teat of butt-welded or clamped-
- - tan </> < 1 (3.17)
rm
l+cot</>t ..
h = -'-'----=- - for large miter spacmg,
2 rm
s the theoretically derived value of this factor, as
-tan</»1 (3.18)
By using this bend characteristic with the expression
derived for curved pipe, eq. 3.14, values of stress
intensification arc obtained which show a good cor-
relation with the tests. The flexibility factor was
somewhat smaller than for plain curved pipes, and
resembled that for welding elbows with one flange
and one plane tangent. The flexibility factor for
9Without tanp;ents, i.e., with flat plates welded directly to
the end of the Jast miter segments, the flexibility for in-plane
bending was {oJ..lnd to be reduced to only 3% of the thcorcti-
('nlly predicted value for a bend.
61
miter bends can henee be given as
k = 1.52/h" :::: 1.0 (3.19)
with h taken as the lesser of the values obtained from
eqs. 3.17 or 3.18. These results are incorporated
in the recommendations of the ASA 1331.1 Code
for Pressure Piping.
3.4 Bends and Miters: Summary
Pipe bends depart from conventional beam theory
chiefly as a result of distortion (ovalization) of the
cross section under bending. Under static loading,
theories predict the flexibility, maximum stresses,
and occurrence of incipient yielding with good
accuracy for bends with plain tangents whose sub-
tended angle is larger than 90'. At present theories do
not consider the restraining influence of straight
tangents (particularly significant for curved pipes
whose bend angle is less than 90'), nor can they
effectively deal with the inhibiting tendency of severe
end restraints, such as flanges or terminal connec-
tions. To evaluate the characteristics of com-
ponents falling into this category, reference must be
made to such test data as are available.
In actual service, idealized static loading condi-
tions are seldom encountered. A certain amount of
plastic flow will always take place, enabling the bend
to carry loads in excess of those predicted by the
classical elasticity theory. The significance of theo-
retically calculated stress values is further reduced
by the fact that evell straight piping with a com-
mercial finish carries an inherent stress-raising factor,
and that the performance of bends is, for practical
end pipes rather than polished test specimens. Not
only experimental evidence but also a long history of
successful design practice support these facts.
These considerations will hardly affect the flexi-
bility factor. Therefore, it is sound practice to use
given by eq. 3.5. When considering stress intensi-
fication factors, however, it is sufficient to base
calculations on only one-half of the theoretically
predicted value; as supported by Markl's fatigue
tests, the appropriate equation for this factor is given
by eq. 3.14.
The increase of membrane stresses in pipe bends
subjected to internal pressure loading (as compared
to straight pipes), is generally not significant. In
fact, tests demonstrated that a static load alone will
lead to higher localized stresses than a combination
of this static load and a moderate internal pressure.
The effect of internal pressure on bends can, there-
62 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
(b) RcinlQrdng Saddlo
C,ola;
(0) M (c). wilh Shooldof_
fX'd~ Added
1'o.~~ __ -Bn;ln~h Pipo ..J
(I) ReinfQr(ing Collo!
FIG. 3.11 Types of reinforcement for branch connections.
fore, be ignored in normal applications. An investi-
gation of this effect, in line with the principles laid
down in the text, is warranted only for very critical
serVIce.
The stress intensification and flexibility factors of
short bends (subtended angle less than 90°) are
known to be less than those indicated above. De-
spite this fact, it is recommended that no reduction
for either faetor be used on short bends, since the
experimental evidence on this subject is not con-
clusive.
Miter bends, as a rule, have lower flexibility and
higher maximum stresses than those pertaining to
curved pipes of similar dimensions. By this token,
the appropriate design value for the flexibility factor
of miter bends can be obtained from eq. 3.19. The
stress-raising factor will be givcn by eq. 3.14, with
the bend characteristic given by the smaller value
obtained from eqs. 3.17 or 3.18. These design cri-
teria for miter bends originate from tests conducted
on 4 in. miters only. For large-diameter miter bends,
fit-up and fabrieation difficulties are likely to lead to
more severe eonditions than would be indieated by
the design rules stated above.
3.5 Branch Connections: Static Pressure
Loading
The junction of a braneh with a header, usually
referred to as a branch connection, is inherently a
point of structural weakness in piping. Not onl)'
the absenee of metal in the header opening but also
the abrupt directional changes and oftentimes sharp
variations in cross section give rise to severe stress
intensification. While this handicap of a branch
connection can be overcome to a large extent by
reinforcement and by the use of favorable contours.
it is difficult to achieve the ideal of developing a
strength equal to that of the intact pipe.
Branch connections must be designed first in re-
gard to their ability to resist static loads. This will
be the concern of the present section, while the effect.
of repeated loads will be considered in Section 3.6.
S~ction 3.7 will present a short review of various
pertinent Code rules, and Section 3.8 will give a
summary together with. practical design recom-
mendations.
An involved geometrical shape and the strong
influence of certain secondary effects lO make the
analytical investigation of branch connections sub-
jected to pressure or structural loading prohibitively
difficult. Consequently, investigations dealing with
this subject are largely confined to experimental
research. The salient information on the action of
branch connections subjected to internal pressure
is summarized in Table 3.1 although mention shonld
also be made of a few tests reported in references
[34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Figure 3.11 shows various
types of reinforcements which have been proposed.
From Table 3.1 and its underlying tests, the folio\\'-
ing conclusions can be drawn: Unreinforced full-
sized connections are deficient in both yielding and
bursting strength. This deficiency decreases as the
branch becomes smaller in comparison to the header.
The limited number of tests seems to indicatc that
an unreinforeed 90° intersection dcvelops the full
bursting strength when the ratio of branch to header
diameter does not exceed !. Unpublished tests on
30 in. diameter pipe and the general experience with.
pressure vessels, however, show that this rule canllot
be extended beyond the commonly available sizes of
commercial pipes.
The addition of a pad reinforcement is beneficial
in that it permits the fabricated connection to de-
velop almost the full bursting pressure of the header.
lOSuch as the existence of longitudinal bending in the hender
due to removal of part of its wall, /lnd the interplay of radial
displacements of both header and branch under internal.
pressure.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS 63

Pad reinforcements, however, afford little restraint
against plastic flow and are, therefore, ineffective in
raising the yielding pressure of""'he intersection to
the desired value [42, 43].
Several alternatives have been advanced to elimi-
nate the shortcomings of unreinforced or pad-rein-
forced intersections. The reinforcing saddle [44],
shown in Fig. 3.11b, adds reinforcement around the
highly stressed areas of the crotch and shoulder.
The complete encirclement pad is pietured in Fig.
3.11e. This proposal [45] extends the reinforcement
beyond the region where most failures of the pad-
reinforced branch connections originated. An ex-
tension of this eoncept [46] supplements the encir-
cling band with shoulder pads, as shown in Fig. 3.11d.
While no test results are presented, the authors of
these proposals have stated that the performance of
full-sized branch connections reinforced in accord-
ance with these alternate details was entirely ade-
quate under pressure loading. On the other hand,
the horseshoe-and-gusset reinforcement (Fig. 3.11e),
due to its extreme rigidity, led to stress concentra-

Table 3.1 Summation of Internal Pressure Test Results on Piping Branch Connections

Pressure as per cent

Angle Pressure as per cent of
Type
of that supported by
Size of of that supporWd by
fuJI. of right-angle
Authors Inrer~
intact header sin €X Remarks
No. Reinforce- intersection
section,
Header Branch dep'ccs mont· at Propor- at atPropor- at
in. in. tionallimit Bursting tionallimit Bursting
---
35 Everett
&
McCutchan 8 8 90 None 38.5 69.6

40 Crane 8 4 90 None 76.9 101.1

Co. 12 6 90 None - 91.4
8 8 90 Pad 61.5 98.9
12 12
---
90 Pad - 93.0

41 Se.abloom 2' 2, 90 HorstlShoe - 38.5

and gusset
-
- - 90 None -70.0 -70.0 Averaged
test values
11.9 6.2 90 None ra1U'" aver-
10 None )81.0 )82.5 aged for
'.2 90
48 Blair two tests
7.5 7.5 90 Pad 74.5 96.0
11.9 7.5 80 Collar 79.0 90.0
11.9 7.5 80 Gusset & pad 85.0 90.0
11.9 7.5 80 Unbalanced 110.0 >100.0 Averaged
triform values
6 6 90 Balanced 121.0 >100.0
triform
49 N.Gross -8 -8 90 Welding - _96.0 Averaged
l<.~ value
- - 90 None 70.0 70.0
Averaged
11.9 10 90 None 79.0 79.0 }1.0 value
6 ·1 90 None 83.0 86.0
- - 60 None 60.0 60.0 85.6 85.6
Averaged
48 Blair 11.9 10 60 None 56.0 66.0 70.9 83.5 }0$66 value
6 4 60 None - 66.0 - 76.7
- - '5 None 50.0 50.0 71A 7IA
Averaged
11.9 10 45 None '3.0 4'.0 54.5 55.7 }0.707 value
6 ·1 45 None 51.0 61.0 61.5 70.9
- - 60 None 63.0 65.0 90.0 92$ 0.880
Y-i::onnectiont
- - 30 None 3·1.0 '0.0 48.6 57.1 0.502

·800 Fig. 3.1I for identification of types of reinforcement.'!.

tLast column denotes l/(C03CC a - 0.5 cot a) instead of sin a for equal-sized Y~inWrscctions.
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
tions of such magnitude that the intersection sus-
tained only 38.5% of the bursting pressure of the
intact header. .~.
Collar reinforcements of the type shown in Fig.
3.lIf wcre pioneered by the Swiss firm of Sulzcr
Brothers, Ltd. [47J, as early as 1928. Experiments
[48J indicated that this method bad characteristics
similar to the pad-type reinforcement. As a furthcr
improvement, Blair [48J suggested that the stiffening
collar be supplemented by a third horseshoe encir-
cling the bottom of the header. He gave the name
Htriform" to the resulting arrangement, shown in
Fig. 3.lIg. lIB Table 3.1 shows, triforms performed
very satisfactorily, considering both yield and burst-
ing pressures.
While tests confirm the effectiveness of triforms,
this type of reinforcement requires intricate fitting
and welding which does not lend itself to radiographic
examination. In high-temperature service the ribbed
construction leads to thermal gradients. Further-
more, the sharp re-entrant corners suggest high
stress concentrations which may not be revealed in
static-pressure tests but would become critical under
repeated loaning. American experience with the tri-
form is quite limited, hence in the United States it
is regarded as" novel approach until its performance
is more adequately assessed.
Welding tees, Fig. 3.lIh, are preferred structurally
to fabricated welded intersections, especially where
the size of the branch i. equal to or approximates the
size of the run. Recently, cast tees proven to be
sound by radiographic and magnetic particle exam-
ination and by hydrostatic test, arc finding increased
acceptance. Only a few articlcs [49J are publishcd
concerning the design and strength properties of
drawn tees subjected to internal pressure. The rea-
son for this lies in the requirements of ASA Standard
B16.9, which prescribes that welding tees must be
able to withstand the full bursting pressure of
straight pipe in sizes for which they are intended.
On the other hand, the Standard makes no demands
regarding the pressure to be supported by drawn
tees at their yield strength.
Despite the presence of high stresses at the internal
;urface of the crotch [49J, welding tees, in general,
involve lesser fabrication difficulties and stress con-
centrations than those associated with welded intcr-
sections. Their performance with regard to bursting,
based on the Standard and thc meager test data that
are available, is also satisfactoryll Wclding tccs
llThc cylindrical we tested by Gross f49L which failed at
96% of the pipe bursting pressure, would not comply with
American Standard rcquircmcn ts.
having a fl spheroidal J1 intersection zone are claimed
to develop an increased resistance to yielding under
internal pressure. Branch connections subject. to
extremely high internal pressures are usually forged
and bored [50J.
Test results dealing with acute-angle (inclined)
branch connections are even more scarce than those
for right-angle intersections, being confined to those
reported by Blair [48], and assembled here in Table
3.1. This evidence indicates that within the limits of
the experiments (i.e., branch angles from 30' to 90'),
the strength of such intersections is roughly propor-
tional to the sine of the branch angle for both full and
reducing sizes, which is equivalent (as Blair pro-
posed) to basing reinforcement simply on the area
removed from the sidewall of the header. The
quantity of test data, however, is hardly sufficient to
support any such conclusion. Intuitively it would
seem that acute anglc branch connections are further
weakened by theincreased stress conccntration at the
crotch due to the elliptical shape of the cut-out, and
by the pressure load transfer through the reentrant
crotch corner. Recognition of these effects has led
to the current ASA Code requircments which will be
discussed in a subsequent section.
The foregoing material deals with branch connec-
tions in pipes subjected to internal pressure loading.
Closely related to this field is the snbjcct of nozzle,
and opcnings in pressure vessels. While no well-
drawn division exists between these two fields, two
criteria may be mentioned, which help to separate
these problems. First, in pressure vessels the diam-
eter of thc branch (nozzle) is usually small as com-
pared to that of the header (vessel). This fact
diminishcs some of the secondary effects to lower
levels. Secondly, the wall thickncss to diameter ratio
is also exceedingly small in large-sized pressurc
vessels. This permits the investigator to study thc
effects of openings in pressure vessels by means of
flat-plate analogics, which would otherwise be of little
use or validity to the designer of piping branch con-
nections. It should be remembered that even on
pressure vessels, the theorctical flat-plate analogie,
cannot asscss the effect of the hydrostatic end pull
exerted by the branch on the vessel. This cffect can
be evaluatcd on the basis of recent contributions by
Bijlaard [51J and Hoff [52J.
The theoretical approach to the problem of
stresses around nozzles in pressure vessels has
traditionally consisted of the investigation of flat
plates with a circular opening reinforced in the
manner shown in Fig. 3.12. Among thcse analytical
studies [53, 54, 55, 56J Beskin's work [56J is thc most
 LOCAL COMPONENTS 65
Rim (pipo collar)
complete. In this study, combinations of "rim-type"
and "flat ring-type" reinforcements, applied sym-
metrically on both sides of the pillte, are investigated.
Based on the principle that the distortion energy ,
H-t_
F10t Plato

governs yielding, stress intensification factors are

gi\·cn in terms of the HetTective stress" rather than
anyone of the principal stresses.
The results of Beskin's investigation arc shown in
condensed form in Table 3.2. Since the idealized R.:Ii~ I,
stress condition in shells under internal pressure can
be decomposed into a hydrostatic and uniaxial cir- FIG.3.12
LR'
Edgc reinforcement of cirr.ular cut-outs
cumferential stress of equal mangitudes, the last in flat plates.
column of stress intensification factors in Table 3.2,
headed by "Average" reflects upon the conditions (doubler plate only) is less efficient in reducing stress
prevailing around nozzles in pressure vessels. As peaks. The dimensions incorporated in Table 3.2
can be seen, both the rim-type reinforcement and are characterized by Fig. 3.12.
the doubler-rim combination (with at least 50% of The plastic behavior of flat plates having a circular
the reinforcing area supplied to thc rim) are quite cut-out reinforced by a pipe collar was also investi-
effective in diminishing the peak stresses existing gated [57J. The analysis was restricted to ideally
around unreinforccd openings. In both cases, best plastic materials (no strain hardening) which obey
results are obtained when the ratio of total reinforce- the maximum shear-stress flow condition. It was
ment to hole area (reinforcement ratio) is in the found that for a "full-strength" reinforcement (load
neighhorhood of 0.8-1.0; at this ratio the average at fully plastic condition in reinforced plate equal to
stress intensification factor is reduced to a level of or greater than that referring to intact plate), the
about 1.35. By contrast, the pad-type reinforcement dimensions of the pipe collar, as shown in Fig. 3.12,
must satisfy the equations:
Table 3.2 "Effecthe Stress" Concentrations around
H 1 + tn/R
Circular Holes in Flat Plates, Reinforced by for R/t n :0; ~
Various Methods tn/R
(3.20)
H 1 + tn/R
Stress Intensification Facror Area of Reinforcement - = for R/l n 2: ~
HI" t'
--
R'
- Area of Cutr-Out I VI + 2(tn/R)2 - 1
Rt t R I
Biaxial Uniaxial A I
Tension Tension verage Rim IDOUblerl Total These equations bear resemblance to the results of
Rim Reinforcement only
the elastic analysis, indicating that, for a given
amount of reinforcement (inH = constant), maxi-
0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.50 - - 0 mum effectiveness is achieved when the reinforce-
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.32
1.08
I 1.52
1.63
1042
1.35
004
0.8
-
-
004
0.8
ment is concentrated near the opening (small In and
large H). Naturally these results can be considered
1.2 1.0 I 1.0 1.01
I 1.76 1.38 1.2 - 1.2
to retain their validity only within consistent limits. 12
Doubler Plate Reinforcement only Furthermore, for strain-hardening materials or large
I plastic strains eqs. 3.20 can be used, at best, only as
- 2.0 104 1.52 2.30 1.91 - 004 004
a rough guide. This plastic analysis was recently
- 3.0 1.2 1.43 I, 2.04 1.74 - 0.4 0.4
- 2.0 1.8 1.37 , 2.17 1.77 - 0.8 0.8 extended [58J to reinforcements of various cross
- 3.0 1.4 1.22 I 1.90 1.56 - 0.8 0.8 sections.
- 5.0 1.2 1.03 1.75 1.39 - 0.8 0.8 Experimental work has corroborated the basic
- 5.0 -
1.3 1.00
I 1.85
I
1.42 1.2 1.2
findings and, in some respects, the numerical results
Doubler and Rim Combined of theoretical work. It was found [59J that unrein-
forced circular openings in either heads or cylindrical
0.2 2.0 1.2 1.36 1.78 1.57 0.2 0.2 004
004 2.0 0.8
vessels led to stress concentrations in excess of those
104 1.01 1.61 1.31 004 004
004 3.0 1.2 1.02 1.73 1.38 0.4 004 I 0.8
004 5.0 0.8
12For instance, the assumption of a very high and very
J.l 1.04 1.72 1.38 004 0.4
0.6 slender rim would violate the fundamental condition that the
5.0 J.l5 1.00 1.85 1.43 0.6 0.6
I 1.2
stress distribution be constant over the height of the rim.
66 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
predicted by flat-plate theory. 13 These peak
stresses diminished, in general, with a reduction of
the ratio of the diameter of the opening to that of the
vessel.
Full-scale tests also indicated that excessive stiff-
ening led to greatly increased bending moments just
beyond the toe of the weld attaching the nozzle.
Optimum conditions were obtained [55, 59, 60J by
concentrating the reinforcing metal near the open-
ing. With appropriately reinforced openings the
stress concentration factors wer(; successfully limited
to the theoretically predicted value of about 1.35.
For small openings these optimum results were
achieved by a pipe collar whose height-to-thickness
ratio varied between 3 and 4. Flat doubler-type
reinforcements were found to be ineffective, as pre~
dieted by theory; the stress concentration in these
cases was in the vicinity of 3.0 at the longitudinal
axis of the opening.
Further proof of these results was offered by
Schoessow and Brooks [6IJ. Heavy rim-type rein-
forcements (reinforcement ratio 1.06-1.15) were only
moderately effective, reducing stress concentrations
from 2.50 for an unreinforced hole to about 2.05.
Heavy doubler and thin rim combinations, however,
effectively reduced stress intensifications to between
1.26-1.51, roughly in line with the predictions of
the flat-plate analogies.
The tests described above were all conducted with
the reinforcement being applied only to one side of
the vessel. Stress measurements were likewise
limited to the external surface. In contrast, theo-
retical predictions are based on the assumption that
the reinforcement is applied in equal proportion to
both faces of the plate. The question, therefore,
arose: if reinforcement is applied to one face only,
what conditions will prevail on the unreinforced side?
An experimental answer to this question was soon
forthcoming. It was shown [62J that the analogue
prediction indicated the correct trend only as long
as the reinforcement was applied symmetrically,
as assumed by theory. Reinforcement applied to
one face benefited only the surface onto which it
was attached [55J; the stress pattern in the other
face, however, remained essentially the same as it
had been in the unreinforced opening. Further proof
came from tests conducted more recently by Gross
[49J. The reinforcement was applied to one side
only, by welding nozzles to the vessel opening in the
13Strcss concentration maxima for the hoop stresses occurred
at the ends of the hole diamewrs parallel to the axis of the
vessel, with some values as high as 5.5 in contrast to the
theoretical prediction of 2.5.
conventional manner. Strain readings, howeveI\
were taken on both faces of the vessel. For rein-
forcement ratios" of roughly 0.23, 0.615, and 1.0,
the maximum stress concentration factors on the
nozzle side were about 2.8, 2.3, and 1.8, respectively.
These results are in reasonable agreement with
previous experimental and theoretical work. Signif-
icantly different values were, however, found on the
internal face, the maximum stress concentration
values here being equal to 3.7, 2.8, and 2.4. This
showed that an increase in thickness alone cannot
bring about the desired reduction of peak stresses.
and that only a moderate improvement in the stress
distribution on the unreinforced face can accrue from
reinforcement applied to the opposite side.
Actually, the circular opening is not the ideal
shape for a cut-out in pressure vessels. Stress con-
centrations in a plate are minimized if the shape of
the opening is an ellipse with an axis ratio equal to
the Uratio of biaxiality/' the major axis of the
ellipse being aligned with the direction of the
greatest principal stress. In pressure vessels, thi~
would call for an elliptical cut-out with a major-
to-minar-axis ratio .of 2 with the minor axis being
in the longitudinal direction; the stress concentration
associated with the unreinforced opening then be-
comes 1.5 (as contrasted to 2.5 for the circular hole).
Both an analytical investigation [63J and experi-
mental work [61J verified the desirable qualities of
reinforced elliptical openings. In the tests, an in-
crease of the reinforcement ratio from 0.16 to 1.13
lowered the maximum stress intensification factor
from 1.40 to 1.19. While these results establish
the sound concept of elliptical nozzles, it must be
added that the fabrication nnd preparation of nozzles
of this type would be beset by severe difficulties.
These may overshadow the desirable aspects by
increasing the cost of elliptical pipe attachments to a
prohibitively high level.
3.6 Branch Connections: Repeated Loading
Having considered the performance of branch con-
nections under internal pressure, attention will now
be focused on their behavior under repeated external
loads, such as imposed by thermal expansion of the
pipe line. Although this subject received some con-
sideration in Blair's paper, the most detailed infor-
mation is found in Markl's work [12, 64].
These tests produced the following results: Fail-
ures of, full-size unreinforced intersections occurred
at locations similar to those of curved pipes. The
14Effective height of reinforcement taken equal to radius of
finished opening.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
stress intensification factor could be correlated
reasonably well with that for a single miter bend
(see eq. 3.14) if the characteristic'variable was taken
to be
h = tlr", (3.21)'5
Reinforced fabricated intersections cannot be
categorized with equal facility, since the amount of
metal incorporated in the reinforcement and the
manner of its distribution will affect the stress in-
tensification and flcxibility factors. In an attempt
to formulate a rule which would correlate reasonably
well with limited tests on 4 in. size pipe and be ap-
plicable to most reinforced branch connections,
Mark! [12J proposed that the avcrage thickness of
the headcr and branch at the crotch, t" be assumed
as the governing factor. Assuming that reinforced
intersections otherwisc behave like unreinforced
ones, the characteristic variable would then become
h = (~)2.5 -.£ (3.22)16
t r",
whilc the stress intcnsification factor is again ob-
tained from eq. 3.14."
These results rcfer to tests where the assemblies
were loaded through the branch; loading straight
through the header proved to be less severe in all
cases. Furthermore, it was shown that the direction
of bending (in- or out-of-plane) did not seriously
influence these results, so that onc factor can be used
in practical design. While Markl's work represents a
marked advance in practical design approach, it
must be conceded that the experimental data are
rather limited. More work would certainly be de-
sirable to check its applicability to large-diamctcr
piping and to reducing-size branch connections.
Data regarding the performance of full-size ASA
standard welding tees under repeated extcrnalload-
ing can again be found in Markl's papers. Assuming
that the metal thickness available in the crotch zonc
and the crotch radius arc thc controlling variables,
the characteristic variable was expressed in the form:
h = (~)2.5 -.£ (1 + rrm
o
) (3.23)18
t rm
16This equation is obtained by simply substituting ¢ = 45 0
in eq. 3.18 for single miter bends.
16The design formula of the Code is given in a modified
form of eq. 3.22.
17The qua.ntity tin eq. 3.22 is the thickness of the pipe used
in the stress calculation. The intensification factor of eq.
3.14 is again applied to this pipe. These results refer to full-
sized intersections and should be used with discretion for
other cases.
ISIn the Code, the recommended formula for the charac-
67
where t, = effective thickness = average of crotch
and side wall thicknesses.
r c = crotch radius.
Experimental results for three different 4 in. com-
mercial welding tees were in reasonable agreement
with stress intensification factors obtained from eq.
3.14, if eq. 3.23 was adopted for determining the
characteristic variable.
The flexibility factors associated with unreinforced
and reinforced fabricated intersections or welding
tees havc not reccived sufficient attention. Rough
tests secm to indicate that the added flexibility of
full-size branch connections is small; that is to say,
the branch will act as if it were fixed at the hcader,
whereas the header will retain the flexibility of an
intact pipe. These results, however, are open to
question since full-sized intcrsections should ap-
proach single miter bends in flexibility. In addition,
flexibility of the branch would be expected to increase
for reducing-size intersections (sec, e.g., eq. 3.27 in
Section 3.14). Lacking specific thcoretical or experi-
mental results, and in order to rcmain on the safe
side, it is suggested that a value of 1.0 be assumed
for the flexibility of all types of braneh eonnections.
3.7 Branch Connections: Comparison with
Code Requirements
It is of interest to compare now the experimental
data with established design practice as expressed
by Code requirements for 90° (perpendicular) branch
connections. The Code for Pressure Piping, ASA
B31.1, Section 6, utilizes the area replaccment
method, requiring that the area removed from the
wall of header (referring to the required minimum
wall thickness times the diameter of the finished
opening) be replaced by thc cxcess thickness avail-
able in the header or nozzle wall plus any mctal
applied to the interscction in the form of reinforce-
ment. This reinforcement is considered to have
value only within the rectangular Hreinforcement
zone," the length and height of which is limited as
shown in Fig. 3.13. In the subsequent derivation,
the following nomenclature is used:
I
tIl = minimum thickness of header less corrosion
tE = minimum thickness of branch allowanoc.
Rll = radius of headcrl t'd
RB ·
= ra d lUS 0
fb rane housle.
w = leg of fillct weld.
teristic variable of welding tees has been simplified to h = 4.4
tlr by making assumptions for t. and T c which conservatively
reflect customary proportions.
68 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Area to be unreinforced branch connection as compared to the
reploced
intact header of the same size. As an example
Jlll;n!Otcllmeol
Zone
+-+1"" '.- assume standard pipe sizes, w = 'i- in. for 4 in.
branches or smaller, w = i in. for larger branch sizes,
and a corrosion allowance of 0.1 in. The Hpressure
reduction ratios" may then be obtained for various
header and branch sizes from eq. 3.24. The results
of these calculations for the speeifie ease are tabu-
lated in Table 3.3 except that braneh eonnections
not exceeding 2 in. or 25% of the header size are
shown with a 100% rating sinee the Code permits
this arbitrarily.
An examination of this table indicates the follow-
I"IG.3.13 U Area of reinforcement," as specified by the Piping ing trends:
Code, ASA B31.1, Seetion 6. L For equal-size interseetions (proceeding along
the diagonal of Table 3.3), the pressure reduction
PH = maximum service pressure permissible for ratio decreases with increasing pipe sizes to a limiting
intact header. value of 50%. This is in reasonable accord with
S = allowable stress at operating temperature. experimental evidence, although tests earried out
II = thickness of header required by Code for on full-size intersections up to 12 in. did not show
given size, service pressure, and operating bursting-pressure reduction ratios below 65%.
temperature. 2. Increasing the size of the branch connection
12 = thickness of branch required by Code for for a given header (moving from left to right in a
given size, service pressure, and operating given row of Table 3.3) deereases the pressure reduc-
temperature. tion ratio. Although this trend is borne out by
p = allowable pressure permitted by Code for tests, the Code reduction ratio appears conservative
the completed manifold. for small-size headers, sinee it permits only 56% of
Ip = thickness of reinforcement pad (if used). the "intaet header pressure" to be applied to half-
size intersections with an 8 in. or 12 in. header, as
According to the Code, the required thicknesses
ean be expressed as contrasted to the 90-100% obtained in experiments.
More complete and more searehing experimental
pR/l pR B RB data would, however, be necessary to justify closer
II = S + OAp ; (,=
S + OAp =-11'
R/l ' evaluation of certain sizes and proportions.
_ p/lR Il
3. An inerease of header size for a given braneh
I /l- size over 2 in. (traversing Table 3.3 from top to
S + OAPIl bottom of a speeific eolumn) results in a reduced
The "area to he rcplaced" is A = 21 1 (R B - tB) allowable pressure. This is eontrary to the limited
For an unreinforced intersection with a branch experimental evidenee, whieh shows that the burst-
not heavier than the header, the available excess ing pressure developed by a braneh connection
metal within the "zone of reinforcement" can be increases as the diameter ratio between the branch
given by and header pipes becomes smaller. Again more
searching experimental data are desirable.
A R = 2(1/l - 1r)(RB - tB) + 5tB(tB - (2) + w2 4. The arbitrary Code provision assigning 100%
Equating A R to A, and using the wall-thicklIess for welded braneh pipes not exceeding 2 in. or 25%
expressions, yields the following result: of the header size, while reasonable from test results,
introduees abrupt breaks in allowable ratings. A
R/l _ 0.4 smoother transition is desirable.
p III The ASA B3L1 Code rules applicable to oblique
(3.24)
PIl 0.8R/l(RB - IB) RBIB + 0 branch eonnections are mandatory for branch angles
A
OAIIl(RB - IB) tB
2
+0.2w
2
+ - not less than 45° and when the braneh/header
diameter ratio is not less than 1/4. These rules, which
The IIpressure reduction ratio," pip/I, expresses reeognize the higher stress intensification in the
the decrease in allowable pressure for the completed acute eroteh, require that the replacement area be
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
equal to the area removed from the header multi-
plied by a factor of (2 - sin a) where a is the branch
angle. The rules (for branch/header ratios of 1/4
and larger) make no distinction between full-sized
and reducing branches, a practice which appears
somewhat contrary to experience.
3.8 Branch Connections: Practical Considera-
tions and Summary
In the foregoing sections giving the highlights of
available test and analytical data, it has been noted
that stress concentrations can be expected to be
present around all circular openings and branch
connections, and that even for the most carefully
designed reinforcement, the factor is· not likely to
subside below 1.3. The question naturally arises
as to the practical significance of such effects. The
answer at present must be sought primarily in ex-
perience. Service experience using nominal design
allowable stress values (as established by Section 3,
Oil Piping, of the ASA B31.l Code for Pressure
Piping, and the concept of the simple replacement-
of-area method) has been reasonably good despite
the fact that design and attachment details and
fabrication quality used have not always been as
good as they should be. This fact may be accounted
for by the following considerations:
69
1. The design stress used provides a considerable
margin for local overstress.
2. Highly localized stress can be relieved by local
yielding. Such yielding induces local residual stresses
of the opposite sign in the off-stream condition, so
that the area can operate on a "stress range" basis
in the same manner that thermal expansion strains
may be absorbed in piping systems.
3. Most applications do not involve a very large
number of cycles. Therefore, the design need not
insure that stresses be kept at all times below the
endurancc limit of the material.
4. Experience to date is largely confined to steel,
which normally acts in a ductile manner.
Thus, although this experience has been generally
satisfactory, those serviee failures (and all of the
laboratory fractures) that occurred in pressure
vessels and pipe lines to date have, almost without
exception, been shown to originate at branch con-
nections 01 local attachments. Therefore, good
engineering demands that careful judgment be
exercised when selecting designs and fabrication
details, and that fabrication quality be adequately
controlled. Poor fit-up, welding, and lack of root
penetration on welded branches, can easily furnish
added stress-raising effeets whieh ean lead to
failure.

Table 3.3 Pressure Reduction Ratios in Per Cent for Unreinforced Intersections·

~ ,
Size 16/1
l~"
1
1" 2" 2 " 3" 4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 18" 20" 24"
Header
Size
1" 100
I!" 100 100
2" 100 100 89
2 J2·" 80 71 67 66
3'~ 77 69 65 64 63
4" 100 65 62 62 61 59
6" 100 100 59 60 58 57 60
8" 100 100 100 58 57 56 58 57
10" 100 100 100 56 55 54 56 55 55
12 f1 100 100 100 56 55 54 56 55 55 54
14" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 55 55 54
16" 100 100 100 56 55 54 57 56 55 54 54 53
18" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 56 55 54 54 53
20" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 56 55 55 54 53 53
24" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 56 55 55 54 53 53 52
*Based on the Code for Pressure Piping, ASA B31.l for: standard weight pipe with 0.1 corrosion allowance; leg of fillet weld:= ill
{or branches 4/f or smaller, and.g ll for larger branch sizes.
70 DESIGN OF PII'ING SYSTEMS
As design stress levels and temperatures inerease,
greater attention must be given to reinforcement
details. The same is true when d~sign stresses are
raised in proportion to enhaneed physieal properties
of material obtained by eold work, since the effect of
localized stresses becomes much more serious.
Full-size 90° branch connections are difficult to
fabricate by welding without appreciable distortion,
particularly when a pad-type reinforeement is used.
This diffieulty inereases with the size of the header.
It is best to avoid such connections wherever it is
economically justified. In critical service, welding
tees, when available, should always be used in
preference to fabricated welded intersections. Inte-
gral reinforcement obtained by nsing a heavier pipe
for the header (or for both header and branch) is
generally preferred to built-up construetion and is
satisfactory for most applications. Sharp earners
at the interseetion should be avoided by the use of
coneave weld fillets. Fabrication presents eonsid-
erably greater problems as the size of the braneh
relative to the header is increased and must receive
special care when this ratio exceeds 50%, particularly
for header sizes above 12 in. On headers of large
size with small openings (branch to header diameter
ratio less than 50%), the method of reinforcement
should be guided by the principles established for
the reinforcement of nozzles on pressure vessels.
The greatest benefit from a given amount of rein-
forcing metal will be obtained by concentrating the
reinforcement nea~ the finished opening. Flow
considerations permitting, the effectiveness of the
reinforcement can be increased by application of
the reinforcing metal to the inside, as well as outside,
surface of the header. The use of elliptical nozzles
may be considered for extremely severe service
conditions, since they extend the possibility of re-
ducing stress concentrations to the limiting value
of 1.
For the design of special heavy-walled fittings in
critical service The M. W. Kellogg Company has
found the rather simple design appI'oach given in
Fig. 3.14 satisfactory. This is, in effect, an analysis
designed to control the average membrane stress
within the chosen limits, and includes a correction
for non-uniform stress through the wall thickness
equivalent to using the mean diameter cylindrical
hoop stress formula instcad of the inside diameter
formula. Therefore, it assures a fitting strength
roughly equal to the connecting pipe. The regions
over which the pressure area and metal areas are
averaged are arbitrarily selected as being in reason-
able accord with experience.
The use of gusset or rib stiffeners is not recom-
mended, due to the high stress concentrations likely
to exist at their ends or adjacent to the attachment
welds. They are even more objectionable on hot
piping, since the ribs act as cooling fins and local
thermal stresses are imposed; if such stiffeners are
used on hot piping the thermal effects should be
minimized by the application of heavy insulation.
The effect of structural loadings other than pres-
sure and cyclic loadings must be given due considera-
tion. Markl's work in establishing suggested stress
intensification factors for piping flexibility analyses
is a good start, but more work is necessary on other
sizes and reducing branches. Where an individual
flexibility analysis is not warranted, yet expansion
stresses are expectcd to be at or near Code levels at
the branch location (with the moment loading being
carried through the branch), it is recommended that
branch connections be reinforced to develop the fnll
strength of the header, even if the operating pressure
may not require it.
The selection of design and fabrication details as
well as the methods and extent of inspection must
be in line with the expe'cted severity of service. Weld
details which minimize distortion and promote best
root-welding conditions are to be favored. As an
example, setting a branch on a pipe and welding it
before the hole in the header is cut will reduce dis-
tortion when the branch pipe is large compared to the
header; set-on construction also permits the use of a
backing ring.
Regarding inspection methods, a magnetic particle
examination should be favored for magnetic mate-
rials; for non-magnetic materials, a penetrant oil
examination is quite practical and is recommended
for important services. Radiographic examinations
of branch attachments are being increasingly used as
a quality control check; although they are useful in
controlling the general quality level of an individual
operator's work, such radiographs cannot be inter-
preted to assure the absence of cracks unless many
angled shots are taken. An indiscriminate appraisal
of radiographic examination may create an unwar-
ranted degree of assurance regarding absence of
harmful defects.
3.9 Corrugated Pipe
As pointed out in the introduction and in Chapter
7, straight corrugated pipe provides intermediate
flexibility' between a rigid piping system and an
p.xpansion joint system. Hs use may be advantageous
where acute space limitations exist, or where reac-
tions on equipment attendant to stiff or large-size
 LOCAL COMPONENTS 71

o --

D,
I"
p(E+t A ) p(E+i A)
A A

TEE 90· ELBOW

G t>( +.8
Z +t2 coS-2-

D, "-
"2 + tlCOS 2'

p(E + !Al
S... ~ A

USE ALSO FOR

.. ~" ELBOW

LATERAL WYE OR 45' ELBOW

NOMENCLATURE

A, B - NETAL ... RE .... ISQ.IN.)

Os. ~,- lNSlDE 01AWETER OF FITTINGS.IIN.I
E,F - INDICATED PRESSURE AREA, (SQ.INI
G,h,k - INDICATED LEHGTHS,IlH.I
P - DESIGN PRESSURE. AT DESIGN TENPERATUR'. (P$IC)
S....Sa - ALLOWA8LE STRESS AT DESIGN TENPERATURE, (PSI)
\.1 - INDICATED NETAt. THICKNESS, IIN.I
2
13 - AVERAGE .. [TAL, THICKNESS OF fLAT SURF"I;E, (INJ
0<./3 - INDICATED ANOL.ES.

FIG.3.14 Special hc:\vy wall fittings: check of reinforcement for internal prc5surc.
72 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
pipe must be reduced witbout further addition to
pressure drop, process problems or similar factors.
The fact tbat corrugations greatly increase the
flexibility of a straight cylindrical tube has long been
appreciated. However, it is less well known that this
reduction in stiffness is obtained by the introduction
of bending stresses, the level of which must be con-
trolled for satisfactory service; also, it is not always
appreciated that a corrugated bend may be less
flexible than a plain pipe bend due to the fact that
the corrugations resist ovalization.
Corrugations were initially obtained by hot roll-
forming processes sueh as are used for shaping the
flues of Scotch Marine boilers. This imposed limita-
tions on the depth and pitch so that resort was made
to uniform localized heating and controlled collapsing.
This process resulted in some upsetting and a
sharper radius of curvature at the crown. More
reccntly, equipment has been designed which pro-
vides rolled corrugations of greater depth. The
mean diameter of rolled corrugations is usually that
of the original pipe, while those formed by controlled
collapsing have a mean diameter roughly equal to
the initial outside diameter of the pipe. Corrugating
can only be accomplished on straight pipe, so that
bends must be formed afterward. Creased bend
construction is usually limited to sharp radii bends,
commonly 2 to 3 diameters in radius; these are formed
by heating plain pipe on one side and bending so as
to bulge out the corrugations on the inside of the
bend.
Early tests [21, 65] showed that, for bends having
a five-diameter radius, corrugated construction pro-
vided no greater flexibility than plain bends, and
that for smaller radii corrugated or creased curved
pipes are usually less flexible than plain bends; also,
that the torsional stiffness of corrugated pipe was
slightly greater than that of straight pipe of the same
nominal diameter.
In the foregoing tests, as well as later ones [66], it
was established that a corrugated bend derives its
flexibility in bending or direct loading mainly from
a change in axial length (through an increase on the
tension and a decrease on the compression side), as
compared to a plain bend, which derives its increased
deflection from ovalization of the cross section, and
the attendant modified stress distribution. A
creased pipe bend takes an intermediate position
between these extremes, deriving its flexibility on
the plain portion by ovalization, and on the creased
portion by change in length.
Consistent flexibility values for corrugated and
creased 6 in. diameter pipes wcre obtained from static
tests by Dennison [67], who related test results to
the calculated values for plain pipes of the same
dimensions,19 as given by elementary beam theory.
Corrugated bends were found to have higher flexi-
bility factors than creased bends, although a good
approximation for both configurations was 6.0.
Nominal stress intensification factors (denoting the
ratio between the endurance limits'· of small
polished specimens to that of the actual piping com-
ponent) were obtained from fatigue tests, indicating
an average factor of 8 for both corrugated and creased
pipes of the type tested. With one exception, in-
cipient cracks in corrugated pipes originated on the
inside surface and penetrated outward, while 011
creased bends the cracks always initiated on the
external surface.
The foregoing tests have led to the acceptance of
an assumption of uniform flexibility factors for com-
mercial corrugated or creased pipes. For the stl'es~
intensification factors, however, it was felt that Ull-
duly conservative values resulted by basing the
comparison on the endurance limit of polished hars.
Therefore, further tests were carried out by Ross-
heim and Markl [29], in which the fatigue strength"
of plain tangents was taken as a basis of comparison
for stress intensification factors. Based on these
cxperiments a stress intensification factor of 2.5 was
suggested as reasonable for finan-cyclic" service (i.e.
less than 20,000 stress cycles), whereas for "cyclic"
service (up to 500,000 reversals) a stress intensifi-
cation factor of 5.0 was proposed. A flexibility
factor of 5.0 was suggested as a conservative value
for average commercial creased or corrugated pipe.
These values form the basis of the current suggested
values in the ASA B31.1 Code, viz: a flexibility fac-
tor of 5.0 and a stress intensification factor of 2.5
for usual commercial corrugated or creased com-
ponents under bending or direct axial loading. The
Code also suggests a flexibility factor of 0.9 and
strcss factor of unity for torsional loading.
In contrast to the uniform values recommended
by the Code for all sizes and shapes of corrugated
pipes, the actual flexibility and stress factors are a
function of the size and wall thickness of the pipc
19The term "plain pipe of the same dimensions" refers to a
pipe having the same diameter and wall thickness as that used
for making the corrugated (creased) pipe in consideration.
2011Endurance limit" denotes the alternating stress which a
specimen can infinitely sust.ain in a fatigue test. In actu:d
tests 2 X 10 6 c)'c1es arc taken to be cquivalent to "an infinih'"
number of cycles.
21HFntigue strength," as opposed to "endurance limit,"
denotes the average maximum alternating stress which :L
specimen can sustain for n given number of stress cycles.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS 73
100 1000
and particnlarly the depth and pitch of the corruga-
tions. Test results show that an increase in the 70 700

depth of the corrugation will improve its flexibility,

but increase the stress intensification factor.
The greatly simplified ca.se of a curved beam
. 400

shown on Fig. 3.15, which is obtained after segment-

'0 200
ing a corrugated pipe into strips of unit width, can
be analyzed readily. This analogue will indicate
higher flexibility and lower stresses than those exist- 10 100
ing in the actual structure. Nonetheless, it is useful
7.0
in roughly predicting the influence of dimensional !70
2
changes, and for comparison with established service.
'.0 €.w
The results obtained from this analogue, assuming ~
~
that v = 0.3 and the corrugation pitch is 4r, are:
Flexibility factor = 1I"[(3r/t) + .09] '.0 '0

Theoretical stress intensification

factor = [(6r/t) + 1] 1.0 10

0.7 7.0
Stress intensification factor com- Piping eo&. F1uibli1y Fodor
pared to plain pipe (Code basis) = 0.5[(6r/t) + 1]
0.' '.0
These relations are plotted in Fig. 3.16, which shows
the strong. dependence of both of these design fac-
tors on the ratio of r It?' An increase in the pitch 0.2 2.0 O~--"--~8 ---:"',---:':,,---','=,---:,,
of the corrugations with other items unchanged 2 r/I, Ratio of Corrvgmion [Hpth to p;~ Walt Thidneu (Pitch'" Twic. Depth)

would decrease the flexibility faetor; likewise, a
change in the shape of the corrugations to a more
rigid shape would decrease the flexibility, but also
decrease the stress intensification factor.
A detailed analytical evaluation of stresses in cor-
rugated components is extremely difficult. More-
over, if the manufacturing tolerances and variations
in shape or between successive corrugations are con-
sidered, the theoretical treatise becomes impractical.
_.\n approximate solution was developed by Donnell
22Duc to the simplifications assumed here, the ratio of pipe
radius to pipe wall thickness Rlt docs not enter the solution.
"
FIG. 3.16 Stress intensification' "and flexibility factors in
II analogue" solution for corrugated pipes.
[68] for V-shaped and semicircular corrugations under
concentric axial loads, and the results were extended
by inference to corrugations of elliptical and sinus-
oidal cross sections. Tests on thin-walled corrugated
pipes, having corrugations in reasonable accord \\~th
the specific shapcs analyzcd, were in good agreement
with theory. For corrugation shapes a.s normally
produced in heavier-walled pipe, the analysis can
be accepted only as a rough approximation.
A more rccent theoretical approach [9] treats the
effects of both axial loads and internal pressure, but

I
restricts the analysis to thin-walled cylindrical bodies
of relatively large diameter, so that thc results are
applicable to corrugated light-gage expansion joints
rather than pipe. This analysis is not readily
adapted to design, since the final rcsults are given
M in terms of unfamiliar functions, whose numerical
values are not tabulated in standard mathematical
_' ( I )~ tables. For a more detailed treatment of the expan-
M
sion joint bellows, reference should be made to
Chapter 7.
In summation, corrugated pipes have practical
application when added flexibility for stress or end-
FIG. 3.15 Analogue representation for analysis of reaction reduction must be obtained in extremely
corrugated pipes. limited space, thereby permitting the retention of
74 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
a rigid piping system and avoiding the use of ex-
pansion joints. Its use is best confined to straight
lengths, since it will have little, if· any, advantage
over plain pipe when used for bends. The same may
be said for ereased bends, which offer no significant
advantage over plain bends in flexibility and may
involve higher stress intensification. Corrugated
pipe, properly designed, is capable of carrying the
axial internal pressure thrust in common with
straight pipe, but it is important to note that the
stress intensification factor applies to the longitudinal
pressure load, as well as other loadings; yielding, or
creep, will result if the combined static or dynamic
loadings exceed established limits. For applications
in the creep range an accurate evaluation of the
stress intensification factor for the particular cor-
rugation used is desirable. Occasionally, corrugated
pipe is used to localize plastic deformation which
might occur during extreme upset conditions; for
such service the range of local unit plastic strain
determines the number of cycles which can be sus-
tained (see Chapter 7). It is advisable that limit
stops or equivalent means be provided to limit over-
all yielding.
3.10 Bolted Flanged Conneetions: General
Baekgronnd
Flanged connections provide for the ready joining
or separating of portions of a piping system to facili-
tate inspection or cleaning, or to avoid in-position
welding or heat treatment. Their influence on the
performance of a piping system involves evaluation
of (1) the effect of the flange as a local component,
and (2) the effect of the forces and moments trans-
mitted through a flange on its ability to maintain a
tight seal.
Analysis of flanged joints was limited to cantilever
approximations until the advance made in 1927 by
Waters and Taylor [69J. Combining the elastic
behavior of a flat plate with a cylinder treated as a
beam on an elastic foundation, they obtained ex-
pressions for the circumferential, radial, and axial
stresses in flanges with short cylindrical hubs of
constant thickness. These theoretical results were
reasonably well substantiated by tests, and offered a
reliable basis for the evaluation of loose-hubbed
flanges (Vain Stone, threaded, lapped) within the
ASA range of dimensions [70, 71, 72J. In subsequent
years this derivation was extended by Holmberg
and Axelson [73J to flanges integral with the pipe
wall.
These analyses were limited to hubs of uniform
thickness, although the desirability of increased hub
thickness at the flange-hub intersection was gen-
erally recognized. An exhaustive theoretical analy-
sis of this problem [74, 75J was undertaken by
Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams. It
included both bolt-moment and pressure effects, and
could be applied to straight, single, or double taper
combinations of hub contour, with fillets simulated
by tangent tapers. A complete analysis, including
direct pressure and pressure discontinuity stress, is
complex for other than a straight hub; the consider-
able effort involved in this approach is justifiable
only on high-pressure, large-diameter flanges in
critical service. For usual services and flange
proportions it has been found that the direct-pressure
and pressure-discontinuity effects can be neglected,
and the flange subjected to a uniformly distributed
external moment equal to the product of the bolt
load, gasket load, end pressure load, and their re-
spective lever arms. The junction of the ring and
hub is assumed to undergo zero radial displacement,
the bolt load to be unaffected by changes in pressure,
and ideal elasticity to be maintained without yielding
or creep. Despite these simplifying assumptions, the
analysis has proven adequate for most problems
when coupled with' a suitable choice of design
stresses, gasket factors, etc. to provide ample
margin for these effects. Originally introduced into
the ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code on a 'per-
missive basis, its general acceptance soon led to its
adoption as a mandatory requirement. One wide-
spread usage is on exchanger flanges, for which it.
has been approved by the Tubular Exchanger Manu-
facturers Association (TEMA) and applied to the
standard flanges in their rules; it has also been widely
used in eonnedion with rerating ASA standard
flanges.
Experimental work [76, 77, 78J has shown that the
theoretical formulas closely predicted the stresse,;
developed under various loading conditions. It hao
also been shown that a reasonably uniform gasket-
load distribution can be expected only when the
maximum bolt pitch is a function of the bolt diameter
and the flange thickness, and that, within the normal
range of flange dimensions, the width of the flange
has no appreciable effect upon the load distribution.
Taylor Forge & Pipe Works' Modern Flange Design
[79J presents the formula in terms of bolt diameter,
flange thickness, and gasket factor. This formuh'
originated in the M. W. Kellogg Company and has
been widely and successfully used in practical design.
Present ASME flange-stress formulas are stated
for flange and hub dimensions assumed in advance,
leading to time-consuming trial-anci-error solution.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
Simplified methods have been developed [80, 81] to
aid the designer in quickly arriving at well-propor-
tioned economical flanges. Othi!!" practical sugges-
tions are contained in Madern Fkmge Design [79].
For certain relatively mild low-pressure services,
such as water works, thin and relativcly wide flanges
with soft gaskets located inside the bolts have been
successfully used. Such flanges usually cannot be
justified by the Code design approach. The explana-
tion of their satisfactory use must be sought in
recognition of higher stresses, use of soft gaskets, and
the possibility of the flanges contacting each other
at the OD, establishing thereby a limiting counter-
moment before excessive strains are developed. For
considerations involved in such special service,
reference can be made to the paper by Waters and
Williams-[82] and thc discussion thereof.
The design assumption that the initial bolt load
remains constant for any magnitude of the internal
pressure hai also been explored. It has been shown
[74, 76, 83, and others] that a hydrostatic end force
may either increase or decrease the initial bolt load,
depending upon the relative position of the gasket
reaction and the elastic properties of tbe assembly.
With customary flanges, exemplified by ASA Stand-
ard B16.5, the bolt load decreases slightly with appli-
cation of internal pressure, since the net moment on
the flange ring increases, which in turn causes in-
creased flange rotation and a decrease in the distance
between flanges at the bolt circle. The bolt stress
is at all times a function of the summation of the
strains of the entire assembly, and their individual
moduli of elasticity. Since the modulus decreases
with temperature rise, the bolt load will likewise
decrease as the temperaturc of the assembly is uni-
formly raised. If the temperature of the components
is not uniform, the differential strains will alter the
bolt stress in proportion. Except in unusual cases
these effects are not of practical significance, since
the flange design permits pretightening to a level
sufficient to compensate for bolt-load reduction,
local yielding, or creep over the period of time
established by the material properties and tem-
pp.rature.
An understanding of flange leakage may be ob-
tained by idealizing the assembly as two elastically
coupled bodies, the bolts on one hand, and the flanges,
including the gasket, on the other. The complete
joint is then represented schematically as two springs
with different initial lengths and stiffnesses. When
the joint is tightened, this initial length difference is
eliminated by submitting the bolt spring to tension
and the stiffer flange spring to compression. A
75
superimposed hydrostatic load would have the simple
effect of subjecting both springs to equal amounts of
added tensile strain. In this simplified representa-
tion; leakage would occur when the tensile strain
imparted to the flange due to the hydrostatic load
offsets the compressive strain set up by tightening
the bolts (i.e., the spring representing the flange is
under no force and returns to its original length).
This concept was presented by Dolan [84] who gave
pictorial representation to this interpretation by
means of a simple force-extension diagram. Need-
less to say, the elastic coupling concept is a consider-
able oversimplification of actual conditions in a
flange which must include all components, changing
moment and rotational effects, temperature, creep,
etc. as treated, for example, in [82J.
Code rules establish two criteria which must be
satisfied to maintain a gasketed. joint free from
leakage. The one establishes a minimum initial unit
gasket seating load, and the other a ratio of gasket
load to internal pressure for operating conditions;
both are related to the gasket material and construc-
tion. As to the effective width of gasket, arbitrary
assumptions are made which are related to the
flange-facing details arid relative concentration of
loading; double this width is used for application of
the gasket operating pressure factor.
Actually, the performance of a gasketed surface
depends not only upon the elastic properties of the
gasket material as influenced by its design details,
but also upon the bolt load and deflection of the
flanges (initially and under pressure); the maxi-
mum gasket load (at the inner and outer edge or at
projections); the gasket thickness and physical
properties; and the surface finishes of gasket and
flange, which determine the elastic and plastic
deformation attendant to an initial seal. In actual
installations, the varieties of gasket stiffness, surface
finish, and imperfections of gasket and flanges, as
well as the properties of the contained fluid or gas,
can cause wide variation in the minimum load and
gasket pressure to maintain tightness. The Code
rules for minimum load and gasket factor are, there-
fore, approximations of average conditions for flanges
of usual proportions. For this reason, these rules
are not mandatory but merely tentative.
Where very stiff f1ftnges or minimum-width gaskets
are involved, the entire width of the gasket may be
at essentially the same unit load; conversely, for thin
flexible flanges or wide gaskets, the gasket load may
be much lower than predicted by Code rules. Ex-
tremely soft gaskets, such as gum rubber, deflect
directly undcr the internal pressure, and flow later-
.. _. __..._ - -
76 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
ally to equalize and distribute tbe gasket load. Due
to this behavior, they ean often be made tight under
very low unit gasket loading or, at times, even in the
absenee of a net gasket load from the bolts. Speeial
facing details or gasket designs to promote self-
sealing tendencies are successfully used where the
service permits the use of soft gasket material, or
where extremely high working pressure can be
utilized to provide sufficient load to seal harder
gaskets. Some facing details are based on mechani-
cal concepts, such as ring-type joints; others, as for
instance, lens rings, benefit from reduced or line
contact.
"There elastic conditions arc maintained, leakage
of a properly fabricated and assembled flanged joint
should not occur if the initial bolt load is sufficient
to maintain the required gasket load above the
longitudinal loads developed by pressure and struc-
tural effects, and to compensate for the expected re-
ductions in bolt load due to flange deflection and
change in elastic modulus. The influence of struc-
tural loading is treated further in the next section.
Flange bolts are ordinarily made up at ambient
temperature; as the temperature is raised in service,
the temperature of the bolts, flanges, and pipe may
no longer be the same, either during the transient
heating period or in the equilibrium service condition.
Since the bolts receive heat through limited contact
with the flanges they will respond more slowly to
changes; similarly, non-integral flanges, such as the
Van Stone type, will lag behind the pipe under tem-
perature change. In the absence of insulation, these
temperature differences will be much greater. Where
flow temperatures fluctuate rapidly or where external
influences (such as rain on exposed flanges) upset the
equilibrium between bolts and flanges, joints may
leak due to loss of gasket sealing load. This reduc-
tion in sealing pressure is traceable either to expan-
sion differences, or to yielding resulting from tem-
porary overload. If serious yielding does not occur
the joint will eventually re-establish the same gasket
load, although it is possible that the temporary
leakage will have caused wire-drawing and prevent
re-establishment of a seal.
In aetual installations, completely elastic condi-
tiOilS are almost never realized j aside from localized
yielding, creep will be present in high-temperature
service and to some extent at all temperatures,
particularly for non-metallic, non-ferrous, or highly
stressed gaskets. Under repeated load applications
the degree of yielding or creep with respect to time
is increased.
In order to deal with the effects of plastic flow or
creep due to temperature effects, it is necessary to
consider both transient and constant thermal condi-
tions. Of these two, the transient thermal state is
often the more important, since it will generally lead
to higher stresses and a greater amount of yielding.
This case was investigated by Bailey [85] for loose-
ring and integrally welded flanges. Making a few
,implifying assumptions, he showed that stresses in
welded integral flanges were only 60% of those in the
less intimately connected loose flanges under tran-
sient temperatures. As a continuation of this work,
Bailey l'Ildertook to investigate the effcct of crecp
upon thc elastic stress distribution. Again both the
loose and welded integral flanges were considered for
various creep strength ratios of bolt material to
flange material. The effect of bolt holes was taken
into consideration through an analogy with the
tensile creep-relaxation properties of a solid strip of
metal versus a strip of metal with a series of holes of
varying pitch and diameter. The effect of thermal
bending moment acting on a joint due to pipe expan-
sion was omitted, on the assumption that under creep
conditions external forces would in time be reduced
to negligible magnitude. The analysis showed that
the tightness duration of the flanged joint (as defined
by the time at which the stresses would fall below a
permissible level or permit leakage) is a function of
flange thickness for given material properties of
flange and bolts. It was also found that an optimum
flange thickness exists for each joint, which increases
as the ratio between the creep resistance of the bolts
and flanges becomes greater. These optima were
generally greater than required by the Code. As
would be expected the analysis indicated the desira-
bility of having high elastic strains in bolts and
flanges combined with high creep resistance. Thesc
properties are in opposition, since high stresses cause
accelerated creep. For given materials certain
changes in design will, however, provide increased
elasticity without increased stresses, e.g. increasing
the effectivc bolt length; similarly, changing the
material of any component to one of equal elasticity,
but greater creep resistance, will improve high tem-
perature performance.
Bailey's analytical work was not followed by ex-
periments of sufficient extent to prove or disqualify
the conclusions reached. However, an interesting
report, including some test data on various aspects
of flange dcsign, was published by Gough [86J on
this subject.
Thc fatigue characteristies of various types of
stecl flanges subject to repeated bending strains re-
ceived attention in an investigation carried out at
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
atmospheric temperature by Markl and George [87].
Using a constant-displacement type fatigue-testing
machine, on 4 in. standard weight and 0.080 in. wall
pipe with 300 lb ASA standard RF flanges, fatigUe
failure occurred almost invariably in the pipe proper
adjacent to the flange attachment, where there is a
marked change in contour, and not in the flange or
bolts. A few tests were made with 600 psi internal
pressure; in these tests leakage well in advance of
failure was noted only on threaded joints. Gasket
leakage was not experienced when bolts were pre-
tightened to 40,000 psi, although it was encountered
when they were tightened to only 20,000 psi. The
S-N diagrams of all types of flanges investigated
were represented by straight lines on a log-log plot,
which were parallel among themselves and with the
lines obtained for straight tangents or butt-welded
pipes. This made it possible to assign single stress
intensification factors to each of the various types
of flanges investigated; these results are listed in
Table 3.4. The superiority of the welding neck
flange is in line with service experience with regard
to suitability for critical service.
The relatively poor performance of the lap joint
flanges was rather surprising since such flanges have
a fairly good service record; the lap thickness used
was the same as the pipe wall and the poor results
were attrihuted to inadequate strength of the lap
to carry the high bending moments imposed, the
lap apparently rocking back and forth on the gasket.
In general, stress intensification factors increase with
increasing abruptness of cross-sectional changes in
the flange at the pipe connection. The welding neck
flange with its smooth transition exhibits no per-
ceptible stress-raising tendency, whereas threaded
flanges, due to stress concentrations present in the
threads, carry an intensification factor of about 2.30.
The effect of a seal weld covering all exposed threads,
as used in some services, was not investigated. It
should also be kept in mind that in elevated-tem-
perature service the load distribution on flange
details involving double welds wonld be less favor-
able, and that additional thermal stresses would
result from temperature differences between the
pipe and flange.
For services where creep or severe cyclic effects
are present, greater attention must be paid to the
reduction or elimination of stress raisers. Fillet
radii should be generous, and sharp corners should
be avoided. Stud bolts with continuous threads or
with unthreaded portions machined to the root di-
ameter should be used in preference to headed bolts,
which involve sharp fillets under the heads and the
77
Table 3.4 Stress Intensification Factors for
Various Flanges
Welding neck flange 1.00
Socket welding flange (double welded) 1.15
Slip-on or forged ring flanges (double welded) 1.25
Slip-on or socket welding flanges (single welded) 1.30
Lap joint flanges 1.60
Threaded flanges 2.30
thread runout. For satisfactory performance, bend-
ing in studs should also be held to a minimum.
3.n Bolted .Flangcd Connections: Practical
Considerations
Experience indicates that the design rules of the
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code are generally
entirely adequate for the design of special flanges,
with gaskets located inside the bolts, for service
under internal pressure. For flanges having full
face gaskets, or for any design which permits the
development of a counter-moment reaction outside
the bolt circle, there is no recognized standard de-
sign approach; a special ASME Code Committee is
currently (1955) working on tbis problem.
For piping applications it is necessary to consider
the effect of other loadings in combination with in-
ternal pressure. These are usually longitudinal
forces and bending or torsional moments due to
weight, wind, or thermal expansion of the pipe line.
By far the majority of piping flange applications in
the United States utilize ASA Standard B16.5 flanges.
The ASA Standard gives allowable pressure-temper-
ature ratings but offers no guidance as to permissible
bending loadings. These flanges have been cus-
tomarily -used up to the allowable ratings without
any check of their capacity to carry additional load-
ings. While occasional difficulties due to such loads
have been encountered, their service record must he
considered very good. Unsatisfactory performance
occurred generally only with pipes having an appre-
ciable excess strength or corrosion allowance and a
high value of thermal expansion. An example is the
use of 150 lb standard flanges with low-pressure,
high-temperature heavy-walled pipe. A discussion
of the influence of bending and torsional moments
on ASA flanges is included in the paper by Rossheim
and Markl [29]; results of tests on 4 in. 300 lb stand-
ard flanges are given in the paper by Markl and
George [87]. ASA flange strengths, when judged by
ASME Code analytical methods, are by no means
uniform, and the piping designer shonld be aware
that there is greater reserve strength in the smaller
sizes and lower-pressure classes than in the larger
sizes and higher-pressure classes. Good design prac-
78 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
tice indicates the desirability of keeping flanged
joints at a minimum for operating and maintenance
conditions and, insofar as possible, locating needed
flanges in the most advantageous location with re-
spect to applied moments.
For routine design investigations of the effects of
loading other than internal pressure on flanges
covered by ASME Code rules, The M. W. Kellogg
Company has found it" is satisfactory to calculate
first the maximum load per inch of gasket circum-
ference due to the applied longitudinal bending
moment and force. Then the internal pressure equiv-
alent to this loading is determined. Finally the
Code design approach is applied, assuming an
internal pressure equal to the design internal prese
sure plus the calculated pressure equivalent to the
other loads. The equivalent pressure, expressed
in formula form, is: P. = (16MhrG3 ) + 4F/"G2 ,
where M = 10llgltudiilal nending moment in.-Ib; G=
diameter of effective gasket reaction as dcfincd by
Code, in.; and F = longitudinal force, lb. The
flange is checked for a pressure of P = P. + Pd,
where Pd = design operating pressure. Taking
the moment on the gasket center line is consistent
with analysis and experience which indicates that.
with a properly pretightened flange, the bolt load
changes very little when a moment is applied,
whereas the gasket loading changes appreciably.
The most important point for practical design is
to establish a proper allowable stress·for such checks.
For steady loading other than thermal expansion the
same allowable stress as for internal pressure alone
should be used; for temporary (short duration)
loading, an increase of 33.3% in the basic design
stresses is suggested.. Loading due to thermal ex-
pansion can be treated on a "stress range" basis
similar to the treatment of thermal stresses in the
pipe itself; allowable stresses for both bolts and
flange can be established accordingly. From a stress
standpoint there should be no question about this
procedure. From a flange leakage standpoint the
validity of this approach is somewhat questionable,
particularly under creep conditions. Nonetheless,
it is only by such an approach that thc dcmonstratcd
capacity' of flanges to take rather sizeable moment
effects ean be reasonably justificd. Thc M. W. Kcl-
logg Company's satisfactory experience in checking
thermal moment effects has becn bascd on an allow..
able stress for both flange and bolts of ~ (S, + Sh)
as prescribed by the 1951 ASA Standard B31.1 Codc
for piping
With adequately pretightened flange bolts the
thermal moment appears during the first heating
cycle. If the operating temperature is sufficiently
high, both the bolt stresses and thermal flange
moments will gradually relax due to creep in the
pipe line; leakage while hot would then depend on
the relative relaxation ratcs. Assuming substa';tial
hot relaxation, a sizeable thermal moment of oppo-
site sign would develop when the line returns to
atmospheric temperature, and leakage may occur if
pressure is applied in the cold condition. Thus there
are probably factors in the problem not adequately
assessed, and whether the increased stress range now
permitted by the Code can be applied to flange de-
sign without affecting tightness is not established.
The influence of torsional moments may be in-
vestigated as indicated in the Rossheim-Markl
paper [29]; as shown therein the capacity of ASA
flanges to take torsional moment is less than for
10!1gitudinal moment. This is generally true of all
flanges, unless special mechanical means such as
dowels or keys for transmitting torsion are provided;
caution is therefore in order when high torsional
moments may be imposed. Generally, however,
flange leakage is not as much of a problem under
torsion as it is under bending.
Occasionally, special applications may warrant a
more extensive study of stress-strain relations in the
flanged joint. This may be done by adapting the
approach presented by Wesstrom and Bergh [83],
and Blick [88, 89].
When selecting gasket dimensions for hot flanges
it is well to make the gasket as wide as can be satis-
factorily seated by the initial ASME Codc dcsign
bolt load, rather than use a narrow width which will
just avoid extensive initial yielding or "crushing./l
This will insure maximum resistance to creep under
operating conditions.
In petrolcum service applications the tightncss
performance of high-temperature flanges is usually
improved by leaving the flanges uninsulated and
providing a weather shield only. The flange and
holts then operate at a lowcr metal temperature and
relaxation is slowed. Where heat loss requires it,
the shicld can be lightly insulatcd. In powcr piping,
however, heat loss is much more a matter of concern j
making full insulation gcncrally a ncccssity.
By ·fa.· the greatest leakage troubles with flanged
joints arise due to rapid temperature changes or
quenches which create sizeable tcmperature differ-
cnces within thc flangc componcnts. Whcrc thcse
conditions can be anticipated, flanges are preferably
avoided; if used, great care is warranted in their
selcction and location. The mating of dissimilar
typcs of flangcs, such as Van Stone and integral
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
types, generally tends to exaggerate diffieulties
arising from temperature differences.
The problem of dissimilar flanged joints is briefly
discussed in Section 3.12.
3.12 Joints Between Dissimilar Materials
Individual piping systems may involve more than
one material, or may be eonneeted to equipment
of different metal analysis, so that the influenee
of intermediate or terminal joints between materials
of different physieal properties must be considered.
A principal faetor influeneing these dissimilar joints
is the difference in expansion characteristics; others
are variations in hardness, electrolytic potential,
structure, duetility, and stiffness.
The transition in material may oceur at a bolted
flange, a threaded eoupling or union, a rolled eon-
nection, a weld, or at a special transition piece.
Potential diffieulties in the form of leakage or failure
due to thermal eycling are related to the range and
frequeney of temperature ehange, the differenees in
material properties, and the details of the dissimilar
joint.
For low-temperature service, all of these types of
eonnections are successfully used. As the tempera-
ture is raised, threaded and rolled joints require
that the higher expansion material be inside. With
further increasing temperatures, the elastic stress
interaetion is no longer maintained; this leads to
leakage and finally structural failure. Seal welding
does not permit appreciably higher temperatures, as
struetural strength is not usually improved. All of
these forms of connections involve significant stress
raisers and localized areas of high deformations.
Hence, where repetitive cycles of wide temperature
range are involved, the probability of fatigue failure
dictates against their use.
For flanged joints consisting of integral butt-
welded flanges of dissimilar material, (but each of
like analysis with the pipe to which it is attached),
leakage is dictated by the initial bolt stress and
gasket sealing properties, as compared with the
differential expansion between the bolts on the one
hand, and the flange and gasket on the other.
With certain types of gaskets, leakage may also
depend on the differential radial expansion at the
gasket center line. By using lapped or Van Stone
flanges, the flange and bolt temperatures are re-
duced, and the flanges and bolts can be made of the
same type of material, with differential expansion
limited to the Van Stone lips and gasket. The gasket
load must be sufficient to restrain the relative radial
movement of the lips, or the gasket must be of a
79
design which will maintain a seal under differential
expansion movement. While severe local stresses
proportional to the restraint are eaused in the lips
(which must also carry the bending due to pressure
and structural loading) , these stresses can and should
be confined to wrought, earefully contoured material,
so that reasonable fatigue life and satisfactory tight-
ness can be obtained for high temperatures. Dis-
similar flanged joints of special design using bellows-
type gaskets or pressure sealing have been utilized
in power plant service [90J. For joints between
ferritic and austenitic steel, the design selected should
be such as to permit the use of ferritic alloy bolts;
austenitic bolts are unsatisfactory because of their
low yield strength and high coefficient of expansion.
Bolted joints generally are avoided for extreme-
temperature service, a construction not involving
gasket sealing being preferred. With welded eon-
struction, leakage is no longer a factor. Satisfactory
service in this case depends upon the local strain-
range differential, on the number of applications of
this strain range, and finally, upon the metallurgical
factors assoeiated with presence of a weld.
Using the most common material combination
as an example, the austenitic steels have a coefficient
of expansion of about 10.4 X 10-6 in./in./F (within
the temperature range 70-1200 F), whereas the
low-chrome-alloy steels have a coeffieient of about
8. X 10-» in./in./F. When joined with a sharp
interface, this difference will induce stresses when the
joint is heated or cooled. For a butt joint between
pipes of equal thickness the maximum thermal
stress will be the circumferential (hoop) stress
developing at the junction, whieh has a magnitude of
u = !E flT flo: (3.25)
Here E represents the modulus of elasticity (assumed
identical for both metals), flT the temperature
change, and flo: designates the differenee between the
eoefficients of expansion for the two metals. Apply-
ing a stress-relief at 1200 F to the junction and cool-
ing the pipe then to 100 F, flT becomes 1100 F,
flo: is equal to 2.4 X 10-»IF. Taking now E =
29 X 10· psi, a eircumferential stress of 38,300 psi is
calculated (tensile in austenitic material and
compressive in ferritie material).
The foregoing analysis assumes a thin eylinder
and evaluates only the differential radial deflection
at the mean radius. In addition to this effect, there
is also a discontinuity at the interface due to the
differential ehange in thickness of the two materials
whieh will introduce further loeal radial stresses of
equal magnitude, tensile in the one material and
80 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Al1denitic Austenilic
Stelll Weld
Inside and oullide 9.ou"d smooth gnd
wbstanliolly lhllh cher welding
FIG.3.17 Dissimilar weld joint, 15° interface.
compressive in thc other. The resulting state of
equal biaxial stress will raise the calculated stresses
by a faetor of 1/(1 - v). A more detailed analysis
would disclose some edge-bending stresses across the
junction.
A simple butt weld approaches the above assump-
tions and appears at least the equal of other possible
details from a standpoint of stress magnitude. Stress
is, however, only one factor determining perform-
ance; its influence must be weighed along with that
of other factors. One of these factors is the particular
detail of the joint. For example, eonnecting an
austenitic pipe braneh to a ferritic header would
force almost all of the differential strain into the
austenitic part. This would increase the maximum
stress by a factor of about 3.6, uS compared to the
simple butt weld.
Ai, in the ease of overall thermal expansion strains
in piping systems, the performance of dissimilar
joints would be dependent on the number of cycles
and the strain range per cycle. While such joints
generally give satisfactory service in constant
temperature operation with relatively rew tempera-
ture cycles and an absence of sudden quenching
conditions, many joints subjected to more severe
eonditions have failed. Investigations conducted
on this subject [27, 91, 92, 93], and experience
indicate that metallurgical factors and flaws seriously
affect performauce when associated with plastie
deformation due to yielding or creep. The heat-
affected zone on the ferritie side of the dissimilar
weld has been shown to be the most eritical zone,
due possibly to reduced duetility of the mixed analy-
sis in the fusion zone and metallurgical ehanges
during the course of the test or serVICe whieh result
in strain concentration at this location. From a
stress standpoint the superposition of internal
pressure loading and external longitudinal loading
reduced the number of eycles which could be with-
stood in a hot fatigue test at constant tcmperature.
While all welds withstood a large number of cycles,
a somewhat improved performance was obtained by
changing the weld bevel so that the heat-affected
zone on the ferritic side was more inclined (Fig. 3.17).
These tests did not, however, include the effect of
differential expansion stresses, so that improved
performance resulting from inclining the ferritil.:
heat-affected zone may in this case be attributed
largely to the lower axial stress component in this
critical zone.
When Carpenter et al. [92J changed from a hot
fatigue test to a thermal quenching test, the number
of cycles which could be withstood dropped drasti-
cally, failures being experienced after76 to 318 cyclcs,
as compared to 89,000 or more for the hot test.
Weisberg and Soldan [93J, in a separate series of
tests, obtained no failures after 100 quench cycles.
Under such drastic quenching appreciable additional
thermal stresses are introduced because of transient
temperature differences across the wall thickness.
Thc possibility of improving the performance of
dissimilar joints by inclining the bond line originated
with Thc M. W. Kellogg Company and was aimed
at a largely longitudinal interface rather than one
transverse to the pipe axis. This method has becn
incorporated in the design of special joints made by
the Kelcaloy process (Fig. 3.18). Tests [91, 93] and
service experience over a period of six years show
excellent performance. Whereas differential ex-
pansion strcsscs are likcly to bc somewhat higher
than in a simple butt joint, the primary advantages
over a conventional weld or a wcld simulating thc
construction lie in the essentially longitudinal
interface and in the unique manufacturing process23
Thc physical properties of metal deposited by this
process are consistently superior to those obtained
23Described by Blumberg and Bunn in their discussion of
Weisberg's paper·IOI].
In'erface
-; Av"enitic Slool
f. rrilic 110el \
-'-- ~~
. ._'..,..
---;-- I
I I
I I
- - - - I- -,-.-:!>-L
Ir'orfaco AV"(Ini~ic Slool
Ferrai, Sleel , I
P= f-f-L-.-::_...:--.: A r:L -
i
-i- --
1-- -1------
. - -- '---
FIG. 3.18 Kelealoy transition pieces.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
by ordinary casting or welding mcthods. Austcnitic
sections, for example, are significantly free of micro-
fissuring. In addition, progressive"'and rapid solidi-
fication around the entire circumference of the bond
zone occurs simultaneously, resulting in greater uni-
formity, minimum residual stresses, and less acute
material transition and heat-affccted zones.
The Kelcaloy process is also bcing used to produce
joints with a simple butt bond substantially trans-
verse to the pipe axis. Their principal advantage
over welded joints again lies in the metallurgical
superiority and relative soundness inherent in the
process of manufacture. Additional advantages
are: only one heat-affected zone compared to two in
a conventional weld, and adaptability of the process
to produce and closely control special chemical
analyses. AB an example of the latter advantage,
carbon migration at the interface (which has been
experienced at ferritic-austenitic junctions and
which hastened some failurcs) can be combated by
introducing a carbide stabilizer, such as columbium,
into the chrome-molybdenum steel, leading to an
analysis which is not generally available.
While this discussion has emphasized that metal-
lurgical aspects greatly influence dissimilar weld
performance, detailed discussion of this subject is
not within the scope of this book. Principal factors,
however, can be listed as follows:
1. Carbon migration resulting in a carbon-de-
pleted zone in the ferritic steel near the austenitic
weld interface.
2. Formation of sigma phase in the austenitic
matcrial near the interface.
3. Abrupt change in structure and physical prop-
erties of weld metal and heat-affected zonc resulting
in a lImetallurgical notch."
4. Tendency of austenitic weld deposits toward
micfofissuring.
5. Oxidation or other corrosive notching at the
ferritic material junction accelerated by local strain.
The discussion in reference [92] will be found inter-
esting and instructive. There is still a great deal to
be learned about austenitic and dissimilar-joint
welding and the service performance of austenitic
welds. The same can bc said in general about the
high-temperature performance of the heat-affected
zones of all types of welds under plastic dcformation
and creep conditions. Where weld difficulties have
been encountered in service, the preponderance of
cracking has been associated with heat-affected
zones.
In important praetical applieations of dissimilar
joints for high-temperature service, no matter what
81
type of design and fabrication technique is decided
upon, every effort should be made to eliminate
mechanical stress raisers. \Veld reinforcement
should be built up to effeet an anneal of the preeeding
layer and then should be removed without notches
or other surface stress raisers near the weld; ma-
chining is preferred where praetieable. Baeking rings
should be avoided, and controlled inside contour
welds (K-Weld) should be used where back welding
eannot be aeeomplished. The joint should be ex-
amined for soundness by the best nondestruetive
methods applieable.
3.13 Other Components
Various components other than those speeifically
mentioned in individual sections of this chapter
may be encountered, but insofar as their influence on
the flexibility and fatigue performance of the system
is eoneerned, the prineiples outlined in this chapter
usually ean be applied as neeessary. Some deserve
at least brief additional eomment.
A valve should be able to earry loading from
attaehed piping similar to a standard tee of eom-
parable pressure-temperature rating, but as a further
consideration should be suffieiently free from warp-
age or distortion to pernait operation and tight
shutoff. These problems are within the provinee of
the individual manufacturer; their engineering has
advaneed eonsiderably in recent years, particularly
for high-pressure, high-temperature serviee. As
in the ease of flanges, eare should be exercised in using
low pressure rating valves with relatively heavy
walled pipe, since the imposed moment as erected
or due to expansion may be beyond their structural
capacity. For large-diameter piping, valves are
sometimes used with venturi ports (partieularly
when motor operated) or standard valves one or
two sizes smaller are used with reducers in conven-
tional lines. The bodies of venturi valves are usu-
ally designed with consideration for the moment
which may be applied by the larger piping. Sim-
ilarly, when using standard smaller valves, sueh
piping moments must be given consideration.
Flanged jittings of either cast or wrought steel
(ASA Standard BIG.5) are eapable of developing the
full struetural strength of their flanges; for further
eomments on the moment eapaeity of flanges see
Section 3.11 of this ehapter. This applies to tees,
crosses and elbows. The pressure rating of such
fittings is given in the ASA Standard and commented
on in Chapter 2.
Screwed and socket welding jittings (ells, tees, crosses,
unions, and couplings), whether cast or wrought
82
M = Applied Moment (in lin.)
...---------..
j'
" Unfired Pressure Vessel Code.
t,
(')
p
t, a inlerflOl
preuure
(I) psi
• sharp cone-to-cylinder junction the local stresses
"--- M ------
f = Ex1cmol axial end force (lbs.)
(potitive in diredion shown)
(Totol end force = F plus hydrostatic
end load due 10 pr~sure p)
FIG.3.19 Conical transition.
steel, are similarly furnished to nominal pressure
ratings and are limited to small sizes and generally
to moderate service conditions. Screwed joints are
obviously limited in their capacity for transmittng
torsional moment. Actually, in plumbing practice
they are often relied upon to relieve thermal ex-
pansion by permitting a small angular rotation of
one tbread upon the other, a practice, however,
which not infrequently results in leakage. In ten-
sion or bending, screwed fittings ean be depended
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
welding caps are commonly used, as presently cov-
ered by ASA Standard BI6.9. Individual applica-
tions for larger sizes or special shapes, including flat
heads, may be checked using the rules of the ASME
Markl [12J has fatigue-tested smoothly contoured
commercial red1.l.cers and finds a stress intensification
factor of unity justified. For the design of special
conical reducers reference can be made to the inter-
pretive report of the work of the Design Division
of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee [94] on
pressure vessel heads. For the particular case of a
at the intersection can be closely approximated by
using the familiar beam on an elastic foundation
analysis and treating the cone as though it were a
cylinder having a radius equal to the meridional
radius of the cone at the junction. The resulting
stresses due to an internal pressure p and external
loads F and M are given by the following formulas
(with Poisson's ratio >, taken as 0.3):
Ontside intersection (Point (1) in Fig. 3.19)
'F1.816C3 + (pR/2tn cos a)
I
Sll =
Cone
s" = -C, + (pR/tn cos a) 'I' 0.546C3
'F1.816n'C3 + (pR/2t)
l
SI =
Cyl.
s, = - C2 + (pR/t) 'I' 0.546n'C3
Re-entrant intersection (Point (2) in Fig. 3.19\
= ±1.816C3 + (pR/2t,n cos a)

l
SI
upon to be equal in strength to unthreaded pipe of
the same rating, but due allowance for metal removed Cone So: = c, + (pR/t 2n cos a) ± 0.546C3
in threading must be made in determining the wall ± 1.816n'C3 + (pR 2 /2t,)
I
SIZ =
thickness of the pipe. For cyclic effects (mechanical Cyl. 2
or thermal), screwed joints involve the stress-raiser S,2 = C2 + (pR 2/12) ± 0.546n C3
effect of the threads, an effect not entirely eliminated
In these equations upper signs refer to the stresses in
even with heavy seal welds. At the higher tem-
the outer fibers and lower signs to those in the inner
peratures, seal welding is usually necessary to pre-
fibers. The subscripts I and c refer to longitudinal
vent leakage. Socket welding fittings also involve
and circumferential stresses, respectively; a positive
the stress intensification effect of fillet welds, but are
sign denotes tension. The constants appearing above
snperior to threaded joints if the welds are adequate.
are given by the following expressions:
Threaded and socket-welded fitting joints would be
expected to involve stress intensifications in line
with the fatigue test resnlts obtained for flanges of C, = ~'l [C5( vncosa+ ~,)
threaded and single-welded socket types.
The thicknesses of blind flanges in ASA Standard - C. (2vn cos a + 1 + 1~') J
B16.5 are the same as those of functional flanges.

c, = ~4 + ~2)
For nonstandard cover plates, the rules of the
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code may be used; [C 5 (vn cos a
it should be mentioned, however, that the ASA blind
flanges are of lesser thickness than those resulting
from the application of these rules. EUipsoidal
+ C. (n2 + 1 + V n 2cos a )J
 LOCAL COMPONENTS 83
1 tions, and soil constitute an integrated structural
C3 = -z- [C.(Vn cos a + 1) + C.(nZ - 1)] system with equilibrium of interloading effects.
n C. .~
Each part of this structural system is influeneed by
C. = nZ + lz + 2 (vn cos a + 1 + 1 ) its individual environment, e.g. pressure, tempera-
n Vncosa ture, weight, etc. ,. as well as by the effects transmitted
from attached parts of the system.
VR[PR
CS = 2.57 F 2 F ..Rz
+ 2..R+ MJ tan a, for m- Ordinarily, supporting structures, foundations, ami
soil are subject only to ambient temperatures, and
tersection (1) are sufficiently rigid so that deflections under pipe

= 257 -v'R.[PRz
- --
. t2 1.5 2
+ --F + --
2..R
M
..R?
z
Jtana form-
'
. expansion, etc., are small enough to be neglected.
Sometimes, however, temperature rise is unavoid~
able in .steel structures; slender or high structures
tersection (2) may also, in combination with their foundations,
involve significant deflections under even moderate
C.= 0.85 pR (1 1_) for intersection (1) reactions. Connected equipment will undergo di-
t n cos a
mensional changes which may augment or decrease
= -0.85 pR z
t2
(1 __1_)
neosa
for intersection (2) the thermal expansion loading. The fabrication and
assembly of such an integrated structural system
necessarily involves deviations from nominal dimen-
n = t,/t for intersection (1)
sions. Hence the fitting of piping, in combination
= tdt-, for intersection (2) with weld shrinkage, sets up initial internal stresses
It has been assumed in the above that the intersec- which at the weakest location of the system may
equal the yield strength. All such conditions must
tions arc far enough apart (about 2 ~cos
RI, min) so
a
be recognized and provided for by the piping
designer.
that their local effects do not influence each other For simplification in analysis, the ends of a piping
,ignificantly. The maximum fiber load due to the system are usually considered fixed at the equipment
external moment is taken as though it were uniform connections. Obviously, this is a limiting condition
around the circumference; this approximation is for the maximum reaction; localized bending or direct
considered to be on the safe side. loading of the equipment, by causing deflection or
The special case when I, cos a = t is of interest rotation, serve to reduce the piping reaction. The
for intersection (1). When n = llcos a the stress result will be an intermediate fixity between fixed-
formulas for this intersection reduce to: and hinged-end conditions. While the conventional
z
Sll = 'f'3.63C7 cos a + (pRI2!) assumption of complete fixation may seem unneces-
Cone ( sarily severe, it must not be inferred that excessive
s" = - (1 + cosz a ± 1.089 cosz a)C, + (pRlt) additional safety results. It is possible to deviate
SI = 'f'3.63C, + (pRI2/) from fixed-end assumptions without increased risk
Cyl. of fatigue damage to connection equipment only
(
s, = - (1 + cosz a ± 1.089)C, + (pRI!) when analysis is made of the bending stresses in the
where C 7 equipment whose localized deflections are being

[VRJ[PR F M2J
2.57 sin a cos a
= 1 + 6 cosz a + cos" a F 2 + 2..R + ..R
For consistent treatment with other stress intensifi-
cations in the ASA Code for Pressure Piping, rolled-
pipe data should be chosen as a basis of comparison.
Therefore, the calculated maximum stress as given
by the above formulas should be divided by two when
comparing with the usual expansion stress limits.
3.14 Piping and Equipment IntcrctTccts
In the over-all picture a piping system and the
mutually eonnected equipment, structures, founda-
utilized. When dealing with rotating or other equip-
ment where alignment is sensitive to distortion,
piping can seldom be permitted to exceed the stiff-
ness obtained with fixed-end assumptions.
Considerable misunderstanding on the part of
equipment designers relative to piping reactions has
existed in the past. Manufacturers sometimes have
made it a condition of their warranty that 1W piping
reactions be transmitted to their equipment. In
other cases, forces have been limited to unreasonably
low values, while completely ignoring the more im-
portant effects of bending moments. Such impractical
criteria, however, are detrimental to all concerned,
84 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
including the equipment manufaeturer, as the piping
designer is left without a usable guide.
At present, the more progressive manufacturers
attempt to provide more realistie load carrying ca-
pacities or offer to check their equipment, on large
critical units, for the reactions of the proposed piping.
The problems which they face should he appreciated
by the piping designer. With moving parts and the
need for close clearances, all strain must be carefully
controlled to avoid misalignment, rubbing, binding,
excessive wear, or other maloperation. At the same
time, the iuvolved and discontinuous contours usually
required are not amenable to a reliable evaluation of
either deflections or stresses. Thus, the manufac-
turer is often forced to rely on the judicious use of
experience or the projection of occasional test data
to individual equipment.
The magnitude of effects at sensitive equipment
should he kept low particularly when cost is not
significantly increased hy so doing. This objective
may be approached by providing local pipe flexi-
bility in complex systems to favor the equipment,
using local restraints to take reactions directly or
to force deflection into other portions of the system
(discussed further in Chapter 8); by an over-all
increase in the flexibility of the system; or by a
favorable relative positioning of the equipment.
The potential influence of effects on equipment may
often be moderated by the selection of types whieh
are relatively insensitive to distortion and misalign-
ment. Also, the location of equipment should he
such as to keep pipe sizes to a minimum insofar as
praetieable, a point of partieular concern in regard
to the larger lines (e.g. pump suction and driver
exhaust lines).
In the absenee of suitable manufacturer's data or
applicable experienee, approximations for limiting
Table 3.5 Allowable End Reaction Exerted b:y Connected Piping on Pumps, Turbine Casings, and Pressure
Vessels
Type of End
Reaction
Forces,lb
Moments, in.-Ib
Radial reaction, including weight of pump riser,
etc.
Tangential reactions, any direction .
Longitudinal bending moment .
Circumferential bending moment
Twisting moment
·In this column D denotes the OD of the pipe increased by 3 in.
tD is equal to the sum of the nominal diameters of suction and discharge decreased by 15% for every 50F increase over 650 F.
reaetions on sueh equipment have been suggested.
These are no more than rules of thumb which repre-
~ent experience alone without supporting analysis.
Various factors are used as indices, either individu-
ally or in combinations, such as weight, cross section,
suction or discharge nozzle sizes (and rating), cubic
volume, and pressure shell thiekness-to-diameter
ratio. For many years piping reaction limits of
1000 to 3000 pounds were speeified regardless of
size or details of the equipment involved. Sueh
limits are now generally considered meaningless.
Other approaches relate metal cross section to
rlifferent unit values for resultant forces and mo-
ments. Pressure shell thickness/radius ratios are
also employed sometimes to establish the potential
maximum pressure whieh that portion of the shell
can withstand. A morc accurate evaluation of
local moment capacity of surfaees of revolution is
given elsewhere in this section.
Cubic volume is not a significant parameter. It
has been used largely in the absence of equipment
weight, by assuming an overall density 2 to 5 times
that of water. Weight, where obtainable, is a more
suitable parameter and is usually inereased by the
estimated weight of the contents. In either ap-
proaeh, the weight is eonsidered as the maximum
value whieh the resultant foree may attain.
Suction or discharge nozzle sizes provide a more
eomprehensive index of rotating equipment design,
sinee they reflect equipment size. Pressure may be
assumed to maintain a rough balance between pipe
and equipment stiffness. Based on a survey of
acceptable piping designs for equipment piping,
Rossheim and Markl [29] proposed the eube of (pipe
aD plus 3 in.) as a eriterion to whieh eonstants were
applied to establish the maximum ax-ial and lateral
forces in pounds or bending moments in foot pounds.
\Volosewick for Maximum Temperature 650 Ft
Rossheim- 4-Point Support 2-Point Supports
Markl'
Actual l\Iaximum Actual Maximum
Value Allowable Value Allowable
3.25D' 250D 4,000 300D 2,700
1.50D' 100D 1,500 85D 900
10,000
60D' 2700D 40,000 1700D 22,000
18,000
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
Wolosewick [95J additionally varied allowable reac-
tions to suit the type support (2 to 4 point), and
service temperature. The limits advanced in these
two papers are tabulated in Table 3.5.
The Rossheim-Markl study also brought out the
fact that expansion stresses in the piping studied
ranged from 1000 to 6000 psi. This and subsequent
experience led to the following practice used with
success by The M. W. Kellogg Company for the
past five years. The combined stress due to bending
and torsion is calculated for an assumed pipe having
a size and wall thickness equal to that of the nozzle
and connecting pipe, respectively. This stress is
limited to 6000 psi.
In establishing limits for pipe loads, consideration
must also be given to the capacity of equipment
supports: that is, anchor bolts, bed plate, steel struc-
ture, and foundation each in turn must be able to
accommodate the pipe loads.
The effect of localized concentrated forces and
moments on shells is of widespread importance in the
design of piping. The resulting bending and direct
stresses and their effect on fatigue life are important
factors in establishing satisfactory structural design
not only for tees, branch connections on pipes, and
nozzles on pressure vessels, but also for supporting
saddles, lugs, trunions, legs, hangers, and similar
attachments. Due to a lack of symmetry and
variation in cross section, the theoretical analysis
of these local effects is not only laborious but, up to
the present time, has been accomplished only for
special limited cases.
An intensive investigation of the problem of local
loadings on cylindrical shells was begun in 1952
by a spccial subcommittec of the Prcssure Vessel
Research Committee Design Division. The first
results of this program were presented in P. P.
Bijlaard's papers [51, 96J dealing with the effect of
radial loads and local moments, and evaluating the
case of a localized uniformly distributed radial load
acting over a finite area of a cylindrical surface.
.\. comparison of analytical rcsults [51} with values
extrapolated from experimental results available in
the literature [97, 98] shows reasonable agreement.
An additional theoretical treatment covering the
application of local circumferential and longitudinal
bending moments has reccntly bccn published [52J.
These investigations, as well as experience on the
behavior of surfaces of revolution under localized
effects, provide a general understanding of the mo-
ment distribution and stress patterns attendant to
such loading. Individual analyses, however, arc
exceedingly lengthy and involved, so that the aim is
L
85
to provide simplified approaches with a reasonable
understanding of the extent of their deviation from
more accurate solutions.
Along this line, The M. W. Kellogg Company has
made use of an approximate solution based on the
bending of a beam on an elastic foundation, to evalu-
ate the local shell stresses resulting from a nozzle
bending moment, or radial thrust on a cylindrical
or spherical shell. The piping moment is simulated
by a uniform circumferential radial line load equal
to the maximum reaction (lb per linear in.) at the
edge of the nozzle neck. With this unit load, the
shell bending and resulting stress is established
similar to the effect of a narrow shrink ring loading,
the unit moment being applied to the shell thickness
or combined shell and pad thickness where rein-
forced. The formula used in this approach is:
1.l7VR
S = t1.5 [F, + 1.5F,] (3.26)
where S = local longitudinal bending stress in
shell, psi.
R = meridional radius of shell, in.
t = effective local thickness of shell, in.
(shell thickness plus reinforcing pad
thickness).
F 1 = unit loading due to applied longitu-
dinal2 ' bending moment (Ib per linear
in.).
= M (1rR n 2 where M = moment, in.-lb,
and Rn = mean radius of nozzle con-
nection.
F 2 = unit loading due to a radial thrust, lb
per m.
=' P(21rR n where P = total thrust, lb.
The combined local stress due to thermal reactions
and internal pressure is held to the same total allow-
able stress range as for the piping itself [1.25
(S, + SI/ )J. As noted previously, the thermal reac-
tions must be based on the full expansion and the
cold modulus of elasticity. The individual hot and
cold reactions cannot be used for this purpose,
While this check is not precise, it has resulted in
safe designs over a considerable period of years. At
least, it provides a simple method for consistent
design and, when more precise methods are de-
veloped, it will afford a basis by which the results of
the new proposals may be assessed in terms of past
experience. There is one further interesting observa-
24For a. circumferentio.l moment it is believed thnt the
bending stress (circumferential) may 'be in some cases up to
several times that indicated for a. longitudinal moment.
86 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
tion which can be made. If a moment loading only is
1.11VR M
assumed, eq. 3.26 becomes S = ;.5 X --2' If
t "lrR n
the thickness of the nozzle is t n this may be written as
S = (1.17Vlr~~5)
t
~t
X-rrR n n
The portion of this expression enclosed in brackets
represents the stress intensification factor as used
in the Piping Code. For identical shell and nozzle
thicknesses the factor reduces to 1.17
(R/t)l'. The
similarity of this to the factor suggested by the Pip-
ing Code for full-size tee intersections, 0.9(R/t)%, is
noteworthy.
The same shrink ring loading approach has been
used by The M. W. Kellogg Company to determine
the rotations of nozzle connections due to the local
deflection of the vessel shell under the influence of
piping moments, viz:
</> = 2.46M
E
[!!:...-J)'
r t 2
m
where
cP = angular rotation, radians.
M = moment acting at nozzle, It-lb.
r m = mean radius of nozzle, in.
R = radius of vessel, in.
t = thickness of vessel shell, including rein-
forcing pad, in.
E = modulus of elasticity of shell material,
Ib/in 2
As is the case with the preceding treatment of
stress, this equation for rotation is connected with a
longitudinal moment. Where this moment acts in a
circumferential direction, tests indicate that the
flexibility may be several times greater. However,
the loealized stress is not likely to be lowered, so that,
for the sake of simplicity the same approach is used
for moments in either direction. This approximation
enables the piping designer to deal with partial end
fixation by introduction of a virtual length as follows:
The end rotation of a cantilever subjected to a
moment applied at the end is
<I> = 144ML/EI
where M and L have dimensions of ft-lb and ft
respectively. Equating this expression to eq. 3.27
yields
L = 0.017 I (R/r m 2 t)"
where L represents the virtual length of a fictitious
extension having the same rigidity as the pipe line.
Thus, as shown in Section 5.13, the rotation of the
nozzle becomes expressible in the form of shape coeffi-
cients which can be added to the usual summation"
to obtain the equations. No deformation of the shell
plate is assumed to occur as a result of torsional
moment, making no correction necessary for such
loading.
An influence which is sometimes neglected, save
for its effects on the piping proper, is end pres-
sure reaction. Sometimes a piping system is referred
to as an open end cylinder" with the implication
H
that longitudinal pressure stresses are absent. Thi,
would be true only in straight runs between infinitely
stiff vessels which undergo no deflection under the
pressure reaction of the pipe cross section, or where
frictionless expansion joints are provided.
With the introduction of expansion joints, or
other provisions incapable of transmitting the full
longitudinal pressure stress, the end pressure reac-
tion at each fitting, or opposite eaeh nozzle on a
(3.27) vessel, must be considered in the overall structural
design. Provisions for carrying this unbalanced
reaction must not.adversely affect the freedom of the
joint to absorb intended movements. Further dis-
cussion on this point will be found in Chapter 7.
Piping Reaetions. When a piping system is de-
signed to the Piping Code, the maximum expected
hot and cold reactions, and the reaction range due
to thermal expansion, are established by the Code
rules (sec Chapter 2) for the design of anchors and
checking of terminal equipment. Erection stresses
and hence the initial cold reactions are not included,
however, since these are related to fabrication and
erection details and cannot be predicted in magni-
tude or sign unless adequate means are provided for
their control. Upon heating, the initial effects com-
bine with those due to expansion, their magnitude
being limitcd by the yield point at the service
temperature. Subsequently, relaxation lowers the
maintained service stress as dictated by the material
creep properties and the relieved strain reappear.
as a cold stress at ambient temperature, the adjust-
ment of strain between service and ambient condi-
tions being termed "self-springing." The Piping
Code cold reaction reflects this self-sprung state and
(3.28) does not consider the initial (as erected) condition;
thc Code hot reaction on the other hand reflects
the maximum expected reaction (without erection
stresses) rather than the final reaction after adjust-
ment.
(3.29) Careful erection and, in particular, controlled pre-
springing before service can be used to limit the
maximum reactions, by assuring their occurrence
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
predominately or entirely at the ambient tempera-
ture. The Piping Code rules for reactions allow for
the effect of prespring, which gaina practical signifi-
cance in this respect only when it is 50% or greater.
Emphasis on the provision of maximum prespring,
approaching 100%, is usually limited to large critical
equipment where maximum assurance against pos-
sible distortion at high service temperatures is
essential.
Where a piping system is designed to meet limit-
ing reactions, or for other reasons is to operate at
stresses of a low order, (as is the case with large
turbines, compressors, etc.), the magnitude of the
initial cold reactions as erected may be many times
that of the reactions corresponding to expansion, if
special procedures are not followed. For such sys-
tems prespring is a necessity, and should be accom-
plished in an effective manner. Temporary supports
should involve no restriction which will not exist in
service, making it usually desirable that the final
joint be at a low elevation, and located where the
permanent supports alone will suffice. Formerly,
prespring was accomplished by the accurate fabrica-
tion of a final section to offset the free (and pre-
sumably unrestrained) line by the desired amount
of prespring on each axis. Subsequent forcing of the
ends together was then presumed to provide the re-
quired amount of prespring. This approach ordi-
narily ignored the rotations. Recently, therefore,
The M. W. Kellogg Company has followed the prac-
tice of establishing, by precalculation (see Chapter 5),
the desirable locations of forces and moments to be
applied to introduce the moments required for the
desired magnitude of prestress, and simultaneously
bring the ends for the final joint into alignment.
This carefully measured loading is maintained while
the final joint is welded or bolted up, and post heat-
treated. To avoid possible additional plastic defor-
mation in this final weld, an adjacent location in
the pipe can be stress relieved before this operation
is accomplished on the weld. Prespring can be
further controlled by the use of strain gages to check
the degree of accuracy to which the desired result
is being achieved.
In the conventional assembly of piping to pumps,
turbines, etc., damage by distortion or misalignment
due to fabrication effects can be avoided by ther-
mally unloading the completed piping near the
terminal equipment. This is accomplished by con-
trolled local heating similar to stress relief, or, in
less critical instances, by merely locally heating a
circumferential area with one or more torches to
reduce the fabrication effects at that location to
87
the yield stress of the material for the applied
temperature.
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88 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
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(1952).
58. E. Levin, "On. Heinforced Circular Cutouts," J. Appl.
Meehoni"" Vol. 20, pp. 546-552 (1953).
59. J. H. Taylor and E. O. Waters, HThe Effect of Openings
in Pressure Vessels," Trans. ASME, Vol. 56, pp. 119-132
(1934).
60. E. Mikocki, "Verstiirkung von Ausschnitten in Zylin-
drischen Miinteln von Druckbehiiltern," Die WamIC,
Vol. 61, pp. 660-664 (1938).
61. G. J. Schoessow and E. A. Brooks, "Analysis of Experi-
mental Data Regarding Certain Design Features of
Pressure Ves..'iels," Trans. ASAfE, Vol. 72, pp. 567-577
(1950).
62. W. G. 1-1arskell, W. B. Carlson, A. A. Wells, A. N.Kin-
kead and A. L. Tannahill, HExperimental and Analytical
Determinations of the Stress Systems in a Welded Pres-
sure Ves.<;el," British Welding Res. Assn., Heport F.E.
12/20, London, 1952.
63. A. A. Wells, "On the Plane Stress Distribution in an
Infinite Plate with a Rim Stiffened Elliptical Opening:,"
Quart. J. Meeh. Appl. Moth., Vol. 3, pp. 23-31 (1950).
64. A. R. C. Markl, flPiping Flexibility Analysis," ASME
1'rans., Vol. 77, pp. 127-149 (February, 1955).
65. A. I\'I. Houser and S. Hirschberg, "Flexibility of Plain
and Creased Pipe Bends," Power, Vol. 74, No. 16, pp.
568-571 (1931).
66. E. T. Cope, and E. A. Wert, "Some Changes of Shape
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
Chc.racteriatics of a Smooth, a Corrugated, and n Creased
Bend Under Load," abstracted in Mech. Eng., Vol. 54,
pp. 875-876 (1932).
67. R. L. Dennison, "The Strength an~'Flexibility of Corru-
gated and Creased Bend Piping," J. Am. Soc. Naval
Engrs., Vol. 47, pp. 340-432 (1935); sec also Engineering,
Vol. 14, pp. 103-105, 215-217, 297--300 (1936).
68. L. H. Donnell, HThe Flexibility of Corrugated Pipes Undcr
Longitudinal Forces and Bending," Trans. ASME, Vol.
54, pp. 69-75 (1932).
69. E. O. \Vaters and J. H. Taylor, "The Strength of Pipe
Flanges," Mech. Eng., Vol. 49, pp. 531-542 (1927).
70. C. O. Sandstrom, "Bolta and Flanges for Tanka and Heat
Exchangers," Chern. & Metallurg. Eng., Vol. 40, pp. 67-71
(1933).
71. R. W. Bailey, HFlanged Pipe Joints for High Tempera-
tures and Pressures," Engineering, Vol. 144, pp. 364-
365, 419--421, 490-492, 538-539, 61iHi17 and 674-676
(1947).
72. T. M. Jasper, H. Gregersen, and A. M. Zoellner, IIStrength
and Design of Covers and Flanges for Pressure Vessels
and Piping," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 8,
pp. 605--608, 672--674 (1936); Vol. 9, pp. 43-47,109-110,
112, 174-176, 178,243-244,246,311--312 (1937).
73. E. O. Holmberg and K. Axelson, "Analysis of Stresses in
Circular Plates and Rings," Trans. ASltfE, Vol. 54,
pp. 13-28 (1932).
74. E. O. Waters, D. B. Rossheim, D. B. Wesstrom, and F. S.
G. Williams, Development of General Formulas for Bolted
Flanges, Taylor Forge & Pipe Works, Chicago, Ill., 1937.
75. E. O. Waters, D. B. \Vesstroffi, D. B. Rossheim, and
F. S. G. Williams, IfFormulas for Stresses in Bolted
Flange Connections/' Trans. ASME, Vol. 59, pp. 161-
169 (1937).
76. D. B. Rossheim, E. H. Gebhardt, and H. G. Oliver,
lITests of Heat Exchanger Flanges," Trans. ASltfE,
Vol. 60, pp. 305-314 (1938).
77. J. D. Mattimore, N. O. Smith-Petersen, and H. C. Bell,
IfDesign of Flanged Joints for Valve Bonnets," Trans.
ASME, Vol. 60, pp. 297-303 (1938).
78. G. W. \VattsandE. C. Petrie, "The Design of Flanges and
Flanged Fittings," Valve World, Vol. 36, pp. 121-129
(1939).
79. A{ adem Flange Design, Bull. 502, 3rd Ed., Taylor Forge
& Pipe Works, Chicago, Ill., 1950.
80. W. F. Jacp, "A Design Procedure for Integral Flanges
with Tapered Hubs," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 569-
571 (1951).
81. J. J. Murphy, "Discussion to W. F. Jaep's paper 178J,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 572-573 (1951).
tt
89
82. E. O. Waters nnd F. S. G. Williams, HStress Conditions in
Flnnged Joints for Low Pressure Service," Trans. ASME,
Vol. 74, pp. 135-148 (1951).
83. D. B. Wesstrom and S. E. Bergh, "Effect of Internal
Pressure on Stresses and Strains in Bolted-Flanged Con-
nections," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 553-558 (1951).
84. T. J. Dolan, uLoad Relations in Bolted Joints," Mech.
Eng., Vol. 64, pp. 607--611 (1942).
85. R. W. Bailey, "Thermal Stresses in Piping Joints for High
Pressures and Temperatures," Engineering, Vol. 137,
pp. 445-447, 506-507 (1934).
86. H. J. Gough, IlPipe Flanges Research-Firat Report of
the Pipe Flanges Research Committee,/I Engineering,
Vo\. 141, pp. 243-245, 271-273 (1936).
87. A. R. C. Markl and H. H. George, UFatigue Tests on
Flanged Assemblies," Trans. ASME, Vol. 72, pp. 77-87
(1950).
88. R. G. Blick, "Bending Moments and Leakage at Flanged
Joints," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, pp. 129-133 (H)50).
89. R. G. Blick, "Interaction of Pressure and Bending at
Pipe Flangcs," ASME Paper No. 51-Pet-9, (1951).
90. E. C. Bailey, H. C. Schroeder, and I. H. Carlson, "Me-
chanical Joint Experience in High Pressure-Temperature
Steam Piping," Valve World, Vol. 49, pp. 34--39 (1952).
91. H. Weisberg, "Cyclic Heating Test of Main Steam Piping
Joints Between Ferritic and Austenitic Steels-SCwaren
Generating Station," Trans. ASME, Vol. 71, pp. 643-
649 (1949).
92. O. R. Carpenter, N. C. Jessen, J. L. Oberg, and R. D.
\Vylie, "Some Considerations in the Joining of Dissimilar
Metals for High-Temperature High-Pressure Service,"
Proc. ASTM, Vo\. 50, pp. 869-860 (1950).
93. H. Weisberg and H. M. Soldan, "Cyclic Heating Test,
Main Steam Piping Materials and Welds, Sewaren
Generating Station," ASME Paper No. 53-A-I51, Decem-
ber, 1953.
94. Pressure Vessel Researth Committee, Design Division,
"Report on the Design of Pressure Vessel Heads,"
Welding J. (N.Y.), Vol. 32, pp. 31a-51. (1953).
95. F. E. Wolosewick, UEquipment Stresses Imposed by
Piping," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, pp. 89-91 (1950).
90. P. P. Bijlaard, llStresses from Local Loadings in Cylin-
drical Pressure Vessels," ASME Paper No. 54-Pet-7
(1954).
97. G. J. Schocssow and E. A. Brooks, "Stresses in a Cylin-
drical Shell Due to Nozzle or Pipe Connection," J.
Appl. Me<:hanics, Vol. 12, pp. 107-112 (1945).
98. R. J. Roark, IIStrength and Stiffness of Cylindrical Shells
under Concentrated Loading," l'ram;. ASME, Vol. 57,
pp. A147-A152 (1935).
 CHAPTER
Simplified Method for Flexibility Analysis
ITH piping, as with other structures, the
W analysis of stresses may be carried to vary-
ing degrees of refinement. At one extreme
lie mere comparisons with layouts which have met
the test of service; at the other extreme are compre-
hensive methods involving long and tedious com-
putations and commensurate engineering expense.!
The many approaches lying in between are com-
promises which have a scope and value not readily
definable since their accuracy and general reliability
are so heavily dependent on the skill and experience
of the user. These so-called "simplified methods,"
nevertheless, fulfill an important need. In capable
hands, and with ample allowance for their limita-
tions, they serve to provide the quick rough check
demanded in establishing an initial layout while
avoiding the use of the more refined calculations
unnecessarily for false starts. rv[oreover, their use
allows the final confirmation by comprehensive
methods to be more safely postponed, when neces-
sary, in order to even out the work load of specialists
usually employed for the purpose. In cases of non-
critical service, moderate expansion requirements,
or small pipe diameters, the availability of generous
safety margins may make certain simplified methods
acceptable for final analysis.
4.1 Scope and Merits of Approximate Methods
Approximate approaches are built upon a variety
of simplifying assumptions which range from minor
to drastic significance. All such approaches may be
classified in four groups, as follows:
J. Approximate methods dealing only with special
IThc economic disadvantage of the comprehensive methods
has been offset considerably by developments in model testing
(8CC Chapter 6) and, more recently, by the rapid progress in
programmed automatic computers (see Chapter 5).
90
simple piping configurations of two-, three-, or four-
member systems having two terminals with complete
fixity and the piping layout usually restricted to
square corners. Solutions are usually obtained from
charts or tables. The approximate methods falling
into this category are limited in scope of direet appli-
cation, but they are sometimes usable as a rough
guide on more complex problems by assuming sub-
division into anchored sections fitting the eontours
of the presolved cases. However, the inexperienced
analyst is eautioned not to extend these solutions
beyond the restricted proportions of their geometry.
2. Methods restricted to square-corner, single-
plane systems with two fixed ends, but without limit
as to the number of members.
3. Methods adaptable to space configurations with
square corners and two fixed ends.
4. Extensions of the previous methods to provide
for the special properties of curved pipe by indirect
means, usually a virtual length eorrection factor.
This chapter covers a number of approximate solu-
tions including a recently developed simplified ver-
sion of the General Analytical Method presented in
Chapter 5. It discusses the fundamental assump-
tions and range of applicability of each of these
methods and is complemented by illustrative ex-
amples. In the interest of a clear and concise
presentation, detailed derivations and procedures
are omitted but references are given to published
technical literature. The shortcut solutions pre-
sented here were selected either for their ease of
application or for their relative accuracy; numerous
other approaches proposed in the literature involve
various combinations of simplicity and accuracy but
those given are generally deemed to be most repre-
sentative. The methods described all involve the
usual assumptions for analyses to the Theory of
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
Elasticity which have been incorporated in the
General Method itself, and which are discussed in
Appendix A3. .~
The principal weakness of all approximate methods
is that, with current limitations of mathematical
analysis in treating the unbounded geometrical com-
plexity of piping layouts, there exists no means of
assessing the maximum error involved. With any
given approximate method, a layout can be devised
for which the analysis will lead to vastly misleading
results. Hence, the "accuracy" of an approximate
method is largely hypothetical, while considerations
of "degree" or "probability" of accuracy are also
not realistic. In this vein, there is no intent, in the
use of examples common to the methods, to convey
any true comparison of their accuracy, but rather
to give an appreciation of the manner of application
and, only in a. general way, to indicate limitations in
their use.
Piping flexibility calculations provide accuracy in
proportion to their completeness. Once simplifying
assumptions of unassessable accuracy are incor-
porated, it serves no purpose to employ excessive
refinements in the remainder of the work. When
close results are essential on important or intricate
piping systems, the use of approximate methods is
questionable. It is usually more effective and less
time consuming for organizations equipped to
handle comprehensive solutions to proceed directly
with the General Method, particularly if pro-
grammed automatic computation and model testing
are available.
4.2 Thermal Expansion
Most engineering materials respond to a tempera-
ture rise by a nearly proportionate increase in linear
dimensions. If the temperature change is uniform
throughout a homogeneous part, the dimensional
End, Unrestrained (froe to expand)
An""'
Point , ~J
" book, which Were in preparation before the Code values were
FlO. 4,1 Expansion at various points on a header.
91
ly = Projected length for
computing .1. 'I
U = Anchor Dl51onc:e
x
llt= Projected length for computing ill'
FIG. 4.2 Computing components of restrained
thermal expansion.
increase will likewise be uniform along all direetions.
The change!!. of any dimension L is calculated from
the relationship
!l = Le (4.1)
where e = unit linear thermal expansion 2
(dimensionless if both !!. and L
are in the same units)
The application of this equation to the determina-
tion of unrestrained expansion is illustrated in
Fig. 4.1 for a header with a single point of anchorage
and with the two ends free to expand.
In the usual case, however, the piping will have
more than one point of anchorage or connection to
equipment and consequently will be subject to re-
straint whenever expansion differentials arise. If
the piping is not uniform in temperature throughout
or if it is made up of several materials having differ-
ent coefficients of expansion, the differences in tem-
perature or material must be taken into account in
the expansion calculations. The expansions of the
equipment to which the piping attaches must be
similarly treated.
The first basie operation in the determination of
the thermal expansion stresses (set up as a result of
restraint) requires the ealculation of the unrestrained
expansion of the piping, whieh is the expansion that
would take place with regard to an assumed single
referenee point, all movement proceeding from that
2Values of e in the Code, ABA B 31.1, cover most of the
metals commonly used in piping. These tables are based
on a datum temperature. of 70 F, which is considered as most
nearly representing the condition under which the average
installation" is made. A more careful selection of this datum
may be warranted if its effect on the temperature difference
is significant. Chart C-2 of Appendix C gives the slightly
different values of e used in the sample calculations of this
adopted.
92 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
point without interference of any kind. If there is
no displacement of the anchors, the calculated re-
sultant expansion between them i~, called the result-
ant restrained thermal expansion of the piping system.
The components of this expansion are conveniently
computed directly from the projection of the anchor
distances on the respective axes. This procedure is
illustrated in Fig. 4.2, where, by eq. 4.1,
Az = eL;x net restrained expansion in the x di-
=
rection.
Ay = eLtJ = net restrained expansion in the y di-
rection.
A = cU = resultant restrained expansion, i.e.,
More complex cases involving more than one tem-
perature range for parts of the 'system, or terminal
displacement due to equipment expansion, will be
treated in the illustrative problems in this and in
the following chapter. Only cases where the tem-
perature is constant over a measurable length of
piping are shown; however, thermal gradients along
piping runs can usually be readily approximated as
to their contribution to the expansion of the leg in
which they occur.
The second basic operation in calculating strtoSes
due to thermal expansion is the determination of the
forces and moments which must be applied to the
ends of the system (which are imagined to have
temporary initial freedom for expansipn) in order
to return them to their actual fixed positions. This
operation of structural analysis is di"tinguished by
its involvement with irregular configurations' and
the necessity for conversion of deflection (expansion)
into reactions and stress. It occupies the principal
role in the General AnalytIcal Method of the next
chapter and is equally involved ill this chapter, al-
though it is obscured in certam of the approximate
approaches.
4.3 Preliminary Segregation of Lincs with
Adequate Flexibility; Code Rules
A large amount of piping in conventional layouts
possesses satisfactory inherent flexibility for the in-
tended service. Thus the piping engineer, faced
with the problem of effectively apportioning the
time to be spent on a project, is immediately con-
fronted with the need for recognition of such piping
with a minimum of attention to each line. Approxi-
mate solutions or simple rules of thumb are there-
fore essential. The results obtained cannot be ex-
pected to compare with those established by the use
of acceptable analytical methods, but in the hands
of a competent designer they serve to assist in the
recognition of' totally inadequate flexibility, and
serve as a base line for sbarpening judgment by associ-
ation of occasional results with accurate analysis.
Piping flexibility, in providing for tbe changes in
length which result from thermal expansion of pip-
ing and connecting equipment, must be adequate
to serve two purposes:
1. To control within acceptable limits the piping
reactions on connected equipment located between
or at the terminals of the line.
2. To maintain stresses in the pipe itself within
a range so that direct or fatigue failure and joint
leakage are avoided.
Where sensitive equipment (due to close clearance
on moving parts, high speed, etc.) is involved, an
accurate flexibility analysis is usually advisable,
since approximate approaches are apt to be particu-
larly unreliable for reaction evaluation. Accurate
calculations are also advisable for hazardous con-
tents in relation to an installation location where
strength is seriously reduced, as at high tempera-
tures; for unusually stiff piping due to size, thickness,
configuration, etc.; for economic use of expensive
materials; for definitely cyclic service; or when ap-
proximate analyses indicate overstress. Most of
these criteria are quite general and subject to opin-
ion in their significance and manner of application.
They may be grouped under four headings: strength
requirements; reaction hazards; service hazards;
economics.
Positive assurance that the minimum required
strength for satisfactory service is attained is pos-
sible only by complete analysis; however, for not
too complex piping systems which consist predomi-
nantly of straight runs not concentrated too near
the line of thrust through the anchor points, approxi-
mations of reasonable but varying accuracy are
attainable. A designer can develop, for a given
shortcut approach, an idea of its limitations and
range of accuracy for average problems provided
he has a reasonably adequate knowledge and experi-
ence with both approximate and accurate analyses.
Hazards attendant to excessive reactions are cov-
ered in Chapters 2, 3, and 8. It should be noted
that approximate methods generally do not give the
reactions. In many of those which do, the indica-
tions are unreliable. In particular, neglect of the
flexibility of curved members will result in abnor-
mally high values which provide little guidance in
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 93
assessing the capacity of sensitive equipment to DY
U'(H _ 1)2:0; 0.03 (4.2)
absorb such cffccts.
Service hazards are related in 'Part to the charac- where D = nominal pipe size, in.
ter of the line contents and the energy contained; Y = resultant of restrained thermal expan-
and in part to the typc of plant, its location, and sion and net linear terminal displace-
the operating conditions (pressurc, tcmperature, ments, in.
etc.). For example, a line containing light hydro- U = anchor distance (length of straight line
carbons at moderate pressure and at a temperature joining terminal or anchor points), ft.
approaching their flash point would be considered Ii = ratio of developed pipe length to anchor
to require complete design; a line containing the distance, dimensionless.
same material at the same pressure but at a much
lower temperature would be considered average This formula is given graphically in Chart C-4 of
service in a rcfinery, but might properly be con- Appendix C. *
sidered a critical service in a gas generating system Equation 4.2 does not directly evaluate stresses;
located in a populated area. Definitely cyclic serv- however, its formulation provides that when the
ice, by increasing the hazard of fatiguc failure, makes left side reaches the value of 0.03, the inherent
it necessary that lines be analyzed. A limit of 7000 flexibility of the piping is at the acceptable limit.
complete cycles during the full life of the system is Thus, the actual maximum stress range BE contained
considered consistent with present design criteria in in eq. 4.2 can be found from:
defining nancyclic service. 33.3DY
Regarding considerations of strength, reaction SE = U 2 (H _ 1)2 SA (4.3)
hazards, and service hazards, some opinion has
favored the establishment of arbitrary limits of where SA = allowable stress range.
pipe size, pressure, and temperature above which It has been stated that the Code equation repre-
piping would be considered critical with detailed sents no more than a rule of thumb, and in cases of
analysis required. It would be typical of such an unfavorable configuration it can doubtless be
approach to require analysis wben, simultaneously, grossly misleading. Nevertheless, it is interesting
1. Maximum nominal operating metal tempera- to note that in the few· examples of average con-
ture exceeds 800 F. figuration presented in Sample Calculations 4.1 to
2. Service pressure exceeds 15 psi. 4.4, inclusive, it comes very close to the results cal-
3. Nominal pipe size exceeds 6 in. culated by the General Analytical Method. This
Other. have favored a single criterion based on the comparison is shown in Table 4.1.
energy stored which would be a function of compres-
sibility, volume, and pressure; as an alternative it Sample Calculation 4.1
has been proposed tbat a maximum temperature be Material: ASTM A-lOG, Gr. A 1'51
also applied. Design temperature: T = 900F L ---,
Such a criterion is more logically established for Unit expansion from 70 F: ~
a partiCUlar industry or type of plant; for this rea- 0.078 in./ft
son such provisions have not been incorporated into Type of service: Oil piping
the Piping Code. To provide a substitute simple Code allowable stress range:
criterion for the recognition of those systems requir- SA = 21,625 psi
ing detailed analysis, efforts have been made to es- Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
tablish a rule of thumb capable of giving a rough Developed length: L = 100 ft
idea of relative flexibility. Various attempts to Anchor distance: U = 56.6 ft
devise a parameter expressing the dominant effects U/D = 5.66
of configuration geometry have led to the selection H = L/U = 1.77
of the ratio of developed length to distance between
anchors as the simplest useful stiffness index for the From Chart C-4
purpose. This is the basis of the formula in the 1955 H' = 1.68
edition of the Piping Code (ASA B31.1), which con- H' < H; formal calculations are not mandatory.
t.ains requirements for mandatory examination of ·The Piping Code formula (Section 621) is given as
the flexibility of piping systems to avoid requiring DY/(L - U)2 ::; 0.03. This can be rearranged into the form
complete analyses on all piping if of Eq. (4.2) by the substitution of R ~ LjU.

.. _-_._--------------
94
Sample Calculation 4.2
Material: ASTM A-106,
Gr. A
Design temperature: T =
900F
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.078 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 21,625 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
Developed length: L ~ 115 ft
Anchor distance: U = 58.5 ft
U/D = 5.85
R = L/U = 1.97
ASA B31.1 Code Criterion Chart G-4
t
R = 1.67
R t
< R; formal calculations are not mandatory.
Sample Calculation 4.3
Material: ASTM A-106,
Gr. A
Design temperature: T =
900 F
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.078 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowablc stress range:
SA = 21,625 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
Results identical with those of Sample Calcu-
lation 4.2.
Sample Calculation 4.4
Material: ASTM A-106,
Gr. A
Design temperature: T =
650F
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.052 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 23,000 psi
Nominal pipe size: D ~ 10 in.
Developed length: L = 115 ft
Anchor distance: U ~ 58.5 ft
Expansion and terminal displacements:
x-direction: 0.052 X 40
y-direction: 0.052 X 40 + 2 .-
z-direction: 0.052 X 15
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
U/D = 5.85
Y/U = 0.065
R = L/U = 1.97
ASA B3Ll Code Criterion Chart G-4
Rt = 1.61
Rt < R; formal calculations are not mandatory.
I--Z5' Table 4.1
Method
Maximum Longi- ASA B3I.I General Analytical
tudinal Thermal Code Method, Square-
Stress for: Criterion Corner Solution
Sample Calc. 4.1 16,800 16,750
Sample Calc. 4.2 10,250 11,650
Sample Calc. 4.3 10,250 8,900
Resultant Y = '\12.082 + 3.082 + .0782 = 3.8 in.
While a rule of this nature fills a very definite
need, good judgment must still be exerciscd in the
case of certain lines, exempt by this rule, as to
whether detailed analysis should be made in con-
sideration of combinations of size, temperature, pres-
--... sure, nature of contents, etc. previously discussed.
4.4 Selected Chart-form Solutions
Special solutions have been frequently presented
in the literature by means of a variety of formulas,
charts, or tables [1, 2, 3], which are both time saving
and convenient for simple configurations. Each
solution applies only to a particular configuration,
although the proportions of the legs are permitted
to vary. Since the number of variables which may
be conveniently handled is limited, these solutions
are restricted with regard to the number of legs ill
the configuration. With judgment and experience,
1 segmenting of more intricate systems permits wider
use, although generally at the expense of consider-
able hazard of error and with little saving in time
over a complete solution by a more versatile ap-
proach. The selected cases included herein are lim-
ited to four which are believed unavailable elsewhere
in the form given. These cases, shown in Fig. 4.3,
are set up primarily for convenient use in establish-
ing preliminary layouts, and provide directly the
dimensions required rather than the stress for a sel
of assumed dimensions.
An assumption common to all of the chart solu-
= 2.08 in. tions presented is that the modulus of elasticity is
1 = 3.08 in. taken to be 29 X 106 psi. The charts are based on
= 0.78 in. accurate analysis so that for the square corner eases
17t
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 95

I ca- ----1-, ~ -L
A~

l~} c
l~}
C
(a) Two-memb4lr System Sl,Ibjeded (b) Two-member System. with One
to Thermal Expaniion Support Displaced in rile
Diredion of the Adioining Member

r -----,
I
, ,, K,
, Guid ~ .t
;;..-----
A'1
Gv!d.

A
-- ...I -- -B "B'
K,l
(c) Two-member System,. with
One Support Displaced " 1
"
Normal 10 Inilial Plone
(d) Symmetrical bponsion loop Subjoded
to Thermol ExpaMion

FIG. 4.3 Representative cases for chart-form solutions.

given the results obtained will be as accurate as the Sample Calculation 4.5. Given a two-member
charts can be read. These chart solutions (see right-angle system made of 4 in. Schedule 40 ASTM
Charts G-5, G-7, C-9, and G-U in Appendix C) A-53, Grade A earbon-steel pipe. The leg AB is
may be used for the determination of the length of 10 ft and the operating temperature in oil piping
leg required for a given allowable stress range. For service is 530 F. Find
cases where terminal reactions on connected equip- a. The required length of BC and
ment are important, such reactions may be obtained b. The moments and forees at A and C.
from Charts C-6, G-8, C-10, and C-12, also in
Appendix C. a.
The charts are constructed so that stress is given The unit expansion e from a 70 F datum of carbon
in terms of the SA, which may be selected to suit steel at 530 F = .040 in. 1ft, and SA = 23,220 psi.
the material, etc. involved. For partial solutions, Enter Chart C-5 with LSAI107 e = 10 X 23,2201
the designer may vary the value of SA to suit his 10,000,000 X 0.040 = .581
judgment as to the eontribution of the remainder Read over to the curve representing 4 in. pipe
of the system to the overall flexibility, or, where and then down to the value of K which is 0.59. The
sueh is not involved, to use a fixed value (such as required length of leg BC is therefore K X L =
SA = 18,000 psi) in applying these eharts for de- 0.59 X 10 ft = 5.9 ft.
sign purposes. b.
The first ease, Fig. 4.3(a), deals with a two- Enter Chart G-6 with K = 0.59
member right-angle system under thermal expan-
sion. The required data are the nominal diameter Read Al = 0.6
of the pipe, the length L of the longer leg AB, the A 2 = 0.245
allowable stress range, SA, and the unit linear ther- As = 0.102
mal expansion e. The length KL of the shorter leg
BC which will hold the stress to the allowable limit A. = 0.212
is then found with the aid of Chart C-5. From the The moment of inertia I for 4 in. Sehedule 40
supplementary Chart C-6, the moments and forees pipe = 7.23 in'
acting on the end points are easily eomputed. IelL 2 = 7.23 X .040/100 = .00289
The procedure is readily apparent in Sample Cal-
eulation 4.5. IelL = 7.23 X .040/10 = .0289

~~-----
96
Therefore:
- F rc = - 600,000 X .00289
w,
= -17301b
- F"c = +245,000 X .00289
102,000 X .0289 = 2940 ft-Ib
ill zC = -212,000 X .0289 = -6120 ft-Ib
The second ehart-form solution was developed for
a two-member system subjeeted to a terminal dis-
placement in its own plane. Figure 4.3(b) shows
end A displaced in the direction of the adjacent leg
(in this case, leg A B). Structurally, this is equiva-
lent to a horizontal movement of support C to the
left. This displacement, however, is now perpen-
diculal' to the supported leg BC. With proper dis-
cretion, therefore, this solution is adaptable to
support movements both parallel and perpendicular
to the supported leg.
The required data are identieal to those of the
previons ease. The length of leg at which the stress
equals the allowable value is found from Chart C-7.
The reaction forceR and moments are then secured
from Chart 0-8.
Sample Calculation 4.6. Support A of the sys-
tem shown in Fig. 4.3 (b) is transposed in the
direction of leg AB through a distance of 2 in.
Leg AB is 22 ft long; the system is made of 6 in.
Schedule 80 ASTM A-I06, Grade A carbon-steel
pipe to be used in power piping service at 580 F.
Find
a. The required length of leg BC
b. The reaction forces and moments.
a.
Under the conditions given above, SA = 18,000 psi
and L 2 S A /10 7 fi = .435. If Chart 0-7 is entered
with this ordinate, one can read over to the line for
6 in. pipcs and down to an abscissa value of K = 0.8.
The required length of leg BC is therefore 17.0 ft.
b.
The moment of inertia for a
is I = 40.49 in'
°in. Schedule 80 pipe
10"(1 fi/L 3 ) = 701 and 10'(1b./L') ~ 16,740
Enter Chart C-8 with K = 0.8 and read
A, = 2.30
A, = 1.03
.1 3 = .345
A, ~ 1.12
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The reactions therefore become:
F rA ~ -Frc = -1750 Ib
~ +710 lb FilA ~ -Fllc = 7851b
M ,A ~ .5780 ft-Ib
-18,800 ft-Ib
The third case is shown in Fig. 4.3(c). It is con-
cerned with a two-member right-angle system which
is subjected to a displacement normal to the plane
of the members. Given the nominal diameter of the
pipe, the length L of the longer leg, the allowable
stress range SA., and the displacement .6., the required
length KL of the length BC is found by the use of
Chart C-9. From Chart C-IO, the moments and
the forees acting on the end points are found. This
procedure is illustrated in Sample Calculation 4.7.
Sample Calculation 4.7. End C of the two-
member system shown in Fig. 4.3(c) is displaeed
upwards by I in. The members consist of 14 in.
OD X i in. thick ASTM A-100, Grade B pipes.
The length of leg AB is 15 ft, and the design tem-
perature is 950 F. Find
a. The required length of BC and
b. The moments and forces at A and C.
a.
SA = 20,125 psi for oil piping.
Enter Chart C-9 with
L 2 S.. /IO' fi = .588
Read over to the curve representing 14 in.
pipe and then down to thc valuc of K, which is
0.24. The required length of leg BC is thercfore
K X L = 0.24 X 15 = 3.60 ft.
b.
The moment of inertia, I, of 14 in. OD X i in.
pipe is cqual to 372.8 i "
Ifi/L 3 = 372.8 X 1/3375 ~ .]]05
I fi/L' = 372.8 X 1/225 ~ 1.057
Enter Chart C-IO with K ~ 0.24
Read .1,= ]]5
A, = 2.1
.1 3 = 70.0
A, = 24.5
A, = 43
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 97
Therefore: Read
-F yc = 12,100 Ib A, .55
M XA = -3480 ft-lb A 2 = .90
M,. 116,000 ft-Ib F'A -F xB = -68,300 X .55 = -37,600Ib
M,c = -40,600 ft-lb 111,., = -1I1'B = +273,000 X .86 = 235,000ft-lb
M,c = +71,300 ft-lb 4.5 Approximate Solutions
The fourth case is a graphical solution for the The methods covered in this section arc approxi-
familiar and important symmetrical expansion loop! mations, all of which are limited to square-corner
shown in Fig. 4.3(d). Chart G-11 is entered with configurations. Although several solutions which
the outside diameter D, the effective distance L fall in this category have been advanced, the two
between the anchors or guides, the allowable stress presented are selected because they appear to
range SA, and the expansion A between the anchors. achieve fair reliability with the greatest simplicity.
The required height K,L is found for any value of These arc the Guided Cantilever and the Mitchell-
K,L. From Chart C-12, the forces acting on the Bridge Methods, both of which are applicable to
anchor points and the moments acting on the guides three-dimensional piping systems. The fundamental
are computed. assumptions and guides for application will be given,
Sample Calculation 4.8. Given a loop of followed by illustrative examples. For a more de-
20 in. OD X! in. thick ASTM A-135, Grade A tailed description of these methods, the reader is
pipe. K,L is 20 ft. Guides are located 10 ft on referred to the literature [4, 5, 6]. For important
either side of the loop, so that L = 40 ft. The dis- piping these methods should not be relied upon as
tance between anchors A' and B ' is 100 ft. The the final check; their use by personnel other than
line temperature is 425 F and is used for oil piping. those with adequate background and experience is
Find apt to lead to serious errors. They can be used to
a. The required height of K,L and advantage, however, for the following purposes:
b. The forces acting at points A I and B ' and the a. For approximate assessment of the lIexibility
moments acting at points A and B. of average piping, and to check lines not meeting
the criteria of Section 4.3.
a. b. On critical piping, for layout assistance in
The unit linear thermal expansion for carbon steel arriving at a suitable system for detailed analysis.
at 425 F = 0.030 in. 1ft. t., therefore, = 100 X c. On noncritical piping, to establish the location
0.03 = 3 in. SA = 19,890 psi (ignoring Code per- of restraints without unduly impairing the lIexibility
mission to exclude longitudinal joint efficiency) of the system.
The Guided Cantilever Method. This method
L'SA is intuitively familiar to many piping designers. Its
--- = .0531
10' Dt. fundamental concepts are partially used in the side-
Enter Chart C-11 with .0531 sway analysis of frames. The assumptions under-
Read over to the curve representing K, = 0.5 lying this method can be listed as follows:
1. The system has only two terminal points; it is
and down to the value of K, which is 0.32. K 2 L is
therefore 40 X 0.32 = 12.80 ft. composed of straight legs of pipe of uniform size
and thickness with square-corner intersections.
b. 2. All legs arc parallel to the cuordinate axes.
The moment of inertia for 20 in. OD X ! in. thick 3. The thermal expansion in a given direction is
pipe = 1457 in.' absorbed only by legs oriented perpendicular to this
direction.
It. 1457 X 3 4. The amount of thermal expansion a given leg
L3 64,000 = .0683 can absorb is inversely proportional to its stiffness.
Since the legs arc of identical cross section, their
1457 X 3
1600 = 2.73 stiffnesses will vary according to the inverse v,.Iue
of the cube of their lengths.
Enter Chart C-12 with K, = 0.5 and K 2 = 0.32 5. In accommodating thermal expansion, the legs

1
98 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

_ ------~6y.
where ° permissible deflection of leg, in.

c2
=
SA = allowable stress range, psi.
6ltb "I!!!mpliM'
no'rotation of L = length of leg, ft.

----=- h
j tongontl at COrMr
E = modulus of elasticity, psi.

J;
Ora D = external diameter of pipe, in.
y 0 Ii",,= Expo"".' of . . '" lI.
For convenience, this equation has been plotted in
II
C-. -+.:.1 Oyg=Expanslon of I.g b, l!J,"y
Chart C-13, Appendix C, based on the value
FIG. 4.4 Deflections assumed to occur in a single-plane sys- E = 29.0 X 106 psi.
tem under the guided cantilever approximation. A first (preliminary) evaluation merely requires
now the calculation of 0" 0., and 0, from eq. 4.4 and
act as guided cantilevers; that is, they are subjected
to bending under end displacements, but no end ro-
° from eq. 4.5 (or Chart C-13) for each leg. If ox.
0., and 0, are all less than 0, every leg possesses a
tation is permitted. This condition is pictured in sufficient deflection capacity, and the system can
Fig. 4.4 for the simplc two-member system. 3 be regarded to be adequately flexible.
According to assumptions 3 and 4 the individual This comparison is most conveniently carried out
legs absorb the following portion of the thermal on Form R as shown in Sample Calculations 4.9.
expansion in the x-direction: 4.10, and 4.11. The stepwise process of the analysis
L3 is clearly indicated in these forms, which are self-
OX = T-L3 _ T-L 3 t!.x (4.4) explanatory in conjunction with the foregoing dis-
x
cussion.
where Ox = lateral defleetion in the x-direction In Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11, the
L =
for the leg under consideration, in.
length of the leg in question, ft.
°
condition that > Om (where Om denotes the largest
of 0" 0., and 0, in any leg) is satisfied for all legs
t!.x = overall thermal expansion of system save the one next to the far terminal. In this case
in x-direction, in. a further refinement is warranted in recognition of
T-L3 - T-L} = sum of cubed length of all legs per- the actual rotation which takes place at intersec-
pendicular to the direction consid- tions. This refinement is accomplished through the
ered (in this case meaning the legs use of a correction factor f, which allows for the
parallel to the y- and z-directions). reduction of bending moment, due to the rotation of
Similar equations can be written for the lateral de- the leg adjacent to the one considered. The value
flections in the y- and z-directions. The schematic of f for the appropriate case is obtained from
distribution of thermal expansions to the various Chart C-14, depending on the position of the leg
members of a space-bend is shown in Fig. 4.5. and its length relative to adjacent members. If the
The deflection capacity of a cantilever of the type corrected deflection capacity of the leg, fo, is larger
stipulated by assumption 5 (and shown in Fig. 4.4) than 0." the leg is considered to be sufficiently
can be given as: flexible. The use of the correction factor is shown
48L2 SA in Steps 9 and 10 of the Sample Calculations.
0=-- (4.5)
ED The ratio of om/fo indicates the proportion of the
"A refinement taking cnd rotation into account is explained
allowable stress range that has been used up by the
later. leg in accommodating thermal expansion. This

All..l1y,A'I.:::ThermalexponslolU
(0) x-diroction In the 1'-, y-, z-

j dirodionl, ...tpectivoly

6...
FIG. 4.5 Deflections assumed to occur in a multiplane system under the guided cantilever approximation.
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 99

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CALC NO 4.kJ

1
100 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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AND STRESS ANALYSIS '"eel<'. F M
'T< -- CALC NO .II

permits an estimate of the actual stress range in the cal Method in Table 4.2. While these results are
leg by the formula indicative of the accuracy for average configurations,
Om for extreme conditions the results may be much less
SE = fo SA (4.6) favorable
where BE = estimated stress range in leg, psi. Table 4,2
SA = allowable stress range, psi. l\'fethod
Om = largest of component deflections Ox, all'
General
or 0, by eq. 4.4, in. Guided Cantilever
Analytical
o = deflection capacity of leg by Chart
C-13, in. Maximum Stress r-.Iaximum Stress
Layout according
f ~ correction factor by Chart C-14. to: Value Location Value Location
The estimated moment range, which is of interest Sample Calc. 4.9 15,550 4 16 ,750 4
at the terminal points, is then found from the rela- Sample Calc. 4.10 13,220 5 11,650 0
Sample Calc. 4.11 13,220 5 8,900 S
tionship
M = SEZ (4.7) The greatest asset of the Guided Cantilever
b 12 Method is extreme simplicity, and applicability to
where M b = moment range of maximum bending any space configuration with two points of fixity.
component, ft-Ib. In general, least accuracy is realized when the sys-
Z = section modulus of pipe, in., from tem consists of legs of greatly disproportionate
Table C-l, Appendix C. length, or when terminal displacements are present
in addition to thermal expansion. From the lim-
In Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11 the ited evidence available to date, it appears that the
evaluation of the stress and moment ranges are error will normally be on the safe side.
shown in Steps 11 (last column) and 12, respectively. The terminal moment range given by the Guided
For a partial indication of the reliability of the Cantilever Method is no more than a crude indica-
Guided Cantilever Method, the stresses so obtained tion of the moment reactions actually present at
are compared with the results of the General Analyti- the supports. In cases where the moment reactions
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
govern design, this method is of use only as a pre-
liminary evaluation.
The Mitchell-Bridge Method. Consider an
arbitrary piping system limited to two terminal
points, and subjected to thermal expansion; if all
restraint is removed at one terminal, this end of the
piping would move out through a distance deter-
mined by the linear expansion. To restore the
actual fixed condition, end forces and moments are
applied to the "freed" end, of such magnitude as to
return it exactly to its initial position. These forces
and moments can be expressed as a single force the
line of action of which is called the thrust axis. This
approximate method is based on the proposition
that on most piping systems the thrust axis can be
located empirically with reasonable accuracy. Once
the thrust axis is establisbed, the problem is rendered
statically determinate.
Mitchell [4J originally assumed the thrust axis,
which passes through the center of gravity of the
piping system, to be parallel to the line connecting
the anchor points. This assumption, valid only for
limited configurations, was subject to variable and
extensive error for the many shapes of piping lay-
outs encountered in practice. Figure 4.6 shows a
configuration subjected to thermal expansion, in
which terminal moments are obviously present, yet
the original Mitchell Method would predict them to
be zero.
Improvement of the original Mitchell Method
required a more reliable location of the thrust axis.
Bridge [5J proposed that the layout be divided into
two halves of identical developed lengths. The
centers of gravity of these half portions are then
connected to form the "gravity axis," the center of
gravity for the whole system lying half way be-
tween those of the two halves. The Mitchell axis
is now drawn (line through e.g. of system parallel
True Thruil Axis
Centroid
~u1f Mia Assumed
. "'" _ The basic limitations of the Mitchell-Bridge
\ ~ by Mitchell
FIG. 4.6 Illustration of the error involved in Mitchell's
assumption regarding the thrust axis.
101
Centroid of Pipe from 0 to 1
Centroid of Entire
Configuration
Midpoint of tho
Developed length
A
Centroid of Pipe "
from 1 to A
Thnnl Axis Auvmed by Bridge
FIG. 4.7 The modification to Miwhell's thrust axis location
suggested by Bridge.
to the anchor line) and the thrust axis is taken as
the line bisecting the angle between the "gravity"
and Mitchell axes. This sequence of operations for
locating the thrust axis is shown in the representa-
tive example of Fig. 4.7 for a single-plane layout.
To preserve simplicity, the centers of gravity for
the halves of the layout are located by eye. For
single-plane systems of not too great complexity,
usable accuracy can be achieved; for multi plane or
involved one-plane systems, considerable error is
likely to arise. For these latter applications Ran-
dolph [6J proposed that the centers of gravity be
located by calculation. The labor involved, how-
ever, then approaches that of the General Analytical
Method and since the resnlts are still of unassess-
able accuracy, the choice over the General Method
is decidedly questionable.
Once the thrust axis is located, the problem be-
comes statically determinate. There remains the
conversion of the evaluation of linear expansion to
the reaction resultant force along the thrust line
and subsequently the stress at any locatioll) which
involves conventional struetural approaches, with
the conversion of thrust to moment usually accom-
plished graphically.
Method are: (1) Two terminal points; (2) Proper
orientation of the thrust axis is dependent on expe-
rience and ability of the user.
Variation of the cross section of various runs of a
system can be taken care of by assigning specific
102 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

weights (inversely proportional to the moments of
inertia) to the individual legs when locating the
centers of gravity of the half-sY8tems. It is not
necessary that all legs be in an orthogonal arrange-
ment. The flexibility of bends can also be incorpo-
rated by means of the approximations of Section 4.7,
one of which was advanced by Randolph [6J.
The layouts investigated by the Guided Cantilever
Method in Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11
were re-evaluated by an experienced designer using
the Mitchell-Bridge Method. While detailed cal-
culations are not reproduced) 4 a comparison of the
magnitude and location of maximum stresses with
those obtained by the General Analytical Method
is given in Table 4.3, which shows that the maxi-
mum stresses are consistently underestimated;
furthermore, the most highly stressed lo~ation is in
sharp contrast to the results obtained by compre-
hensive calculations.
It has been claimed [6J that the Mitchell-Bridge
Method gives results within ±20% of an accurate
method, which is quite optimistic in view of the
limitations discussed above; also, the comparison
in Table 4.3 indicates an error of 26.1% for Sample
Calculation 4.9.
Table 4.3
Method
Modified Mitchell General Analytical
Maximum Stress Maximum Stress
Layout according
to: Value Location Value
Sample Calr. 4.9 12,350 2 16,750
Sample Calc. 4.10 8 13S0 4 1l,650
Sample Calc. 4.11 6,580 4 8,900
4.6 The Simplified General Method for Square-
corner Systems
The solution presented in this section is a limited
form of the General Analytical Method, which can
be followed step by step by anyone aeenstomed to
routine arithmetical computations. This Simplified
5. All legs orthogonal (at right angles to each
otherJ with square-corner intersections).
For systems accurately represcnted within these
limitations, the accuracy is the same as that of the
General Method. Because of this accuracy and the
methodical attack, this method is highly recom-
mended over any approximate method involving a
comparable degree of effort.
Bcfore describing the actual procedure in making
the calculations, a brief discussion of fundamentals,
conventions, and terminology is in order.
First, the unrestrained expansion of the system is
determined. One end is then arbitrarily choscn as
the fixed end to reduce the analysis to a cantilever
systcm. The other end, the so-called free end, is
imagined to be loaded with forces and moments of
unknown value. These unknowns can then be
found from the condition that they must prodncc
deflections of the free end which nullify the dis-
placements of that end due to thermal expansion.
The coordinate system is standardized as:
X-axis-horizontal and positive to the right.
Y-axis-vertical and positive upward.
Z-axis-horizontal and positive towards the ob-
server.
The dircctional signs are consistently applied to dis-
tances, displacements (expansions or deflections),
and forces. Signs of angular displacements (rota-
tions) and moments will be positive in the counter-
clockwise dircction facing the related positive axis.
The origin of the coordinate system may be at any
Location point on or outside of the pipe line. A location
4 toward the center of the system promotes accuracy
0 by a more nearly uniform level of dimensional co-
5 efficients. Where members coincide with the axes
certain coefficients will be zero, and where symmetri-
cal adjacent runs are present, extension of this
symmetry to their placement with respect to the
origin will advantageously duplicate the coefficients.
The pipe line is subdivided into individual straight
legs, which are called members. If a straight run
contains a change in stiffness such as a size reduc-
J

General Method is applicable to single- and multi-
plane eonfigurations subjected to thermal expansion
and external movement, which satisfy the following
conditions:
1. Two completely fixed ends.
2. No intermediate restraints.
3. No branches. 5
4. Straight runs only.
·For n detailed description of a systematic step-wise solu-
tion, the reader is referred to the available literature (4, 5, 6\.
5J'he effect of branches of the main system may generally be
tion, it must be treated as two members.
To assist the reader with thc actual application
of the method, a stcp-by-step procedure will be
given, followed by sample calculations presented on
form sheets which arc largely self-explanatory. The
use of a calculating machine is convenient although
not essential.
neglected if they are less than 50% of the size of the main rUll.
Of course, the necessary flexibility of the branches lhemselvef'
must not be overlooked.
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
The solution involves three more or less distinct
stages:
1. Setting up the problem.
2. Making the computations.
3. Interpreting the results.
The first and third stages require familiarity re-
spectively with the method and the general require-
ments of the Piping Code; the second is purely
routine computation.
The set-up procedure, following Form Sheet A,
consists of the following steps:
Step 1. Gather prcrcquisite data. Includc pipe
material, nominal size, design temperature, as well
as the dimensions of the layout.
Step 2. Draw a working sketch. This should be
to scale, or at least to reasonablc proportions, as an
aid in interpreting results. If simplifications are
made, show the piping as it is to be calculated.
Where there is significant expansion of the equip-
ment to which the line connccts, indicate the dis-
tances to the anchor point as infinitely stiff members
by the use of broken lines. Designate one end as
the fixed end, denoting it 0', the other end as the
free end, denoting it A. Locate the origin 0 so as to
minimize computation. Number the remaining
points 1, 2, 3, etc. proceeding from the fixed to the
free end.
Step 8. Enter the following:
Outside diameter D, in., from Table C-l, Ap-
pendix C.
Wall thickness t, in., from Table C-l, Appendix C.
Moment of inertia l, in 4 , from Table C-l,
Appendix C.
Section modulus Z, in 3 , from Table C-l, Ap-
pendix C.
Bend radius R, and bend characteristic h, not
used unless thc approach of Section 4.7 is used.
Flexibility factor k, and stress intensification
factor, f3, not used for curved mcmbers unless the
approach of Section 4.7 is used. In such a case and
for other components obtain k and f3 from Piping
Code (see also Chapter 3 hcrein).
Hot modulus of elasticity, Eh(lb/in?), and cold
modnlus of elasticity, E,(lb/in. 2 ), from Piping Code,
ASA B 31.1."
Stiffness ratio Q = ElIENl N, which expresses
the relative stiffness of any membcr N. The product
El of a group of members is considered as unity,
Geode values for modulus of elasticity and linear expansion
are not used in the sample calculations of this book il.S these
calculations were in preparation before the Code data were
adopted. The data used nre given in Appendix CJ Charts C-3
!lod C-2 respectively.
103
and the shape coefficients for members of different
moment of inertia are corrected by Q. Thc stiffness
ratio should be selected so as to keep the magnitude
of the coefficients within reasonable limits.
Material and temperature as given.
Unit thermal expansion, e, ft/ft, from Piping Code
ASA B 31.1.
Cold spring factor, C.
Hot allowable stress, Sh, and cold allowable stress,
S" from Piping Code ASA B 31.1.
Step 4. Calculate the component free expansion
movements .6 X1 .6. tlJ and {).z' Include the expansion
of the equipment and of other members assumed to
be rigid. Prefix the sign in accordance with the
direction of the imaginary movement of the free end
with respect to the fixcd end.
Step 5. Compute the products Ehl A,/144,
Ehl A./144, Ehl A,/144, being careful to use the
value of E h l/144 for that size pipe for which Q = 1
was selected.
The work now proceeds to the second stage which
consists entirely of computations. The form sheets
involved depend on the problem as follows:
a. For a single-plane system with expansion in the
plane, Sheet B is used.
b. For a single-plane system with expansion nor-
mal to the plane, Sheet C is used.
c. For a single-plane system with expansion both
in and normal to the plane, the forces and moments
at the coordinate origin, 0, are computed on Sheets
Band C. The remaindcr of the calcnlation, in-
cluding the transfer of moments to the various
points and the combining stresses, is done on Sheet F.
d. For a multiplane system Sheets D, E, and F
are used.
The steps of the compntation stage are:
Step 6. Select Sheet B, C, or D depending on
the problem. Identify the members as 0'-1, 1-2,
etc. at the top of the page. List k, Q, and £ from
Sheet A. Compnte £2/12. Indicate the position
(I, II, or III) of each member and determine the
distances a, b, e for each in the position involved.
Enter a, b, e with the proper sign. Compute the
shape coefficients A, A a1 A UI etc. for each member
in accordance with the formulas listed in the col-
umns at the left. Sum A, A" A b, etc. across and
enter the totals in the last colnmn at the right.
Step 7. Determine the forces and moments at
the origin.
a. On Sheet B: This computation is made im-
mediately below the calculation of the shape coeffi-
cients, and the symbols A, A a , A b, etc., refer to the
sum of these coefficients shown in the last column.
104 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
First, the coordinates of the elastic center, x, and
y" are calculated. Second, the constants in relation
to the elastic center, m12, m22, and mIl, are deter-
mined. Third, the constant n33 is calculated after
which N rand Ny can bc determined. The forces
F;r; and Fu can now be computed in accordance with
the formulas given, and finally, the moment at the
origin, A1~, is calculated.
b. On Sheet C: This computation is also made
immediately below the calculation of the shape co-
efficients, and the symbols B, Bbl Ebb, C, Ca , Caa
refer to the sum of these coefficients shown in the
last column. The order of computation is the same
as above: Xli and yz are calculated, B' bb and Of aa
arc computed, ma3 is determined, after which F Zl
M r, and My are obtained.
c. On Sheet E: The symbols A, A a • A b, ctc., E,
B bl Bel etc., and 0, Gel Ca , etc. refer to the sum of
the shape coefficients in the last column on Shect D.
After the elastic center coordinates have been cal-
culated the constants mu,. m12, m22, m23, m33 and
m'3 can be computed. From these a second set of
constants, nU, nlZ, n22, nI3, na3, and n23 are calcu-
lated, and Zt, 1: 21 N;r;, Nil, Nt. are computed. The
forces are now determined followed by the moments.
Step 8. Transfer the moments obtained in Step 7
to the various points in the line. For a single-plane
system with expansion in the plane only, the com-
putation is made in the space provided at the bottom
of Sheet B. For a single-plane system with expansion
normal to the plane, the computation is made at
the bottom of Sheet C. For a single-plane system
with expansion both in and normal to the plane,
Sheet F is used as an aid in properly combining the
stresses. For a multiplane system, Sheet F is used.
Indicate consecutively from the free end A the
points at which the moments are required. Enter
the coordinates x, y, z of point A with their proper
signs in relation to the origin. Enter x, y, z for each
succeeding point in relation to the one preceding it.
Fill in at point A the moment M x, My, M" obtained
from Step 7. Perform the operations indicated on
the next three lines using the F x , F y , F z from Step 7.
For example, on Sheet B, enter l)f; (the moment at
the origin) under point A, multiply Fr by the co-
ordinate y previously listed, and - F y by x. Add
ft1 z + yF x - xFv to obtain 111' zA, the moment at
point A. Enter the M"A in the following column
on the M, line and perform the multiplications, yF r
and - xF II' using the x and y coordinates in that
column. Add to obtain M, for the 2nd point.
Proceed in this manner to point 0'. A check at
point 0' may be obtained bv setting in the coordi-
nates X, V, of 0' in rtaation to the origin, and trans-
ferring the moments directly from the origin to
point 0', using the same proeedure as at point A.
Step 9. Choose the point of maximum stress.
On Sheet B where only the bending stress in the
plane is involved, this presents no difficulty, but in
Sheets C and F, it may be necessary to evaluate
the stress at several points in order to find the max-
imum. Once the position of the point is selected,
the strcsses are combined as indicated.
In all of these steps (6 through 9) in the compu-
tation stagc it cannot be emphasized too strongly
that careful attention must be given to the algebraic
signs involved. Checking at the completion of each
step by a person other than the calculator himself
is strongly recommended.
Step 10. Complete the analysis by entering on
Sheet A the results for the cold and the hot condi-
tion in accordance with the formulas given in Sec-
tion 2.6 of Chapter 2. The signs given are those of
acting forces and moments at the terminal points
and are determined from the calculation as follows:
Cold Condition Hot Condition
Fixed End 0' Opposite sign Same sign
Free End ,1 Same sign Opposite sign
Also included in the summary of results is the
maximum expansion stress and the point at which
it occurs, and, for purposes of comparison, the allow-
able stress range.
The final stage, the interpretation of results, will
be discussed in Chapter 5. Thc calculator is cau-
tioned to examine the results:
a. In order to determine whether they are in gen-
eral agreement with what is expected from the con-
figuration and the displacements. Calculations
giving unlikcly results should be inspected for sign
and arithmetical errors.
b. In the light of the assumptions made, to decide
whether the results are on the liberal or conservative
side and to make a judgment concerning the prac-
ticality of the layout.
The following examples are given to illustrate the
procedure:
Sample Calculation 4.12. .-\ single-plane system
of uniform size wjth expansion in the plane only.
The infinitely stiff member 0'-1, normal to the
plane, is cold. It is shown only in order that the
numbering of the points may be consistent with the
examples which follow.
Sample Calculation 4.13. The single-plane system
of 4.12 above with expansion both in and normal to
the planc. The forces and the momcnts at the
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 105

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106 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 107

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4.13

origin used on Sheet F to transfer the moments to factors alone for other components whose flexibility
every point in the system are those which havc pre- factors are either not satisfactorily established or
viously been computed on Sheet B for 4.12. else not reduced to usable criteria. The significance
Sample Cakulation ,;.1 4. A multiplane system of flexibility factors diminishes as the relative run
similar to the single-plane one used in 4.12 and 4.13 of curved to straight pipe or number of other com-
above, but here the infinitely stiff member 0'-1 is ponents is rednced; on the other hand a single stress
replaced by an equivalent lcngth of 10 in. pipe. intensification at a location of maximum primary
Samplc Cakulalion 4.15. A second multiplane stress constitutes the weak link on which the fatigue
system. life of the entire system is based.
Repeated reference has been made to the "square
4.7 Approximating the Effeet of Curved Pipe corner" defined as a direct intersection between con-
and Other Components. necting straight runs, which allows no angular dis-
A principal factor contributing to the complcxity placement of one tangent with rcspect to the other.
of accurate piping structural analysis is the dif- It is commonly portrayed as a single miter in which
fering rigidity and attendant secondary stress dis- uniform stiffness exists without local effect. Actu-
tribution of local components (discusscd in Chapter ally this condition is never attained. A miter in-
3). As pointed out, the increased flexibility (i.e. volves sizable intersection stress with proportionate
deflection and rotation) which they introduce re- influence on flexibility and local stress as explained
sults in reduced reactions (forces and moments), in Chapter 3. Relatively heavy pipc fittings prob-
while the concurrent localized stresses serve to limit ably constitute a closer approach although at the
the fatigue life in proportion to the strain range at expense of some local increase in stiffness. This
their location. The Piping Code Rules providc ade- subject is mentioned here in clarification of termi-
quate coverage of flexibility and stress intensifica- nology and not as a contributing factor for evaluation
tion factors for curvcd pipe and approximations for in approximate solutions.
miters and corrugated pipe, but for the present The assumption of "square corners contributes Jl

(1955) are confined to rough stress intensification materially to the simplification of piping structural
108 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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HE MW. KELLOGG COl. PIPING)::~EXI8111TY AND SIRESS ANALYSIS
ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS
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no DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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-257.2.q
-I- 25.00 o o
~
o
-
fl5,OO ..,. 15.00
257. Z8

SE

~
RI
Eh
"8848
s..E..t... c
Eh
1'5.'

OIl; ",
F,

,.'
+/OBc..C,O
"'.352.49
- (,14
-271&.5
- JS (,88
-1-27165
.,." 477
o
-
-(.148
o
~

-G148
o
- 2(;,23
-
..,.. 1~29q
-tlOsc..c,o
1324'1
- C,148
-I-1t,z99
- f ,y "'17. (..25 o -IZ 025 o + .35Z5
*-.*".~
2
M', IS 108 -I-IJ 477 - C,14 -I-13G7~ -I- 136 7(;,

",
"* '" I7q~
WHICHEVER IS GR[ATER -1-179<4 -4(,3(" 3491 ..,..179&
·F Z'~ o o o -528
~.02 ·F x'z _
+ o o + +3
i M'y - 4(, e- +1 qe. +/ <, -3491 -34 I r3G8 , "-
*~ll· C)
Mz -II oc,q rI , /10(,9 "520 +7/10 -IIOc"q

=~ ./
R I • CALCULATED
·F~·y
-F y.x
1.1.'2
-1-12 8~4

... /795
0
-1-1 95
o
o
-12.Rt.4
-llo(,q
o
.,f(;'Z9Q
"'5230
.,..2573
o
... '803 ",7803
o
o
+207'
'('I Zqq
17803
REACTIONS
BASED ON Eh

1 11 III POSITION III

,
v' v~ .', ., - 15C,88

v', v', v', v" - 4&3&

,
v' ,
v' v', v, 1-17q5
PIPE Z !. .401J4
/0' ZQ.9 a /
Sb'lj3 Mb '-2 '1(,
s'bc f "', 18(;1
~
2S1 I Ml 720
Sb.... S·~+4S, 43.6'Z4000
Sb. tl: +4S, • S' (;OS
THE U W. I([ll-OCO COU'ANl
'1'''.0 ~I-H'8IllTY.
uOllons ."0
lotto STRESS ANALYSIS
STFl.HSES
CALC "'!J G
~~~~~E°4'.1(,.":"~
Ira".. NO r
CALC. 1<0 4. /5
112 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
analysis and permits the relatively simple applica-
tion of the General Analytical Mcthod to problems
involving two points of fixation ae' covered in Sec-
tion 4.6 of this chapter. It is continued in the further
approximations, i.c. guided cantilever and assumed
thrust axis approaches, of Sections 4.4 and 4.5. For
Schedule 40 or heavicr pipe curved to a radius of
five diameters or over, flexibility factors are neglected
with little error; however, the developcd lcngth and
disposition relative to the neutral axis differs from
that of tangent straight elements with a resulting
effect on the system stiffness.
There is fairly extensive successful experience
with the design of piping systems to the stress
range of hs, + Sh) (which was in effect until the
1955 revision of the Code) on the basis of square-
corner analysis neglecting both flexibility and stress
intensification factors. These eompanion assump-
tions tend to offset eaeh other insofar as stress
evaluation is concerned, provided details involving
high stress intensifieation are avoided. The reac-
tions obtained, on the other hand, are always on the
high side. Sueeessful past experience might be taken
to indicate that piping has operated safely at some-
what higher peak stresses than nominally ealeulated.
This experience, however, has been predominantly
with steel pipe of sehedule 40 or heavier thiekness
which did not involve exeeptionally high iJ factors.
With a greater trend toward use of thin walled
pipe, coupled with the recently inereased allowable
stress range, there is increased need to take stress
intensification into consideration.
The Piping Code rules, as revised in 1955, require
that, when using approximate methods, the effect
of stress intensifications be taken into account.
This requiremcnt would be satisfied if a correction
factor applied to the stress calculatcd by the square-
corner approach would always assure that the ad-
justed stress is not lcss than would result from
application of thc Gencral Analytical Mcthod. An
obviously safe means would be to apply thc full
stress intensification factor to the stress at the
square corners. However, comparative calculations
show that this seriously ovcrcstimates the effect be-
cause of thc ncglected flexibility, and results in un-
economical and unnecessary provision of excess pipe
length. Much effort has been devoted toward
developing a simple guide for a safe, yct not unduly
conservative correction. Despite this effort no simple
rule has evolved, since the configuration of the line
and thc location, as well as amount of curved pipe,
add up to a eomplex influence. In the majority of
eascs no eorrection for stress is needed because of
the compensating influence of the flexibility factor,
and because the maximum stress, before application
of a stress intensification factor, is sometimes not
located at a bend. Naturally, this is not a generally
safe assumption, since there will be many instances
where a correction is necessary. In such, an empiri-
cal correction factor of the order of v'~ instead of iJ
will usually be ample. It is best, however, for the
designer to explore typical configurations by com-
parative ealculations in order to reinforce his judg-
ment for specific applications. As mentioned previ-
ously, it is not necessary to apply the correction
factor to the reactions since they will be on the safe
side. Where the reactions so estimated prove too
high and a more accurate evaluation is desired, there
is no substitute for a solution by the General
Analytical Method.
Efforts have been made to reduce the inaccuracy
of the square-eomer assumption by factors which
eorrect the deflcction contribution of the individual
component and apply its influence on the overall
piping system at the correct relative location. The
additional flexibility which curved pipe exhibits
may be conveniently expressed as an increase in
length or "virtual length" whieh would be required
to produee the same deflection on the basis of unit
flexibility, and may be extended to the square-
eorner equivalent of a bend as follows:
L, = virtual length of bend, ft
R = radius of bend, ft
k = flexibility factor of bend
For a 90° bend the developed length of the square-
eorner equivalent is 2R and
L, = l.57kR
The additional virtual length to be applied to the
square-corner equivalent in simulation of bend flex-
ibility is given by
L, - 2R = R(1.57k - 2)
The simplest locations for the application of this
additional virtual length are at the intersection
forming the square corner, or else at the center of
the bend to which the square corner is equivalent.
The first of these locations overvalues, and the sec-
ond undervalues, the stiffness eontribution to thc
piping system. A more aeeurate location would bc
to apply this excess at the center of gravity of the
pipe bend; however, the considerable added effort
is unwarranted in view of the still approximate re-
sults obtained. A further altcrnative would be to
1
r Table 4.4 Comparison of Various Corrections Applied to a Square Corner Solution in Order to Approximate the Effect of Curved Members

Value and location of maximum stress range, as calculated by

r.-P
12-ln., Schoo. 20 (.25")
AST1I A-lOG Grade B
pipe Modified Square-corner Solution. Stress intensification factor
Tm u-630F, Tmin-

Ll
General Squarc-corner Solution considered. "Excess virtual length" of bend concentrated at
70F E - 28.8 X 10' Analytical (Stress inrens. and flexi-
psi Method bility factors ignored.) Cenrer of gravity Distributed propor-
Corner
of elbow tionally to members

Per Cent
....
[fJ

~
Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent
L, I 1, I
1----------- ----
R I h I kiP I Valua ILoc'n I Devia!'n'
I
Value
I-I
Loc'n Deviat'n· Value
1--1-1
Loc'o Deviat'n-
1
Value
I
Loc'n I Devial'n*
I I
Value
I
Loc'n
I
Deviat'n*
I I:
a, a,
12 12 1.5 .12 12.7 3.35 0.0 31,900 1 19,500 b -29.1 ! +33.9
::l
22,700
,b, -40.5 b +14.1 1 29,300 15,000 b,
, ~
1--1-1--1-1--1--11--1-1 I I-I 1--1-1 I I I I I 1 I
a, a, a, a, s::
12 12 5 .38 4.3 1.52 40,100 0.0 31,900 b,
, +35.0 1 19,150 +61.0 I 31,600 1 b +35.7 . 1 16,000
,b, I +67.5
~
1 - - - 1 - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - '11--1--1
a,
I 1--1
n,
1--1--1
a,
I I I I I
a,
I I §
12 12 12 .92 1.85 1.12 64,800 0.0 31,900 b, +50.8 I 21,600 +66.7 I 30,500 1 b +52.9 I 21,900 b, I +66.2
, , o
"'l

~ - - - - - - - - - - --11- -I
-----II-I-I I I I 1-1-1 I I-I I I I I ~
18 12 1.5 .12 12.7 3.35 29,800 a 0.0 37,800 a
-2~1...:'::900 a ~130,ooo 1 a - 0.7 1 19,900 a ! +33.2

~....
--I '37,800
18
r-;;----------
12 5 .38 4.3 1.52 36,600 a 0.0
1
a
I
- 3.3
1-
27,200 a +25.7 137'300
-------
I a - 1.9
1,--1
21,100 a I +42.4

~_12 1_2_~~~ 50,900, 0.0 37,800 a +25.8 1 29,600 a +41.9 32,800 a +35.6 27,800 a I +45.4
I I 1--1--1 I I 1-- ....t:::I
I I I 35,200
! 24

24
12
---------------
12
1.5

5
.12

.38
12.7

4.3
3.35

1.52
38,100

42,600
a

a
0.0

0.0
45,200

45,200
1
a

a
I
-18.6

- 6.1
1--1--1
. 35,500 n
a + 7.6

+]6.7
1
I
38,400

I 45,300
1
I
I
a

a
1--
- 0.8

- 6.3 27,200
25,900 a

a
! +32.0

I +36.2
§
F 24
--------- --
r;;;----------
,60
12

12
12

1.5
.92

.12
1.85

12.7
1.12

3.35
40,300

89,000
a

a
0.0

0.0
45,200

93,500
a

n
-
-12.2

- 5.1 I 85,200
!-I
37,900
I-I
a

a
+ 5.9

+ 4.3
I
1
I
1
40,600 1

89,800 1
I
I-I
n

a
I !--I
- 0.7 1
I
- 0.9 168'100
34,800
I
a

a
I
I
I
+13.6

I +23.5
I >
Z
I >
t"'
-1--1 185,600 1--1 1195'300 1--1 ><
I 60 12 5 .38 4.3 1.52 85,700 -a-I 0.0 93,500 a - 9.1 a + 0.1 l_a_ I
-11.2 70,300
_ a I +18.0 ....
[fJ
[fJ
I
60 12 12 . .92 1.85 1.12 58,300 a 0.0 93,500 a -60.4 88,300 a -51.5 81,500 I a I -39.8 81,100 a -39.1

Layout and service conditions as ( 4.12 17,400 a 0.0 16,700 A + 4.6 12,900 0 +26.3 13,600 0 I +22.3 12,100 A ~
shown in Sample Calculation Nos.: --I----I- - -I----=.:::.:....j
(All adjacentl'gJ! connected by ,bor!-
radius welding elbows).
4.14 15,500 0 0.0 11,600 0' +26.6 11,600
-
0 +26.6
,
12,100 0
---
I +22.4 9,700 0' +37.8
.---
4.15 12,100 0 0.0 8,900 A +26.5 I 9,300 0 +23.2 I 9,600 0 i +20.6 7,500 A , +38.0

• Percentage deviation ... 100 (He - Ra)/Re. wbero He - exact result obtained from General Analytical Method. and Ra ... result obtained from approximate method.
deviat.ion denotes erron; on the unsafo side.
A positive value of the percentage
-
<0
114 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
distribute the additional virtual lengths between the
straight members representing the square-corner
equivalent; this will generally ...,Iso overvalue the
stiffness contribution to the system. Table 4.4
shows for a simple system the effect on the actual
stress range of these alternate location assumptions
including the stress intensification factor of the bend,
as compared with the General Analytical Method
results and those of a square-corner solution with
both the stress intensification and flexibility factors
ignored. It also demonstrates the futility of attempt-
ing to get good correlation with the General Analyti-
cal Method by approximate methods, however
refined.
It can be seen, therefore, that although approxi-
mate analyses have a place in piping system analysis,
the extent of their utility depends strongly on the
experience and judgment of the designers. When
used for final designs, by far the best results will
be obtained through the simplified square-corner
method of Section 4.6, thus avoiding unassessable
errors in analysis. Added refinements, such as dis-
cussed in the preceding paragraph, are usually not
warranted, since where greater accuracy is needed
the General Analytical solution will prove no more,
burdensome in the long run and will provide the
only reliable results.
References
1. E. A. 'Vert and S. Smith, Design of Piping for Flexibility
with Flex-Anal Charls, Blaw-Knox Co" Power Piping Div.,
Pittsburgh, Pa., 1940.
2. S. W. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Cakulations Simplified,
Lake Success, New York, 4th printing, 195!.
3. lIZ_, Jr., U-, and Expansion U-Bends," Paper No. 4.02 of
Piping Engineering, Tube Turns, Inc., Louisville, Ky.,
1951.
4. C. T. ~·,'Iitchell, "Graphic Method for Determining Expan-
sion Stresses in Pipelines," Tram. ASME, Vol. 52, pp. 167-
76 (1930).
5. T. E. Bridge, Hliow to Design Piping with Required
Flexibility," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 22, No. 10,
p. 94; No. 11, p. 94; No. 12, p. 92 (1950); Vol. 23, No.1,
p. 136; No.2, p. 107 (1951).
6. L. F. Randolph, IIEnd Reactions and Stresses in 2 nnd 3-
Dimensional Pipe Lines: A Simplified Method of Calcula-
tion," Imp. Chem. Industries, Ltd., Billingham Div.,
March 17, 1953.
7. \V. A. Wilbur, "Thermal Stresses in Piping Systems,"
Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 32, pp. 143-148, 163-168, 174-181
(1953).

Flexibility Analysis by the General
Analytical Method
N the previous chapter, simplified and approxi-
I mate methods were presented for the calculation
of stresses and reactions in piping systems sub-
jected to thermal expansion. The brevity and ease
of application of these methods was achieved by
the omission or approximation of certain influences
on over-all elastic behavior. Such solutions have
their place in preliminary and rough analyses, but
for final checking of piping systems whose dimen-
sions or service performance are critical, a method
is needed which combines accuracy, versatility, and
comprehensiveness. These requirements arc met
by The Kellogg General Analytical Method.
5.1 Scope and Field of Application of the Gen-
eral Analytical Method
Originally presented in the first edition of the
Design of Piping Systems in 1941 [I], and subse-
quently by Wallstrom [2], The General Analytical
Method appears herein in its most recently extended
form. By this method, stresses, reactions, and
deformations of any piping system can be evaluated,
confined only by the conditions of elastic behavior
and static loading. The number of straight legs
and local components, such as circular arcs, miter
bends, corrugated tangents and bends, connections,
flanges, valves, is unlimited; individual elements
may be oriented in any direction, arranged in any
order, and may vary in stiffness, size, thickness, or
elastic constants. There is no restriction to the
number of points of complete or partial fixation
either at the terminals or at intermediate locations.
The method is not confined to a consideration of
bending and torsion alone; the effects of axial or
shear forces on the dellection, while usually of minor
115
CHAPTER
consequence, may be included for very stiff lines
where they assume significant proportions. In
addition to the effects attendant to restrained ther-
mal expansion, concentrated and uniformly dis-
tributed loads such as those due to gravity, static
pressure, and effect of wind may be included;
dynamic or impact conditions reducible to an equiva-
lent static loading can also be handled by this
approach.
Naturally, a method of such scope is not as readily
mastered as the simplified or approximate methods;
furthermore, the analysis of an elaborate system is
bound to be time consuming because of the large
number of variables involved in its geometry. It
has been demonstrated that, for equal accuracy, the
required effort cannot be reduced beyond that ob-
tained by the advantageous selection of the coordi-
nate system origin. On the other hand, accuracy and
speed are greatly improved by a universal systema-
tized approach with a high degree of organization and
carefully planned form sheets. Calculating time is
further reduced when the work is performed by a
group assigned more or less exclusively to piping
lIexibility problems; for such use, the method is
ideally suited and has been widely adopted. The
organized approach which it provides is directly
adaptable to programmed automatic computing
machines and has been universally employed for
this purpose [3J. The economic attraction of auto-
matic machine computations has been greatly en-
hanced by achievements on programming developed
by The M. W. Kellogg Company, which makes this
approach practical for problems of virtually un-
limited complexity even with machines of limited
storage capacity.
116 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The inherent accuracy of the method itself is
more than adequate for engineering design purposes,
and in some eases might be consideted unnecessarily
refined in view of variations in piping dimensions
and tolerances. The significance of substituting
rigid square corners for elbows or tees is discussed in
Chapter 4. Omission of the so-called "secondary
term" and direct and shear effects is discussed in
this chapter along with the treatment of those
subjects.
Apparent errors may arise in the interpretation
of the results of a flexibility analysis. The assump-
tion of linear elasticity would appear to introduce a
gross error in systems which acquire self-spring
through operation under creep conditions. How-
ever, if the expansion stress limits are maintained as
proposed in Chapter 2, plastic action will practically
cease as soon as the full self-spring has been realized.
The piping will then operate elastically with respect
to thermal effects, and the range of stress which the
piping undergoes in a single cycle of temperature
change will be dependably predicted. This is like-
wise true of the ranges of reactions and deflections.
Absolute values of reactions or deflections are not
predictable since the redistribution of stresses which
occurs in the process of acquiring self-spring is not
taken into account with present methods. However,
maximum expected reactions, satisfactory for all
design purposes, can be established by the method
given in Chapter 2 whieh also makes clear that the
range of stress and the range of reaetions are the
important fatigue performanee indices.
Computational errors afC a serious problem on
oecasional ealculations and ean be equally so on
routine calculations in the absenee of proper organi-
zation and eare. While it is possible to eheck the
final results obtained when using any method, the
General Analytical Method is advantageous in that
it has been set up to permit the checking of calcula-
tions at progressive intervals in the progress of the
work, reducing the time lost to a minimum.
The economics of accurate piping flexibility anal-
ysis is greatly improved by the use of automatic
data processing machines. If manual computation
is employed it is advantageous for the work to be
performed by specialists who are able to save time by
memorizing many of the operations. The material
in this chapter is devoted exclusively to application
of the method so as to provide a convenient text
for the training of such specialists and can be readily
mastered by routine calculators without advanced
mathematical training. The supporting derivation,
which is presented in Appendix A together with a
brief history and a fairly complete bibliography on
the subject, does not have to be mastered to perform
the routine calculations described in the present
chapter.
5.2 Calculating Aids
In all but the simplest cases, computations accord-
ing to the General Analytical Method invite the use
of some kind of calculating aid. In some eases
slide rule results are not entirely dependable; hence,
for routine work, the ten place digital calculating
machine has become more or less standard equipment
and can be depended upon to maintain sufficient
accuracy. Actually, as will be apparent in the ex-
amples to follow, it is rarely necessary to use such
a machine to its full capacity throughout the com-
putation. Experience has shown that carrying two
decimal places in the shape coefficients, five decimal
places for multipliers in the equations, and two
decimal places for the resulting forces and moments
will usually assure a satisfactory cheek of the equa-
tions. Naturally, the accuracy of the results will
only equal that inherent in the data entering the
calculation; hence, in the final tabulations the results
are rounded off.
Automatic programmed computing machines dras-
tically reduce computation time and thereby make
it practical and economical to analyze piping systems
of any degree of complexity. The various computers
available differ primarily in operating speed, and
in storage capacity or (fmemory," with the larger
installations minimizing the need for intermediate
manual operations. Even machines of relatively
limited capacity may be used effeetively for eomplex
analyses by resorting to inversion procedures de-
scribed in Section 5.19.
At the present time most automatic computers
represent expensive installations the economic
utilization of which requires broad application to
many accounting and engineering calculations rather
than exclusive use for piping problems. Experience
with piping calculations at The 1\1. W. Kellogg Com-
pany Electronic Computer Laboratory indicates
that with proper scheduling of the work the over-all
economies as well as delivery time are significantly
better than those of the most effieient manual piping
computations. It is worthy of note, too, that these
savings are aecomplished, in all but the simplest
piping configurations, in spite of the greater time
and care needed for preparing and ehecking informa-
tion fed to or processed by the machine. The outlook
is for increasing application of computers in piping
flexibility analysis. It would be a mistake, however,
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
to underestimate the burden and responsibility
resting upon the engineer who must prepare and
interpret all significant inform!ltion and who orig-
inates the program of instructions which prescribes
the steps the machine must follow.
5.3 General Outline of Operations
Before entering into the details of the General
Analytical Method, it may be advisable to outline
briefly the complete process, and in so doing, to note
the relationship with the Simplified General Method
covered in the previous chapter.
The first stage of the work consists of recording
the given data and setting up the problem so that
physical and geometrical properties of the piping
are expressed in numerical form, which operations
are parallel to the set-up procedure of Section 4.6,
but are expanded to include elbows and bends and
the flexibility and stress intensification factors of
these components. This is readily apparent in the
examples which follow. It can hardly be over-
emphasized that great care must be exercised to
avoid sign errors. This is a particular source of
difficulty to the beginner, who is advised to master
thoroughly the sign convention described in Chapter
4 before attempting any calculations.
Numerical calculations are performed in the
second stage and although the General Analytical
Method and its simplified counterpart involve the
same general principles, they differ to a marked
degree in execution. While in the Simplified Method
the approach is completely formulated, in the
General Method the work is performed in a number
of distinct steps, the basic procedures of which are
the same regardless of variations in complexity of
geometry, loading, constraints, etc. These steps
include:
a. Computation of the shape coefficients for each
member.
b. Summation of the shape coefficients (this opera-
tion may include a number of intermediate summa-
tions before the final coefficients are obtained).
c. Solution of a system of simultaneous linear
equations in which the summed shape coefficients
become the coefficients of the unknown forces and
moments, while the known terminal displacements,
elastic constants, and moments of inertia are repre-
sented in the constant tenns.
d. Transfer of moments to various points (the
moments computed are referred to the origin; hence
it is necessary to apply suitable transformations to
obtain the effects at the ends or in other desired
locations).
117
e. Calculation of stresses at significant points.
f. Adjustment of forces and moments to obtain
the anticipated initial and ultimate effects on equip-
ment, etc., taking into account cold spring if it is
employed.
g. Calculation of deflections at significant points.
These are the principal steps, but special opera-
tions, discussed later in the chapter, are required for
the more complex problems.
The third stage of the flexibility analysis involves
the evaluation of the results. Calculated stresses
are compared with allowable stress ranges at signifi-
cant locations as discussed in Chapter 2, while
terminal and other loeal effects are considered in
accordance with Chapter 3. Rough comparison
with calculations of similar piping is advisable when-
ever possible to confinn generally the assumptions
and the reliability of the results. For highly critical
piping, comparison by model testing is usually
desirable.
5.4 The Solution of Simultaneous Equations
One of the important steps of the General Ana-
lytical Method is the solution of the system of simul-
taneous equations which appear in every problem.
Although such systems of equations can be solved
by several different methods, the one discussed in
this section has been found to be highly efficient.
Since experience has shown that the solution of
equations is one of the most difficult steps for a
beginner to master, it will be described here in
considerable detail.
The equations are always first degree or linear.
The variables are unknown moments and forces, Of,
in special cases, unknown rotations and deflections.
Each equation is related either to a certain rotation!
in which case it is called a moment or rotation equa-
tion, or to a certain displacement, when it is called a
force or displacement. equation. In the case of a
single-plane line with two end points and with
expansion in the plane only, three unknowns, one
moment and two forces, must be determined by the
solution of three equations. If another branch in the
same plane is added, three more unknowns must be
computed and so on, the number of unknowns or of
simultaneous equations being 3(n - 1) where n is
the number of end points. For a line in space with
two fixed ends six unknowns, three moments! and
three forces must be evaluated. For branched
systems in space! the number of equations is
6(n - 1). Stops or guides providing partial fixation
require one additional equation for each component
of fixation
us DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
To simplify the explanation which follows, three process with these equations reduces the number
equations arc used. However, the procedure is of equations to one and permits the determination
general and applies to any numbe~' of equations of of Ft..
the type arising in piping analysis. If the unknown A complete solution with a description of every
moments and forces are written in a given order in step including the eheck is given in the following
each equation horizontally, and the equations cor- numerical problem. The equations
responding to the moments and forees are written
lOF, + 20F, - 30F, = 100
in the same order vertically, the matrix formed by
the coeffieients of the unknowns will be symmet- 20F, + 100F, - 90F, = 500
rical about the principal diagonal. In the procedure
-30F, - 90F,+ 120F, = -1200
described below, the top equation is always elim-
inated in such a way as to maintain symmetry in the are written:
remaining coefficients.
Given a set of three such simultaneous equations: Equation No. F, Fy F, Constant

AF,+BF,+DF,= -Elt>.,
1 +10 + 20 - 30 - 100
2 +20 +100 - 90 - 500
BF,+CF,+GF,= -Elt>.y 3 -30 - 90 +120 +1200
DF, + G Fy+H F, = -Elt>., The complete solution is given in Table 5.2.
It will be noted that the coefficients to the left
The constants are transposed to the left-hand side
of the principal diagonal fall out as the equations
and the whole is written:
are reduced. The form sheets presented later for use
F, F, F, Constant in solving equations take advantage of this faet by
omitting entirely that part of the solution.
+A +B +D + El t>.,
The calculator is. cautioned that all coefficients
+B +C +G +EI~v along the principal diagonal must be positive in
sign. A negative sign means that an error has been
+D +G +H + El t>.,
made either in the solution of the equations up to
Table 5.1 illustrates the solution. The three that point, or in the calculation of the shape coeffi-
given symmetrical equations 1, 2, and 3 are reduced cients.
to two which are likewise symmetrical, as shown on A complete check by substitution of the unknowns
lines 5 and 8 of the table. A repetition of the same into each of the equations is essential for the method

Table 5.1 Method of Solving Simultaneous Equations

Line Equation No.
No. and Operation F, F, F, Constant
1. Equation 1.. . ........... +A +B +D +Elt>.,
B D
2. Divide eq. 1 by (-A) . .............. -1
A A
- Elf:1%
-A-
3. Equation £ .. . ................. +B +C +G +Elt>.,
B B B
-_.f) B
4. Multiplylinel by (-BIA) from line 2.. --·A
A
--·B
/l /l
- A (Elt>.,)
Bf)
5. Add line 3 and 4. ................. 0
B'
+C--
/l
+G--
A +EI (t>., - ~ t>.,)
6. Equation S.. . . ....... +D +G +H +Elt>..
D D f) f)
7. Multiply line 1by (- f) I ,1) from line 2.. --·A - -·B -_.f) - A (Elt>.,)
A A A
8. Add line 6 and line 7................. 0 +G _ BD
/l
D'
+II - -
A +El(t>.. - ~t>.,)
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
of solution presented. The sum of the products of
the unknowns times the cocfficicnts in each equation
must equal the related constant with reversed sign.
It is recommended that the multiplications for the
check be performed as each unknown is found. In
this manner, the products for the check are com-
pleted as the final unknown is determined. When a
summation indicates that a particular equation does
not prove, the error may be sought within that
equation. However, it is advisable first to complete
the eheck summations for all the equations, since
119
the distribution of error in succeeding equations
may form a clue as to the source.
5.5 Single Plane Caleulations
When the General Analytical Method is applied
to a simple flexibility problem, the calculation is
brief and contains only the essentials to the case at
hand. A single-plane square-corner piping system
with two fixed ends is a problem of this caliber.!
IThis type of problem can also be solved by the Simplified
General Method presented in Chnp~r 4, Section 4.6.

Table 5.2 Complete Solution of Three Equations Using Simple Numerical Coefficients
Line Equa- Con- Operation Going Operation Going
No.* tiOD F, stant Down Up
1 1 + 10 + 20 30 100
2 1.00 2.00 + 3.00 + 10.00 Divide line 1 by -10
Multiply F, coeffi-
cient of line 2 by
-50.00
Multiply F. coeffi-
3 IF. = 100.00 + 40.00 - 150.00 + 10.00 cient of line 2 by
-20.00
F. ~ +40.00
-150.00 + 10.00
~ -100.00

4 + 20 + 100 90 500
Multiply line 1 by
5 20 40 + 60 + 200 - 2.00, the F II coeffi-
{cient in line 2
6 o + 60 30 300 Add lines 4 and 5
7 o 1.00 + 0.50 + 5.00 Divide line 6 by - 60
Multiply F, coeffi-
cient of line 7 by
8 20.001 25.00 + 5.00 -50.00
F II = -25.00
+ 5.00 ~ -20.00
9 30 90 + 120.00 + 1200
Multiply line 1 by
+ +3.00, the F, coeffi-
10 + 30 60 90.00 300
cient in line 2
Multiply line 6 by
11 o + 30 15.00 150 +0.50, the F, coeffi-
cient in line 7
12 o o + 15.00 + 750 Add lines 9, 10, and II
13 o o 1.00 50.00 Divide line 12 by -15

F, = 50.00
Check Multiply Multiply Multiply
F coeffi-
% F 1/ coeffi- F z coeffi-
cients of cients of cients of
lines 1, 4 , lines 1, 4, lines I, 4,
9 by 9 by 9 by
-100.00 -20.00 -50.00 Constant
14 -1000 -400 +1500 - 100 o
15 -2000 -2000 +4500 - 500 o
16 +3000 +1800 -6000 +1200 o
"Line numbers correspond to lines on standard three equation form sheet.

.....
120 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
y
The foregoing procedure is exemplified in Sample
Calculation 5.1. The same system is calculated in
Chapter 4 as Sample Calculation 4.10, and a com-
parison between the two shows that identical results
are obtained. While the Simplified General Method
'-------, has the advantage of ease of computation for the
uninitiated, the method in the present chapter is
FIG. 5.1 The z-plane.
more fundamental and hence, more versatile. Both
methods involve the same amount of work.
Single-plane systems are usually drawn and cal-
A single-plane system with expansion perpendicu-
culated in the z-plane (Fig. 5.1). The sketch is
lar to the plane only, requires the solution of two
made and the given data recorded on Form A in
rotation and one displacement equations. These
accordance with Steps 1 through 5 described for the
equations are entirely independent of those for
Simplified General Method. If there is expansion
expansion in the plane. For a line such as that
in the plane only, the following steps arc taken.
shown in Sample Calculation 5.1, if there is expan-
Step 6. On Form B-1 enter the following as
sion in the z-direction. M r, M., and F, must be
indicated:
found. This case can be solved by following the
Member number.
procedure and using the form sheets described for
Shape (horizontal, vertical, or inclined).
multiplane systems in Section 5.12.
Length of member L, ft.
Distances a and b, ft, i.e. the x- and y-coordinates 5.6 Inclined Members and Changes in Stiff-
respectively, of the midpoint of the straight member. ness
Value of L 2 /12.
The procedure for calculating a line having straight
Step 7. Have Steps 1 to 6 checked.
members which are inclined to the coordinate axes
Step 8. Compute the shape coefficients for each
departs bnt little from that described in Section 5.5.
member in accordance with these formulas:
The only difference lies in the use of the general
formulas in the calculation of the shape coefficients.
Shape Horizontal Vertical
Coefficient Member Member S = kQL Bab = (b X sa) + s(L2/12) cos ex sin ex
Baa = (a X Sa) + s(L /12) cos ex
2 2
B kQL kQL Sa = a X S

Ba aXB aXB Sbb = (b X Sb) + B(L 2/12) sin ex

Bb bX B bX B
Bab b X Ba(Or a X Bb) b X Ba(Or a X Sb)
Baa a X Ba + 2
BL /12 a X Sa
Bbb b X Bb b X Bb + BL2/12
Sum the shape coefficients, s, sa, Sb etc., across to
obtain the final coefficients.
Step 9. Enter the final coefficients and the con-
stants into the equation as indicated on the form
sheet. For complete fixation at the ends, end rota-
tion 0: is zero and the constant in the moment
equation is therefore zero. The constants E/* tl z
and E/*D." arc transferred from Form A, the term
EI* = E hI/144 denoting stiffness expressed in Ib-ft2 •
Step 10. Have Steps 8 and 9 checked.
Step 11. Solve the simultaneous equation and
substitute the values obtained back into the equa-
tion to check the answer, as explained in Section 5.4.
Step 12. Compute the moments at the various
points, find the point of maximum stress, and tabu-
late results.
Slep IS. Have Step 12 checked.
2
Bb = bX S
where ex is the angle of inclination measured from
the positive horizontal axis to the member as shown
in Fig. 5.2, positive in counterclockwise and nega-
tive in clockwise direction.
Sample Calculation 5.1 is calculated for 10 in.
standard pipe, A-lOG, Grade A material. It is
apparent that for the same expansion the magnitude
of the moment and the forces is in direct proportion
to the stiffness EI. Hence, for any pipe with a
stiffness of ENI N the moment and forces may be
attained by dividing those shown in the example by
Q = El/ENI N, or multiplying the summation co-
efficients by Q and solving the equations.
y y
a -ex
b
L -L__ , L-L ,
FIG. 5.2 Angle of inclination of straight members.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 121

MEMBERS O'A ,M,

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THE MW KELLOGG COl PIPING FLEXI,I!ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS " "'D
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]22 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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THE MW. KELLOGG 001. PIPING FLEXI.BllITY AND SIRESS ANALYSIS
ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS
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\ FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
Sample Calculation 5.2 solves a system having
two sloping members one of which is of smaller size
than the remainder of the pipe.~· The shape coeffi-
cients are computed from the formulas given above
using an inclination angle, a = +45 for member
0
0'-1, and a = -30° for member 2-A. It will be
noted that the members for 0' to 2 are of 8 in. pipe
while member 2-A is of 6 in. pipe with a Q value of
2.58. In evaluating the stresses, the reduced section
modulus of the 6 in. pipe accounts for the fact that,
while the maximum moment is at point 0', the
maximum stress is at point A.
5.7 Circular Members
Members sueh as bends and elbows which are in
the form of circular arcs require more labor in the
calculation of the shape coefficients than do straight
members. Hence, the substitution of square corners
is common practice in flexibility analysis. This
matter was discussed at SOme length in Section 4.7
wherein it was shown that, in many cases, square-
corner solutions are not advisable.
The calculation of circular members is introdueed
by means of another single-plane line. The pro-
cedure of Section 5.5 again applies with a few excep-
tions. In the Pipe and Expansion Data on Form A,
it is necessary to enter the values of R, the radius
of the are, in feet. The flexibility characteristic h,
the flexibility factor k, and the stress intensifieation
factor (j are determined in accordance with the
Piping Code (see also Chapter 3 herein). The shape
coefficients for the circular members are calculated
from the following relationships:
s=kQRip sab=(sXab)+(s'aXb)
+ (s'bXa)+S'ab
sa= (sXa)+s'a Saa = (sXa')+ (s'aX2a)+s'aa
Sb= (sXb)+S'b Sbb= (sXb 2)+ (s'bX2b )+s'bb
where
s'o = kQR 2ca s'ab=kQR 3cab
s'b=kQR 2Cb s' aa = kQR 3caa
Sf bb = kQR'J Cbb
and
Ca = cos a - cos (a + ip)
Cb = sina - sin (a + ip)
Cab = 0.25[cos 2(a + ip) - COS 2a]
Caa = 0.5ip - 0.25[sin 2(a + q:,) - sin 2a]
Cbb = 0.5ip + 0.25[sin 2(a + ip) - sin 2a]
As indicated in Fig. 5.3
a = horizontal distance from origin to centcr of
are, ft.
123
b = vertical distance from origin to center of arc,
ft.
ip = arc of member, radians (when uscd directly).
a = angle measured counterclockwise from posi-
tive horizontal axis to the initial tangent
(more easily visualizcd as the angle between
a negative vertical axis and the normal at
the initial point of tangency).
The calculations of the shape coefficients for cir-
cular membcrs are facilitated by the use of Form D.
This form has space for two different mcmbers and
also provides for thc calculation of the additional
coefficients needed for expansion out of the plane
or for multiplane lines' The arrangement of the
form provides for a convenient sequence of computa-
tion. The procedure is as follows:
The given constants, k, Q, R, a, ~, a, and bare
listed in the respective spaces and 2a, a 2, 2b, b2, and
ab are calculated. The trigonometric constants ip,
in radians, Cal Cb, Cab, Caat ebb are entered. For the
most commonly occurring shapes (ip = 90° and
a = 0°, 90°, 180°, or 270°), numerical values of the
trigonometric constants are given on the form sheet.
A more complete tabulation of these constants will
be found in Table e-15 in Appendix C, which
includes additional values for both ip and a. The
functions kQR, kQR 2, kQR 3 are then calcuhted.
The coefficients s, s' 0' 8' b, s' ob, Sf ao are computed,
each succeeding cocfficient being the cross product
of column 1 by the adjacent trigonometric constant.
The multiplications s X a, S X b, etc., s' a X b,
s' a X 2a, etc., are performed and the summations
made vertically to obtain Sa, Sb, etc.
To illustrate the solution of a system with curved
members, the line calculated previously with square
corners as Sample Calculation 5.1 is presented as
Sample Calculation 5.3. It is assumed that the
bends ani made with long-radius welding elbows,
since they are the most commonly used fittings.
2Multiplanc shape coefficients arc given in Section 5.8.
y
a
b
.L-.L--====_ _ x
FIG. 5.3 Angles for circular members.
124 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

MEMBERS O'-A Y
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PIPING_~U;~I,!I.lIl Y AND STRESS ANALYSIS F A
THE MW KELLDGG ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS
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THE MWKELLOGG CO I PIPING F~I7.'jj~tLHl;HP mH~ ANALYSIS c~~-.
out .N s.

..
,
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 125
The sketch on Form A shows the location of the c = perpendicular distance of the projected plane
curved members. The data are taken from Sample from the parallel coordinate plane, ft. (See
Calculation 5.1, with the addit'ion of the R, h, k, Scction 5.11.)
and {J. On Form B-1, the a and b distances of the
To expedite the calculations, it is recommended that
members are set up in accordance with the instruc-
the formulas for horizontal (a = 0) and vertical
tions given in Section 5.5 and the straight members
(a = 90°) members be committed to memory.
are computed. The circular members are computed
For circular arcs in space problems, the shape
on Form D-1, Sample Calculation 5.5, and the
coefficients to be calculated are as given in Table 5.4.
results are transferred to Form B- 1. The rest of
The symbols k, Q, R, the trigonometric constants
the calculation is made as in previous cases.
Co, Cb, etc., and the distances a and b are defined

5.8 General Shape Coeffieients
When either the expansions or the members lie
outside a single plane, it is necessary to calculate
additional shape coefficients beyond those already
given in the preceding sections. For straight mem-
bers the complete set of coefficients to be computed
are given, together with their formulas, in Table 5.3.
The quantity r m denotes the mean radius of the
cross section in feet and the distances a, b, and c
are defined as follows:
a = horizontal distance of the midpoint of the
straight member concerned from the coor-
dinate origin, ft.
b= vertical distance of the midpoint of the
straight member concerned from the coor-
dinate origin, ft.
in Sections 5.6 and 5.7. The distance C is defined as
for straight members.
5.9 The Secondary Term
The shape coefficient q, known as the secondary
term, represents the effect of a transverse bending
moment on torsional rotation and a torsional moment
on transverse bending rotation. Its magnitude is
relatively small when compared with the other
shape coefficients and varies with the transverse
flexibility factor, becoming zero when this factor is
equal to 1.3. It is also zero for vertical or horizontal
straight members and for circular members if the
trigonometric coefficient Cab is zero.
The effect of omitting q in the calculations of a
particular pipe line is illustrated in Fig. 5.4. A
quarter-circular bend with equal tangents is fixed

Table 5.3 Shape Coefficients for Straight Members

Coefficient a=O ex = 90° a=a

s kQL kQL kQL

s. aX. aXs a Xs
s, b X. bXs b X s
q 0 0 (1.3 - k)QL cos a sin a
cq 0 0 cXq
u s 1.3QL (k cos' a + 1.3 sin' a)QL
u, s. aXu (a X u) - (b X q)
cu cXu cxu cXu
v 1.3QL s (k sin' a + 1.3 cos' a)QL
v, bX V s, (b X v) - (0 X q)
cv C X v C Xv C X V
SL2 .
Sab + c'lq b X Sa b X Sa bX Sa + 12 cos ex sm a + c X cq
cu, eX Uo eX Uo eX Uo
cv, c X Vo C X Vo C X Va
sL' SD2
+ cZv ax so+ + 12 cos 2 a + c X
12 +cXct aXsa+cXcv a X
SOli i Sa CV

sL' sL'
8bb + c2 u bXs,+cXcu bX8'+12+ CXcu b X 8b +12sin'la + eX cu
sL' .L' sL'
U oa + Voo a X u, + b X v, + 12 o X u, + b X v, + 12 o X u, + b X v, + 12
S 2.6Qrm 'L 2.6Qrm 'L 2.6Qrm 'L
U 2.6Qrm 'L 0.5Qr m 'L Qr m 'L(2.6 cos'a + 0.5 sin'a)
V 0.5Qrm 'L 2.6Qrm 'L Qr m 'L(2.6 sin' a + 0.5 cos' a)
IV 0 0 Qrm 'L(2.! sin a cos a)
126 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 5.4 Shape Coefficients for Circular :Members at both ends against rotation but one end is displaced
8 kQRiP relative to the other in a direction perpendicular to
8. 8'. + (a X 8) the plane of the line. The moments and forces
8, 8', + (b X 8) resulting from the displacement of end A are plotted
q QR(k - 1.3)e., for various values of the bend radius and for the
eq eX q
u QR(kc" + 1.3c•• )
flexibility factors k = 1, 1.3, and 5. The continuous
u. u'. +
(u X a) - (q X b) lines include the term q while the dashed lines
eu (c X u) neglect q. Inspection of these curves shows that if
v QR(kc•• + 1.3c,,) the circular member forms a small part of the total
v. v'. + (v X b) - (q X a) line, the effect of omitting q in the calculations is
e' (c X v)
Sail + C'1.q 8'., + (s'. X b) + (s', X a) + (s X ab)
negligible. However, if the circular member repre-
+ (cq X c) sents the entire pipe line, errors of considerable
cu. eX U o magnitude will arise. For most pipe lines, circular
ev. cX Va members form but a small part of the whole; there-
Saa + C:lV s'•• + (2a X s'.) + (s X a') + (cv X c) fore, the omission of q is justified. By so doing, a
8bb + C'lU 8'" + 2b X 8', + (s X b') + (cu XC) substantial amount of time is saved in manual calcu-
U oo + V Oll [U'•• + V'•• J + (2a XU'.) + (2b X v'.)
+ (U X a') + (v X b') lations because the solution of equations and the
- 2ab X q calculation of shape coefficients U OJ Va and (u oo + Vao)
S 2.6Qrm 'RiP is simplified.
U Qr m 'R(2.6c" + 0.5c•• ) To show the effect of omitting q in case of a prac-
V Qrm 'R(2.6c•• + 0.5c,,)
IV -2.1Qrm 'Rc.,
tical pipe line, the well-known Hovgaard configura-
tion [4,5] has been calculated both with and without
where s'a = kQR'!c a
S'b = kQR2 Cb
the q-term. The summary sheet of this calculation is
s' ab = kQR3 cab shown as Sample Calculation 5.4. It is seen that
S'ca = kQR3caa in this case the effect of the secondary term is en-
S' bll = kQR'JCbb tirely negligible.
U' 0 = 1.3QR zca
It should be noted that the secondary term is
V' 0 = 1.3QR2cb
u'oo + v ' oo = 1.3QWhIl neglected in all examples given in subsequent seetions

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1-£ MW KELLOGG COl p INGOfR~~M~II:ITbA~ A~J,Rmut~~LYSIS CAL O. 5:4

 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 127

:>1
of this chapter. In most configurations this modifi-

~'
cation reduces calculating time without introducing
any appreciable error. .....
5.10 Effects of Direct and Shear Forces
Direct tension or compression as well as shear
. ~/z/~ i;r "
""JAy - - -_.- t~
coefficients, dcnoted S, U, V, lV, will, like the sec-
ondary term, also be neglected in the subsequent
£I A'l' _1000 Las fl.' e"
portions of this chapter. These effccts ordinarily I ~
t-_" 2•
/ ~
have little significance in practical piping systems CURVES SHOWN IN FUlL
hi-I-~ ,•
INCLUDE SECONDARY TERN
and it would appear that their neglect would always CtJRVf.:S SHOWN DOTTEO 00
HOT IHCUJOE SECONDARY TERM _/ ~
yield results on the safe side. Neverthelcss, they z
iA ~
may be included readily when they are considered [,/ ,., S'
'/
of interest in the calculation of abnormal layouts.
V
The expressions necessary to determine the shape I
•
,
coefficients were given in Tables 5.3 and 5.4 in
Section 5.8. These shape coefficients are added to
M"
"" , 01.3
I
I
•
the shape coefficients previously described as follows: , ~
.~
/1 •
uoo+voo+S; Sbb+C 2U+V; saa+ c2v + U ; ['7; '\
/
'I

"'1 1o
• I2

Sab + c"g + lV , >- ~f:;';

-- • 1/(0'
5.11 Working Planes and Cyclic Permutation
- --- •
When the piping lies in more than one plane, the
solution of the flexibility problem increases in com-
"'""M

iF" -
; .~ •
7~~.,

plexity. To introduce the third dimension, each - -1,7, ::-F-

2

member is assigned to a "working plane" for the , , , •I , • • 7 • 10

RADlUS R (FT.)
calculation of the shape coefficients.'
A working plane is designated by the coordinate FIG. 5.4 Effect of the secondary term on a symmetrical 900
bend with various lengths of tangcnta.
axis to which it is perpendicular. That is, the x-plane
is any vertical plane at right angles to the x-axis;
jeeted on the coordinate planes which are oriented
the y-plane is any horizontal plane at right angles
as shown in Fig. 5.5.
to the y-axis, and the z-plane is any vertical plane
The counterclockwise sequence of the axes should
at right angles to the z-axis. The planes which pass
be noted. The transfer from one projected plane
through the coordinate origin are called coordinate
to the next in suecession is achicved by changing the
planes. All other planes are identified by their
designations XI YI and 2, in the order shown in the
perpendicular distances, designated c, from their
following triangle:
respective coordinate planes. For calculation of ,
the shape coefficients, the working planes are pro-
3This is in contrast to the Simplified General !v1cthod of
Section 4.6 where each member was considered in three
planes. Z
/\
I Y

, , ,

}-----y )-----, J-----,

, , ,
z-Plone
x_Plano y_Plone

FIG. 5.b Projections of the working planes.

- -- -- ---,-, ---,------
128
This is the principle of cyelic permutation which
permits the formulas developed for one plane to be
converted into formulas for the two remaining
planes by a simple change of subscripts. Thus, for-
mulas for the x-plane are developed from the z-plane
by substituting y for x as the horizontal axis and
z for y as the vertical axis. Correspondingly, F XI
FVI and 1I1 z become F'y, FrJ and !lIz. respectively.
Figure 5.6 shows a pipe line sketched in the standard
•
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
coordinate system with the working planes indicated.
Figures 5.6a to 5.6e show the projections of the
members on the coordinate planes. The c-values
give the distances from the coordinate planes, with
the subscript denoting the respective plane.
In the breakdown of a piping system, each mem-
ber, whether straight or curved, is assigned to a
plane compatible with its loeation in the line. No
member may be assigned to more than one plane,
nor changed from one plane to another while the
10
solution is in progress. This is important in con-
nection with straight members running parallel to a
coordinate axis since there is always a choice of two
c, possible working planes to whieh anyone of these
members ean be assigned at the option of (,he cal-
eulator. This does not hold for sloping or curved
members which define their own planes and leave
the calculator no choice.
5.12 Multiplanc Pipe Lines with Two Fixed
Ends
In order that the reader may readily follow the
somewhat more complex operations of the multi-
plane calculations, a step by step procedure is again

:8-.
given.
Steps 1 to 5. Steps 1 to 5 duplicate those given in

i-y
c, Chapter 4. Multiplane systems are sketched on
Form A unless more space is required for the drawing
• in which case it is made on Form A-I. Form A is
/ then used only for data and results. The vertical
/ It-Plane
• CIt = - '1 legs of space systems are customarily represented
(a) as parallel to the y coordinate axis.
Step 6. The calculation of the shape coefficients
requires the assignment of members into working
y-Plano planes. For the beginner, it is recommended that
c)'=o
sketches be made of the projections of the members
c, in their respective planes; with practice they may
be mentally visualized. It is a practieal rule to
arrange the subdivisions so that a minimum number
(b) of working planes is created, and to favor the plane
including the coordinate axes so as to reduce the
number of operations required in setting up the
simultaneous equations.
Step 7. On Form D-2 enter the quantities k, Q,
R, a, b, C, L, L 2 /12 for each member. Since it is
7 necessary to sum the coefficients for each plane
separately, the data should be arranged so that this
,- /
can be done smoothly.
•
Step 8. Have Steps 1 to 7 checked.
c, Step 9. Compute the shape coefficients for each
x-Plano 9
C.=O (d) A member in accordance with the formulas given in
(e)
Section 5.8. When curved members are involved,
FlO. 5.6 Sketch of line showing working planes. auxiliary Form D-l is used to compute s, Sa, Sb, Sab,

L
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 129

Saa, Sbb, U, V, q, Uo, Va and (u oo + voo). These values Table 5.5

are then entered on Form D-2 where the coefficients Members in the x-plane;
cq, CU, CV, CUo, CV a, and (sat'+ c2q), (saa + c2v), Mb = AI':
(SOb + c u) are calculated.
2
M'b = li{'scosa -AI'vsjna
Step 10. Sum all the coefficients for the x, y, !tit =ltf'lIcosa+M'ssina
and z plancs scparately. Members in the y-plane:
Step 11. Have Stcps 9 and 10 checked. J,f, ~ M',
Step 12. Transfer the summations from Step 10 M1b = },['zcosa - :tf',sina
to Form D-3, entering them as indicated according /tft = Af' cos a + M' sin a
J: :I:

to their planes. Sum the contributions from each
plane to obtain thc final cocfficients Ax%> A xu' etc.
for the equations. Enter these on the equation form,
Form E-l, together with the constants from Form A.
Step 13. Have Step 12 checked.
Step 1J,. Solve and check the simultaneous cqua-
tions.
Step 15. Transfer the values obtained in Step 14
to Form F-1 and calculate the moments at the sig-
nificant points using the point-to-point transfer
described in Step 8 for the Simplified General
Method in Chapter 4.
Step 16. Determine the maximum stress. This is
done in a manner similar to that for the Simplified
General Method, but since it is now possible to
handle inclined members, a provision is made to find
the bending moment transverse to the plane, and
the torque.
The plane in which the point lies defines ]lib, but
111' band 111, are found by an application of the
formulas in Table 5.5.
The operations are performed on Form F-1 by
following the guide shown for the respective planes.
Points on members which are parallel to the coor-
dinate axes (i.e. where a = 0 0 or 900 ) may be said to
lie in two of the three possible planes. When no {3
factor is involved, both alternatives will give the
same stress. When {3 is involved, however, the point
in question must be placed in the plane which will
give the higher stress because {3 is applied to bending
stresses only.
Step 17. Enter results on Form A.
Step 18. Have Steps 15, 16, and 17 checked.
Sample Calculation 5.5 illustrates the computation
of a multiplane system with two points of fixation.
Members in the z-plane:
M, ~ M'.
ltf'b = .M'l/cosa - .M' z sin 0:
Aft = Af'z cos ex + !if'" sin a
The reader will note that this line was computed
with square corners in Chapter 4 as Sample Calcula-
tion 4.13.
5.13 Hinged Joints .and Partially Constrained
Ends
In the systems considered thus far in this chapter,
the fully anchored connection was the only type of
terminal constraint discussed since it closely repre-
sents the fixity of most piping. In some cases, e.g.
jointed systems as described in Chapter 7, open
ended lines, etc., different end conditions may exist.
The end may be fixed against translation but be
free to rotate; it may be free to move in one direction
but not in another; in fact, there may be freedom of
any combination of the six components of deforma-
tion (three rotary, three translatory). These cases
can be handled with the aid of the equations in
Table 5.6, which lists the general equations of a
pipe line with two ends, A and a', subject to any
deformation. The shape coefficients are summed
from A to 0' to obtain the summation coefficients.
One of the simplest cases is that of the end which
is free to pivot, a practical cxample of which is the
system with the hinged expansion joint shown in
Fig. 5.7. Whcn thcrc is only one hinged end, the
simplest solntion is to locate the origin of the coor-
dinate system at the center of thc hingc.
Sincc the example is shown in the z-plane, the first,
second, and sixth columns and rows in Table 5.6

Table 5.6 General Equations of a Pipe Line Subject to Deformation at Either End
j.lf:z: Mu M. Fx F, F. Constant
+A;:;:z: +A.7;u +A zz +B u +B:l: u +B:u +El'(8 xA - 8.0')
+A:z:u +A uu +A uz +Buz +B uu +Buz + El' (8,A - 8,0')
+A;u +A uz +A u +B u +B zu +Bu +EI'(8,A - 8.0')
+B;:;:z: +B vz +Bu +Czz +C:z:v +C:u +EI'[o.. - oxo' - A.A + (YA 8. A - ZA 8,A) - (Yo' 8.0' - Zo' 8uo')]
+B:z: v +B uu +Bzv +C:l: V +Cuu +Cvz +EI'[ouA - 0uo' - AuA + (ZA 8xA - XA 8. A) - (zo' 8xo' - Xo' 8.0') I
+B;u +B v1 +Bu +Cn +Cvz +C" +EI'[o'A - 0,0' - A.A + (x A 8uA -YA8.. ) - (xo,8 uo' -Yo·8.0')]

--~-----------------
130 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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THE MW KELLOGG col PIPING FU;:XI,I!'pTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS
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t
000
0
0420
tU'o t 2113
","'" , • 0,
<1... ·101 _

+V~·Z\• •

.u:".,1V""
e ..
,
C •

l,:'C
I.:l.e
-.5ll"0 t.5"00 _.50ll0
".1I1S" ".7.'" ...1"/10.
+.1tl!> .. ... JIS!>" ... '1'05.:;
t ••• oo + •. 5ll00 -1,lllOO
-j,IOOo +'.lIll00 +1. 0
+.s"o"
".7.05"
•. 741>4
_'.1IllOO
-'.llllOll
9 3 Vll ~ q 38 u..oo'tVllO
Uo - 2~'.J +t.","Zll +l.04Z0 U,04Z 1:.04Z0

[THE MW KELLOGG CO. SHAPE

PIPING FLEXIBI~TY AND STRESS Ati{'LYSI& <+~
COEFFI IENTS FOR CIRCULA MEM R5 P"'T~"'''O _
.~
.
'FQ"'M
C .....LC H9
0-'.5
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENEUAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 131

a
k 8 00 VO
«
•
/ 00 TRIGONOMETRIC.
270 MEMBER
SHAPE
N~5'(;

\J .....
•
" 'b
• 2>0
COORDINATES
,b
- 48 75
- 97 SO .ab
-GO / 5< .., • b' .. Z J'J, SO

R
kaR
/ 25 CONSTANTS
• - s .,
CALCULATION
/5 7/ 1>S.-a •- / fA +5_b ~
OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
+~"Ab
"J +s_a l
- Hid.' ..J7 ,
...., - """
1000 / d8 2 5/

..~ ~~
kaR /2 0 c. (lOGO +~'4 12 so .~:'.b t6'•• Z.a _
• '"/5 ,
/ 25
kaR c.- +~·b·.a -
.~
'00 /250
kQIP / C.b
• 00' +~'""b + 7 ,
kaR IS (,,3 Cu 0 12 28
kQRJ / Cb' 785 ~'bb .. I< '8

OR 25 ~cl>bit..x..u 02
s-+
~.+
/5 / >, + 7/4 s,
/3 +uoa + If 41
-~S'b
+u "a.
- 11-'558024 s.,GENERAL
l
0
•
SOb
FORMULAS
R "5 !I.Cu+UCllb
(1C·1.~)c,l.b
J v·,. /j
.q.t>
+Y_l> - 0-tV_b l 21 q c." [cos <:( ~cos (OI."!"{»]
Cb"(SIN"" - SIN (e'\ + ill)]
OR 2 0 0 0 -q'4 0 'Q_zab 0
R 5. 1",:::.-
- 000 +u'o
- 2 OJ
-
.j.u'o"la
.-
5 .. Cab'C .Z5@Ol!lo z(O(+f)-co~ Z~]
aR
QR- ...
1,"Ct>
'.:!lot
- 000 +v~ 2 OJ tV' "Zb
tU;oo+v""
'i3 G,u.' .51)". ZS[sIO..j z((X.. t)-srlJ Zoot]
H btl: .s 1+', ZSfrolN Z (":'t t)-SrN z«J
" 0420 C
u. • '138 v" - 12 l,I."o+vo~ ." 0'
« MEMBER N~ COORDINATES
,
k
• SHAPE ab
• a' +
za.
b' •
kaR
k R'
a
R

kQRI.
TRIGONOMETRI
COt.J~TANT5

c• ·
c.
So. ..
to

+$'.;1.
~
,b
CALCULATION OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
+i!>.tl

+s'tl
+$.lltl
+s:".b
+:>'b"a
-+-15""
..:.._u · t$_b~

S·D"lob
+

kQR~ c •• + "''''tl
kQRlt
k R . c ..
Cb'
·•
-+-s'......
• tEO'bb
•
GlR
GlR
lCI;bbH~
4+L~'
5"
u·,
v·.
S.
tu·.,.
Sb

w·
""b
tu.~.,.~

+V"b~ .
+
5 ••
~

., · 0
'1.~10jl
'0
", "0
"".:>'0 "·"'Oll "",5706
+1.0000 "',0000 -'·0000 -1.0000
"0

C
OR (k·I,~)c...b q. .q ~b -<i"a -'q .. U1b C ".0000 .1.0000 "'.0000 -1.0000
C.. -, ..000 ..... 000 -."000 ....5000
QRl + +U'o 1.4.... za
1.1loC C • ".7"5'" •. ra ..... ....7"".. •.7.......
QRZ t 1. 1loC b -tV'" "V;"Zb c .,78 ..... •. 185 ".las. I"·'.!l!>'"
',~C: +I,~OOO +'."000 -',SOOO -1.1~000
QR& .. I.~. 0 .u:.,.1V""
I .... lL",,1'VoO ... ,.,
'·:!IC:b '1.&000 .'.&000 -+'.)0 ·'.3000
.r.O'Iro 1'z.o.zo .C·O-+lO .E,41tlO

THE MW
.. .
KELLOGG CO PIPING FLEXIBI~TY AND STRESS AtiNifSI
. SHAPE COEFFI IENTS FOR CIRCULA M
&RS ~,c..
~.

0 ,","'II!.
~t>
f • -
FORM
CALC H9 55
D-'

PLANE x z
MEMBER -7 -/ /-2 2-3 -J -5 A 7-A

SHAPE
D
k 800 800 800
Q /00 /00 I 00
R /25 /lO /25
L 1500 47 0
I'Z 0 23 75
a /000 /500 -/3 ~ 750-
0 U5 /Z5 /3/3
b 750 563 - / Zo - 25 0 - 18 75 - IZ - 5000
- /500 o o o 0 0 0 0
/8 75 .38 /302 /88 02 47 0/
/500 875 /57/ /250 /5 7/ 4750 /57/ 2375 /3963
- ISO 00 /3/25 - Z285/ - 9375 - 7 t4 0 7 t4 3/1 84 - 14/ 67
liZ 50 49 z.- 7 t4 0 - 7/4 - 1/87 5/) - 778 - !l87 50 - 32/6 90
o o 000 0 000
cq 0 o 0000000
u /9.50 1/ 38 9/3 /250 .9/3 6175 9/3 2375/3677
uo - /9500 /70 3- /2757 - 9375 - 938 0 938 3/1 84 - r.§f!.~
cu - Z9250 o 0000000
v /500 87.5 9/3 IOZ5 9/3 4750 9/3 3088 /3077
Vo liZ 0 492 - 938 0 - 938 - 1/8750 - 447/2 - / 43 75 - 3 '4639
cv - ZZ500 o 0000000
S"b .. cZq -/IZ5aD 73894 /0598 0 /07 0 - 35580 -15 59/ 88 -/5/0/69
CU o Z 9Z5 ao o o 0 0 0 0 0 0
-168750
CVD o 000 000
5u.+C l V
487.5 00 /90875 3 26/6 86589 5 ¢ 0 .554 52/0 3 //3827/
5bb+C U .5 51Z 50 33/. .5 4 0 5 4 381,/8 0 38 (,6 59 7.5 00/3690453
u.oo+V. o ..3 07[; 00 t7 509 8(,589 2230 38 618 50 2/ 9 0 82398 33 48 0/ 7/
THE MW KELLOGG CO No rkli~I!'JLI~htF"j, S ";S ANALYSIS ~ --: < -.5.
~
2 .,
x
y
, .u
M,

, /5
o. M,
0 ~
.q
I

1
M,

0
1
1

+Co
1
F,

0 'Sb
'",
Fy

+ 1/2 50 -Sa
-<u
h,
, /50 00

O.
.y f 130 71 +q 0 ~ 0 -<q 0 +C, 0 _v, +3 24< J9
[ .. Au " /45 77 "A. 0 +A."t.1 0 .. Bllx 0 • 8. + //2 50 .B u . +3 l,g. N
1
x
y
++
., r /5· 0 -v,
-Sa
- //2 0 -<q 0 +Cy
,Sb
- 225 00
, .u .. /,3G 77 0 -cu 0 '<q 0 .u, - 80 1/
[ +A" ~/5/ 771"A n 0 .6 • - //2 50 .6 0 .6 • - 30 //

,
Y ++
,
[
.u

.5
+/9 50 .u,
+<,
-1-/39 6J +Sb
.A. '1-/59 /3 +B ZK
-
-
-3
. /95 00

2/6 90
141/ 90 +6
-<U
-v,
-Sa
+

,
,
1292 50 +<q

/4/ 67
4J /7 +Bt.'l'.
_cq
0

0
0

X 41.1.00+"'00 + 1 075 00 -cu." - 2 925 00 -r::.Vr/ + / (,8 50

y "s.u.+ clv -cYo -e..ab-ctq
Z +Sbll+C'U. f /3" 904 '3 'S41,-c q + /5 /0/ 69
1 .cu o 0
I +c"" d39 479 53 .c, +12 1714(, i"C I('t: +/ (,8 50

x +$t111+C' , 5 /250 ,cab~c%'1 +/ /25 00

Y I1~Vco -cu."
Z +iu+c:v , // J82 7/ -e..-o 0
I. ... e)'." + /6 895 2/ +Cyt. + / /25 00

)( +J..... +c 1 +4- 8l 00
y +5bt"+c'~
z: +1.1....+'1"" t148 0/7/
_._c_
1: +Cz:r. tlS3 767/
THE MW KELLOGG COl. :::IPING _;L~NBIL):rY A~9. STRESS ANALYS.IS
PLANE SUMMATION OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
'''Le::,
CI-l~CI( ~
-
O"'TIl , - - CALC. NO. 55

,
, wJO'149'-
• • n rl08 coSt:. .,,201.'l-f.o 0

,
2 • -2.,.350 •,r.115 +<5 • - 1809' ,/
• 0 -/ "'/1 'lH05 ¥-41?lJ20
• 0
4
• "'202'''' "'J8nU1f -S{.5n5JI .,.1I'~lf711 .. 10008" -'2J1'"
5 -2388S8
• - ~J/q6J'Z -<1"901'J +/~U r "724- .. lJ8JJ'
• -1%1114'1 -I-S" 98f • - '8/ '99 .,.1480563 .,. 09(,77.3 'UJ9f71
_ON5TANTS

, +
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M.
•a
z
•
Fx
a , h liZ 5, Fz5'. J' f3
•
- 77/ 1< -13 29 6S
•
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Hx~2.ll3 /8 0 • . lIZ - m 78 58/ I" -I a
2
• /5/ 71 • So
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- 1.000 00 0 •0 ,+Z //4 ZS
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IF. 5. 3/
a STRESS
PIPW<; .L£,J<lBI\..ITY ANALYSIS (. .. ~ • FOkM ['1
THE MW KELLOGG CO 6-EQUATlONS ft,:~~;~~_~'ff' CAL~·S.5
132
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 133

CCNVERSIO"l TO POINT 0' 7 / Z J 4 J ~

COO" RULES , - IS.ao 0 0 • 1.25 ... 12..50
• /.25 • 1.25

~= /.3~4M
y - /0.00 0 • 8.75 ... 1.25 0 - 1.25 -
0
47.5(J - 1.25

-- ---- - -- --
z •- IS.OO - /5.00 0 0 0 0 0 0
St. !a.. S'l:
S· ,
&. ~,c .R
E,
/5450 PSI
M,
F,
F
F
•
-•
403.97
9'0.50
59.3/
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~

-
1Z"78 15~O
-
J:.-od-:J - 211'.1 2049 ~ 7~8
R"
Rc Ec:: ~
...F "Z
-F'Z·v
• /4- ADS -
-
f44()8 0 0 0
• • •
0 0

R' ""En
·--
+ SO> 0 519 -
" -- 0 7' Z 8/7 ... 7'

WHICHEva IS GREATf
S" M
M
+F'Z·x
IZ 876 -
/80
4'''''+-
1530 - Z 04'3-
070

·-
Z. 1Z3

.
2 }23 -
99' -
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2049 +
2SS -
7'8 ...
/8/
•
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~f:; ..fJ' Zf.J -F."z.

·
"0
~o'o -
0
GO.
0
0 0 " 0 0
7' 0
0 0
7'

~= (1-" C) M
, -• 4''0
1/
-
282 +
I 070 -
716(,
- J 070
•
99~
G,
-
~ '" -
/9Z5 -
/8/ -
!OMI - 07
/8/ - S
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{Z
~=
+F.·y
., • 4040 0 - J S~5 - 50S 0 • 505 t 19189 SO,
·•
01-

R'· CALCULATED
I -
M,
14408 0
lat; ... 7 fur; ...
0 -
t.y ...
I 20/ -
/9Z -
12. 006 -
fO aSI -
12.01
/0777 ...
0
8 4fZ ...
- 1201
77/G
REACTIONS e"~E"D OH
HOT MOOULUS.
,
I Eh
SIN '"
COSo<.
0
, /

•
y z PLAtJE %
M', M' M' M. - " ZS5 - 10 081 Ie 777
+M'" .M' "CO.!> 0( - 0
-M' ~M'cz ~M'" "SINO!; 0 - Z 04!J
:L M'. - 0 255 - Z 049
..M':r .. M'>c .M' ''::'It.I 0<- - I I
.M' .. M'cz M' >ccoso<. - Z IH 0

PIPE Z f-12 l
M, - 0134 Z IZ!J - /81
.dO/!,4
,e Z.UO 2.uO
5 ·f M /0 519 IfZ
5' -f,BM b
2St.-fMt 85Z
z"" 2/38
,
5 .5 .45 111450000 3103000
5 *"5' "5 -5, 11447
THE MWKELLOGG COl,
H • .:r,
,IPING, :'LE~~~ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS CAe
aRM -I
•"
A.
MOMENTS AND STRESSES 4 C 05.5

CONVERSiON TO POINT A
cooe ·RiJLES , • Z.~.75
•- Z:. 00
E. _ Y 0 soao
r,;-- z 0 0

--
SI!_~'S'1!. F - 403.97
F +- 360.51
So' PSI F + 59.3
&
R'-lh
Ee,C
.R
M,
..F .z
+
0
64[ - Z 123
0
Re_8.. ~ -F 0 • Z.~"
R' - Eh
WHtCHEV'E~ IS
S"
GRCA"TER
M •- 84<
0 ·•- 843
/80

~ .. ..F","x
-F,,"z
• 140'
0
/483
0
~= (J-JC) M
, •
+
1 JOl
/G -
• I 303
1/ 2Sl

~. .. F."y
- ., -
0
Z2 81Z
•- 20/99
24 O{J
R'· CAU:ULATl!O , - {sox - {!l0!'
REACTIONS eA~fD oN SIN (II.

HoT MODULlJ~, E.. coso<.

, y z PLAtJE
M' M' M' M•
.M, • M' )((,050(
-M -M'~ -M'. "SINO!;
:L M',
..M'z ... M'" M' 1(1)1t.l0<-
M' +M'z M'"cosec:
M,
IP Z f-12 Z
,e
5 ·f M
S' -f,BM b
25 =fMt
5 .S .45
5 '5' "5 -S',

THE MWKELLOGG CO.l, "IPING. r_L~~I.",ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS CALC.

FORM - I
•"'
~,<:.
MOMENTS AND STRESSES 4_ -$ I a oS
134 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
y

I
r------~_l::o'

FIG. 5.8 System with two hinge joints.

A1- - - - - - - - ,

Flo. 5.7 Pipe line with OUel end hinged. of the moment equation for line AB by the known
forces F;e and Fy'
are omitted, and since !l1:;:1 GXA, 0%0 ' , 01/.1, OyO" 0:0'1 Sample Calculation 5.6 covers a typical hinged
XA, Y,lall are equal to zero the equations may be expansion joint system. In this simple case XB = 0,
written thus: Fx = 0, and FlI = EI*6. l1 /s aa . The case of three
rotation joints where thc flexibility of the piping is
F, Fy Constant
not involved is covered in Chapter 7.
Sb -Sa - EI*8 z A It is also possible to handle problems where the
8bb -Sab +EI*ll:cA clast'idly of the terminal connection has a significant
-Sab +Saa +EI*.1 I1 A effect. Of such cases, the most important is that
F, and F yare obtained by solving the deflection of the rotation of a nozzle on a cylindrical shell. 4
equations; the rotation at A may now be obtained In Section 3.14 it was shown that the rotation of
from the first equation, the nozzle due to shell deflection could bc cxpressed
A more general case is shown in Fig. 5.8. The in tcrms of a virtu'al length L, representing the
pipe line has two hinge points which are not located length of a fictitious extension with the same rigidity
at the terminals. For convenience, the origin is as that of thc pipe line. This value of L is used in
placed at a hinge point. Noting that the moments the formulas of Table 5.7 to calculate a set of shapc
are zero at both hinge points, the following equations coefficients expressing the cffect of nozzle rotation.
are written: The shape coefficients obtained are simply added

Equation M,(=O) F, Fy Constants

1 +s +Sb -Sa EI*[(0'8 - 0',8) +(0" - 0',,)]
2 +Sb +Sbb -Sab EI*[ - c" + Y8(0'8 - 0',8)]
3 -Sa -Sab +Saa EI*[-c,y - X8(0,8 - 0',8)1

where the shape coefficients are summed from 0' to A. to those ordinarily calculated; hence a detailed ex-
Eliminating the rotations in the deflection equa- ample is not included. However, the results of a
tions: calculation made both with and without the effect
of nozzle rotation are shown in Section 3.14.
F z(XB8bb - YBSab) + F y(YBSaa - XnSab)
= EI*(x8c" + YBC,y) 5.14 Skewed Members
AB F:r;YB = FyXn since ft.f z = 0, When a member docs not lie in a coordinate plane
nor in a plane which is parallel to a coordinate plane
F = EI*(x8'c" + X8YUC,,,) it is said to be skewed. To calculate such a member
, Xn , Sbb - 2 XnYnSab +'
Vn Saa or group of members) it is necessary to introduce an
auxiliary coordinate system, one coordinate plane of
F = EI* (Y8' c,,, + XIIY8C,,) which is parallel to a plane which includes the skewed
11 Xn 2S bb - 2XllYBSab + VI/Saa
member, and the origin and one axis of which coin-
The rotation at B, (0,8 - o',B), ca.l be obtained 41f the piping is relatively stilT and the shell is relatively
from either of the eqs. (2) or (3), after which the flexible) the conventional assumption of rigid fixation is
likely to lead to high indicated reactions and consequent
rotation at 0, (0" - 0',,), can be obtained from heavy nozzle reinforcement whereas recognition of the elas-
eq. (1). The rotation 0' ,B is obtained by multiply- ticity of the shell would show that reactions are low and rein-
ing the respective shape coefficients, (Sb and -sa), forcement is not required.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 135
MEMBERS '-3 3-4 MEMBER S •• Y
0
t
IX.50
.75
62.m
.5"0
,-.
Z-3
/S3Z.~!iO
7~0 y
T-
o· .. / 7\ M,

~*
I 34.8.52S.0 2 '$14.8 3·5 0
Z
R
004/
44./X)
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fi!l~ •
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DE .. 10-
k
.M
1/.8
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2.2.70
29.00
22.70
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o Eht/ S<15'.:'f
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~,
Q .1.00 IZ.lde
~ MATERIAL

~
• ~
'%CJ!. f'ZNO. I%CR.'Z/1(}.

...
~ TEMP. 1000 F loaO f:
... 8
w
D BRANCH
Z
-«
e

h.
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- 0
x
UJ -28.25" 00 I!N -1.00 (.O074{.; ~
ll. hy ~
ll.
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• 1.1.17,1
2

h. , -44.00'
Ekl.6X/J 4- 57.n'
f"IOy! H ·'S~8721,J(,O
Ej,IOr!r44
COLO 5PRlIJ MOMENTS (FT -LB) AND FORCES L8) ACTINq ON RESTRAINTS Sh- 76"00 p~i
Fw:TORC.O COL.D CONDITION HOT CONDITiON 5c· /8750 psi
lJ) POINT 0' A Sf ·~A~~'tg~rED
I- M.
.
:>TI'Il:S5
S M
-(;8 SSG 0
SUo
AT POINT I
psi
'"
W
M,
a: F. 5A·~f~~~t~l'lo.XO
F
. "' ., -
r 1200 -/200
h • as 300 psi
THE MW. KELLOGG COl PIPING_':.L~~I.~I~IIY AND S,!.RESS ANALYSIS
ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS o"....TE
A
CAL NO.s.f.:,

Table 5.7 Shape Coefficients Expressing the Effect of Nozzle Rotation

R
Position of
Nozzle
a a a b

8 L L L
Sa a X L aXL aXL
s, b X L bXL bXL
q -L sin a cos a o o
cq eX q o o
u L X cos 2 0: o L
u. (0 X u) - (b X q) o 8.
eu eX u o cXL
v L X sin:! a L o
v. (b X v) - (0 X q) 8, o
cv c X V cXL o
8" + c'q (a X 8,) + (c X cq) a X Sb a X Sb
euo c X ~to o C X Sa
cV o C X Vo C X Sb o
8•• c'v + (a X 8.) + (c Xcv) (a X 8.) + (c Xcv) a X Sa
8" c'u + (b X 8,) + (c X cu) b X 8, (b X 8,) + (C X CU)
ltD" Voc + (a XU.,) + (b X v o) 8"
where the virtual length L is given by
L ~
I
0.017-,
Tm
-
t
(R)ll
1 = moment of inertial in. '\ of the pipe in the system corresponding to Q = 1.
rm = mean radius of nozzle, in.
R = mean radius of vessel, in.
t = thickness of shell \vith pad included, in.
136 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 5.8 Formulas for Plane Rotating about x-Axis
M, F, F, F,
+.-1'zvcos a +A'%I COSa +B'zlIcos a +B';u cosa
+A'u -A':u sina +A'zli sina +B';%% -E'n sin a +B'zl/sina
+Jl'lIl1cos2a +A'1I1 cos 2a +B'U%C050: +B'lIl1cos2a +B'lIl COs 2 a
+A'us in 2 a + (11' f
1111 -
sin 2a
A u) - 2 - -B'usina +B'usin2a -B"/lsin 2 a

-A'", sin 2a _ (B'

v' + B') sin22a + (B '
III 1111
_ B' ) sin 2a
u 2

+A'ucos 2 a +B'u; coso: +B"II cos 2 a +B'" cos 2 a

+A'uusin2a +B'lIzsin ex -E'I/I sin:! a +B'1I11 sin:! ex
+A'uzsin 2a + (B ' 1111 _ B':: ) sin22a + (B ' zv + B') :;in2 20:
II'

+C'ZII coso: +C' cosO!

1
Zl

G'n -C'z: sin a +C sin a::

%11

+C'1I11 cos 2a +C'u: cos 2a

F': = Fz +C'usin2a +(C ' _ C' ) sin 20:'
III/ U 2
F' JI = F 1/ cos a + F z sin a -G'1I1 sin 2a

F', = F,casa - FI/sina

M'.,. = Af;f: +C'u cos 2 a
:A['" = .AlII COSa + .M,sina +C'1I11 sin 2 a
111', = ltl,cosa -Afl/sina +C'lIzsin 2a

Table 5.9 Formulas for Plane Rotating about y-Axis

M, F, F,
+A'ucos:!a +.t1';r:llcosa +A.';r:z cos 2a +B';r:;r:cos 2 a +B';r:1I cos a
+A'usin:la +:1'II: sina + ( ,1 ' IZ -
, s i n 2a
A. u) - 2 - +B'usin2a +B'zll sin a -B':;r:sin:la

_ E'" ) ::-ill 2a
+A'u sin2a '
+ (B ;r:: +
B') sin 2a
u 2 + (8 ' u ">;r:z 2

+A'II:cos a +B'II;r: COsa +B'II: cos a

-A';r:lI sina +B'u: sin 0: +B'1I11 -B'II;r:sin a

+A'"cas:!o: +B':;r: cos 2 a +B':lIcos a +B'u cos:! 0:

+A';r:;r:sin 2 a -B';r:: sin 2 0: -B';r:1I sin 0: +B';r:;r: sin:! a
- . -t';r:: sin 2a ' _ B' ;r:;r: ) sin2 2a _ (B' B') ~!n 2a
+ (B u u+ n 2

+C';r:;r: cos 2 a +C';r:1/ cos a +C'II cos 2a

+C'z: sin:! 0: +C'II: sin a +(C':: - C',rr) sil1 2a
2
+C';r:: sin 2a
----------~-------
+C/I/: cos a
F';r: = F;r: cosa - F, sin a +C'''II -C';r:lI sina
F'II = F II
F': = F,caso: + F;r:sina +C/", em;:! a
Jf';r: = Af;r: cos 0: - .M: sin a +C';r:;r:sin:!o:
;1['11 = Af ll
..11': = ltfzcosa + .M;r:sina -C'rz sin 2a
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
cide with those of the principal coordinate system.
The shape coefficients are computed the regular way
in this auxiliary system and tMh transformed to the
principal coordinate system by means of the formulas
of Tables 5.8, 5.9, and 5.10.
Figure 5.9 shows a pipe line in which members 2-5
are shown in a plane rotated ",°
off the standard
y-axis, and members 8-A arc shown in a plane ro-
tated "2° off the standard x-axis. The entire system
is shown broken up into working planes. Since two
different skews are involved, they must be handled
separately. It is possible to set up skewed members
in each of two skewed planes. To illustrate this,
members 2 to 5 are shown in both x'- and v'-planes,
depending upon the selection of the prime axes and
of the corresponding direction of the angle ",.0
Members 8-A are shown only in a z' -plane, but
the reader will see they could have been set up in
an x' -plane also. However, the shape coefficients
are computed only once in one or other of the two
possible planes.
The c-value for members 0'-2 is readily apparent
by inspection as K,. For members 8-A, remember-
liThe rotation of the planes follows the general rule: counter-
clocl..-wise positive; clockwise negative; 80 that a in Fig. 5.ge
is a positive, and in Fig. 5.9/, a negative, angle.
137
ing that c is the perpendicular distance of the
projected plane from the parallel plane at the co-
ordinate origin, c is equal to K 2 sin 0::2 shown on
Fig. 5.9g. The signs of K, and K, sin "2 indicate
the direction of these distances from the coordinate
origin in their auxiliary planes. It will be noted
that member 2-3 could have been placed in the
z-plane with members 0'-2 as an inclined member.
The choice is arbitrary. Likewise member 8-9
could have been placed with members 6-8. Also
member 12-A could have been placed in a z- or
x-plane, but here, in the interest of keeping down
the number of working planes, it is most advisedly
calculated as part of the z'-plane.
Sample Calculation 5.7 shows the main steam sys-
tem for a power station, calculated from the boiler
header to the throttle valve (at 0). The expansions
of the turbine leads and connections and the super-
heater header (usually given by the manufacturers)
are included. The turbine leads as indicatcd by
dotted lines are assumed to be infinitely stiff. The
members 0' to 2 are calculated in the z'-plane for
" = - 45°. Once the coefficients are converted on
Form D-5 according to the formulas given in
Table 5.9, the procedure is the same as for the
previous multi plane systems, except that the co-

Table 5.10 Formulas for Plane Rotating about z-Axis

M. M, M. F. F, F,
+A.':;r:rcos 2 a +A'zli cos 2a +A' cos a
%E +B' cos 2 a
%% +B';rll cos:! a +B';rz cos a:
+..1'1111 sin 2 a + (1'
I %;I;
-A' 1111 )8in2a
2 -A'I/ z sino: +B'lIl1 si n :l a -B 1
lIZ sin a
2
-B'll: sin a

_ B' ) sin 2a
-A'zlI sin 2a _ (B' Zli + B'l/z) Sin 2a
2 + (B' n l/l/ 2

+A ' l/l/ cos 2 a +A'l/' cosa +B ' l/ Z cos 2 a +B'l/l/cos 2 a +B ' v: cos a
+A'n sin 2 a +A' == sin a -B'zvsin2a +B' zz sin 2 a +B'z: sin a
, ,sin 2a
+A' Zli sin 2a + (B' n _ B' vv ) sin22a +(B '" + B ,.) - 2 -

+B' zz cos a +B';rvcos a

-B'J:v sin a +B'J:rsin a +B' ..
2
+C'zz cos a +C' Zli cos 2a +C'=: cos a
+C'vv sin 2 a + (C ' n _ C' lIli ) sin22a -C'lI: sin a
-C' zv sin 2a
Jlf'. = "'II:
F'r = Fzcosa + Fvsina +C'lIV cos 2 a +C'u: cosa'
F'v = Fvcosa - Fzsina +C' %I' sin 2 a +C' z: sin a
F'I: = F: +C'Zll sin 2a

1.'/'Z = Mzcosa + Musina

Jlf'lI = Ml/cosa - },fzsina +C' ..
138 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
0' I , 3

2
,
9

, 12 5
, K, 0
6

0
5 , A

,
6 7 0/,
K, K2 (0$ ((2
, ,

• ,
y-Plono
C)'=O
z-Pklllo
Cz = 0
0'
2
"

5
6
0
(b)
I 6
D'
7
(c)
x
o
(d)
x

,
,
Jr:=t" , sl,
"
9
10 11

12

3r'=-{90~O/1)O
5 A

x'-Plono
C;=O
, cz'=
z'-Plone
- K2 $in ((2
y'-Plono (f)
• (e) 2 C';=O '-------------x' (9)
3 2 FIG. 5.9 Multiplane configuration with skewed members.

,
~
M.
Y\ M,
4L- o' 730-
<
IF,
$tJpe~HeAreR HE/iWR.
9 CotINl:CT/ON

MW KELLOG:J CO PIPING FLE I I~)&~~~ STRE S ANALYSIS F M k

"TC • os. CALC NO 5.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 139

MEMBERS 2-0 0'-/ y

x
o 13. U5

-:J\ ,
1.3.626>
~ /.'''7$ 1.~(J7S

I F,
Z
R
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6.00
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/.50
= fOO/'
~, ~y
.•s e
IF,
h .3.4/

~ k
1.07
< ,
I. 'IS
< /
Y PLANE
z
Eh -10·" 22.70 22.70 Cy,O
2 Ec.-ro· 29.00 29.00
o f II 18/2G81(; I~ 266 9e.O
lI1 Q /.00 /.00
~ MATERIAL I Yo C.€'. I % CR.
~ TEMP. 1000 F /000 F
W e .00726 .0072~
D BRANCH 0':'0
Z -92. 75 (.0072(,)-. OfIt;7 - .011"7·
<: 6,

rtf
-.75t>71
UI -7Z.75(0072C -.020S3.
a.
;A"'~
-: 54900

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-/7.25 (.007Z' •
-./~5Z4
Z' P:AN<
C'Z·-"3.4S'
.~ '----...-,'R ~--;;'-=--~
0(_-45- ('< _ I '"
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Eh1bylt+ -"'If SIt. '100 S YS To!'N( 0 X PO,NI:. Y
EttIllllj 44 -22 702 Ita R07A7Ef) ABOVT y< AXIS C1<' ... 6<;.75'
COLD SPRIIJCi MOMENTS (FT -La) AND FORcl:S Le) ACTING ON RE5TRAINTS 5 ... : 7.800
FACTORC.o COLD CONDITION HOT CONDITION 5c ·'S;OOO
tI) POINT o' 0 5E .~:..~;,'~~rro
I- M, -12 725 ~/74!iO :.TAfSS
:5
lI1
M
M.
"'o,aoo
-/"',600
"", 'fOO
-,?:"SC
.6.325
AT POINT
psi
UI F, .,. 91>0 -9{;0
IX: F .,. 2.020 -2020
Fz ~370 -370 ,,20700 psi
~.""'C
HE MWKELLOGG COl PIPING _,LEXI.~llIl Y AND STRESS ANALYSIS
ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS
V>lfCO<£O M
O'-'T£
FO M A
CALC NO. 5.7

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COORDINATES
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140 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

, tJ7 of 0"
0<
SHAPE
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' 'OGG CO"PIPINC FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS ~~' ~ FORM 0-1
HE MW. KEL L: -'-ISHAPE COEFFICIENTS FOR CIRCULAR MEMBERS ;"'~~I<~0l!_ - _ C ....LC N'I? .7

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PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
THE MW
, , KELLOGG CO SHAPE COEFFICIENTS FOR CIRCULAR "'EMBE RSPAn -
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD l·n

PLAf'JE l( Z'(o; .. -45"

MEMBER 9-8 8-? ""-7-6 9-5 2-1 1-0' 2-0'

SHAPE
LJ-D D
k 107 I 107 I .5
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THE MW KELLOGG CO elf No ~~Wll):i,lF') S :SS ANALYSIS ,," ~ 5.7

PLANE y y y y
MEMBER 0-/1 10-9 C-If 5-4 4·3 c·o C-9 5·2 0-9 5-2

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k 107 107 107

Q lOt! I 100 10 100 100 100 10
R 60 ~(){) 600
L 48 75 16 75 150 (, 51 ..33 75
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143
144 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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C l 0.5.

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CAL
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MOMENTS AND STRESSES • - C I 0

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1
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 145
effieients from the skewed planes are added on Table 5.11
Form D-3 above the spaces for the X-, y-, and
z-planes. Con-
.\00 }.l/zp FZ1' FliP M:Q 1"%Q 1"IIQ M:s F;r;s Fus
::-tttut
5.15 Branchcd Systcms
AI' B1' Dl' AR BR DR ,1T BT DT 0
The procedure for calculating a plpll1g system Bl' C1' G1' BR CR GR BT CT GT 1<:/* .1;rJ>
with branches follows that for a line with only two D1' G1' Hl' DR GR HR DT GT HT E/*J.yp
end points except for ccrtain steps in obtaining the
AR BR DR AQ BQ DQ All BR DR 0
equations, in particular, the calculation of the liR CR GR BQ CQ GQ BR CR GR HI* ..\rQ
movements, and the summation of the shape co- DR GR HR DQ GQ HQ DR GR IIR HI* .iuQ
efficients. Only those operations which are unlike ---
those for two point systems, previously described AT B,· DT An ER Dn As B s Ds 0
in Section 5.12, are diseussed in this section. ET CT GT En CR GR Tis Cs Gs HI'" ..\zs
DT GT liT Dn GR liR Ds Gs lIs HI'" J.!/s
In calculating the movements, expansion is con- ---
sidered to be directed from the fixed end, designated
0', to the end points of each of the branches, called Table 5.12
free ends, which for the four-braneh system shown F.Q
M:l' M:Q 1\[:8 1"Z1' F:s 1"111' FIiO FilS Consttlnt
in Fig. 5.10 are designated P, Q, and 8. Therefore, Ap An AT Bp BR BT Dp DR DT 0
the movement in the x- and y-directions from 0' to AQ AR En TiQ TiR DR DQ DR 0
each free end and the products EI*D. x and EI*D.. ,1s BT ER Es DT DR Ds 0
must be detennined separately. Cp CR CT Gp GR GT El* !1::p
In caleulating the shape coefficients, it is good CQ Cn Gil GQ GR EI*!1:rQ
practice to set them up and sum them separately Cs GT GR Gs El* ..lrS
Ill' IIR lIT EI*!1IJJ'
for eaeh branch involved. The braneh from the IIQ lIn EI*!:J./lQ
first intersection between two free end branehes to lIs HI'" .ius
the fixed end 0' is called the eommon braneh with
respect to the said free end branehes. Henee, the sum from a point under consideration to the fixed
common branch is O'R for branches P and Q, O'T end 0' with the corresponding subscript letter, the
for 8 and P, and O'R for 8 and Q. In setting up system of equations given in Table 5.11 ean be set up.
the equations for the free end branches, the shape It is usually advantageous to arrange the equa-
coefficients are summed from the free end under tions so that the rotation equations first appear, and
consideration to the fixed end 0'. The coefficients then the deflection equations, since the constants
thus obtained are multiplied by the respective reac- for the former are O. This is shown in Table 5.12.
tions at the free ends, designated as AI: p , F:x.p, Fyp; In this rearrangement the symmetry of the co-
M: QJ F:x.Q, FyQ ; Jil zs , F:x.sI FI/s, The effect of one efficients is preserved. As in previous problems,
free-end branch on another is obtained by multiply- only the quantities on and to the right of the prin-
ing the reactions of the former by the coefficients of cipal diagonal, need be set up on the equation form
their common braneh. Designating the shape co- sheet. Once obtained, the equations are solved in
effieients as A, B, C, D, G, H and indicating their the usual manner.
The moments are calculated on Sheet F-1. Here
,--------1s again, each branch is grouped separately. The
forces and moments obtained from the equations
are the reactions at the coordinate origin of the
'1--------1 p branches P, Q, and S. Accordingly, these values
are entered on the form sheet for the appropriate
branch; thus the moments and forces with the sub-
seript 8 are for the braneh 8-1', the moments and
-I---------j Q forces with the subscript P are for the braneh P-T,
and those with subseript Q are for branch Q-R.
For the branch 1'-R, the sum of P and 8 is used;
o,If- --' for the branch 0' -R, the sum of 8, P, and Q.
I In setting up the coordinates for the calculation
FIG. 5.10 Four-branch system. of the moments at various points, a point-by-point
146 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
.-------1'
.I-------IQ
o'f------'
FIG. 5.11a Three-branch system,
method is used, proceeding from S to T, from P
to T, T to R, from Q to R, and from 0' to R, For
the junction point R the sum of the moments must
equal zero. This condition serves as a check for
t,he calculations.
When the results are entered on Sheet A, it must
be remembered that 0' is the end assumed "fixed,"
and P, Q, and S are the ends assumed "free." The
guide for the signs given in Chapter 4 also applies
here.
As a suitable example, the three-branch system
given as Sample Calculation 5.7 has been enlarged
to include the flexibility of the leads from the
throttle valve to the turbine. This calculation is
labeled 5.8.
The working planes for these leads are shown on
Form A-I. The computation and the summation
of the new coefficients are shown on Forms ])-2 and
t.he summations with previous coefficients from
Sample Calculation 5.8 are shown on Forms ])-3.
Since this is a multiplane system with 3 points of
fixation, 12 simultaneous equations are required for
t he solution. These are set up and solved with the
standard procedure on Forms B-2 and B-3 and the
moments and stresses are determined OIl Forms F-l.
The check of these equations is not shown but is
carried out in a manner similar to that shown for
six equations in Sample Calculation 5.5, Form E-l.
5.16 Intermediate Restraints
Discussion of the details of the various stops and
guides used as intermediate restraints will be re-
~erved for Chapter 8. The present section will give
the procedure for including their effects in the flexi-
bility analysis. Although applicable to any type of
restraint the treatment will be confined for sim-
plicity of presentation to restraints which prevent
translatory but not rotary movement.
The problem of the intermediate restraint may
bc approached from the branched system discussed
in Section 5.15. Referring to Fig. 5.lla, the branches
O'-R-P may be considered a pipe line which is acted
upon by the restraint of branch R-Q. If the mem-
bers of the branch R-Q are now reduced to zero
length so that point Q coincides with point R, all
the coefficients with the subscript Q will become
zero. The moment, forces, and expansions with
that subscript may be given the subscript R. The
six equations which could be written for this single-
plane system would still be valid although, since
the point R is now an anchor, it would be simpler to
solve the system as two separate lines, O'-R and
R-P. Consider, however, that the line is allowed
to pivot at point R, so that the moment at point R
caused by the restraint is zero. As shown in Fig. 5.llb,
the system now becomes a single line with fixed
terminals of points 0' and P and with no translatory
displacement permitted at point R.
The first six equations of Table 5.13 are written
in accordance with Table 5.11, based on summed
shape coefficients A, B, ·..H for which the subseripts
P and R indicate summations from those points re-
spectively to the fixed end 0'. The seventh equa-
tion expresses the fact that there is no moment
restraint at point R. The unknown rotation at
point R, 8,R, is eliminated by multiplying eq. 4
by -YR and +XR and by adding these equations
to eqs. 5 and 6 respectively as shown in Table 5.14.
Finally, to satisfy the relation expressed by eq. 7,
the coefficients in the M'R column are multiplied
by (-YR) and (+XR), and the products are added
to the coefficients in the F zR- and FuR-columns
respeetively. The equations obtained are given in
Table 5.15.
It should be noted that if M'R = -yRFzR +
xRFuR is written out as illustrated in Table 5.14,
the correct signs are obtained for the constants by
which the rotation equation is multiplied for addi-
tion to the two deflection equations.
For a multi plane line the following moment ex-
pressions must be written:
A/xR = -ZnFIJR + YnFzR forFllandFzstops
and AJ yll = -xRF zR + ZnFxR for F: and F.r: stops
~-------lP
o'f-------'
FIG. 5.11b Intermediate restraints.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENEHAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 147

21. (J()'

PIPING FLE I ILITY AND STR S ANALYSIS Mk

MW KELLOCI3 C SKETCH CLCN05-

MEMBERS A-O· B'O /·0 0:' y

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EntA)'/I~4 - 99 516 G(,O
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COLO 5PRIIJG MOMENTS (FT -L8) AND FORCeSlL6) ACTING ON RESTRAINTS Sh. 7800 p:li
FACTORC·O COLD CONDITION HOT CONDITION 5c' 15,000 psi
lJ) POINT O· A S Se: '~;..o;.o~.'~;~r[D
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CAl.C.
ISILITY AND SIRESS ANALYSIS
TI-£ MW KELLOGG ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS '"'
O ....TE "Z~
• • E'.
r:s CAL NO. 58
liS DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

PLANE Z y
MEMS.ER A IS /S-14 .., /4-/.3 A-/3 1.,3-/2 12-0 /.3-0

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'B~ 8 RANCH
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THE MW KELLOGG CO elf NO ,gf!!~IU'):tA11f\r'~; r~S ANALYSIS
". '.-

I
 FLEXillILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD H9

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PIPING XLEXIBILITY Af.'!'? STRE2.':>.. ANALYSIS
<: .... L.c. M -
THE MW KELLOGG SUMMATION OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
Glol
o. •
CICIO
,- - CALC.NO.5.B

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THE MW KELLOGG COl ,!;;'~~ sG~~WI~~',)Ai\'A~E '&~M~~h~1!5
CAl.C.
CH M -
ox, <;1(1;:
I - ~-J.3 CALC. NO. 5.8

~---------------------
 .....
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H x ~ HYA HYB fr, rA PXA P'YA ;:y~ FZA FrlJ ONSTANTS

I f' .J1611 r Z.JtJtJ4 () 0 +, r 13 f '5 Z f- ~ 2 1'.3 1c. +3 34 - 7 - 69a 0
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THE M.W KELLOGG CO PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS ~~;~~.o

o"n: /I.
n;.,";:'" b~
z,3 • .!5.3
Fo",,,
CALC.
"-2-
No. :S.8
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENEHAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 151

FxA Fx8 FYA hA

i
-I F'B CONSTANTS
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152 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

A 0'
CONVERSIOt-l TO
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POINT
, -1'1.110 - / .00 ,.
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THE MWKELLOGG CO.l PIPING FLEXI.".ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS CA_
~.
FORM -I
. MOMENTS AND STRESSES "'
o. C o .:5".11

Table 5.13
Equation J.-frJ> F,p F,p 1I-f r R F'R F,R Constant
I +Al' +Bp +D p +An +BlI +D 1I 0
2 +Bl' +C p +Gp +BR +ClI +GlI +EI*il,p
3 +D p +G p +H p +D1/ +Gn +H R +EI*il,l'
4 +AR +Bn +Dn +An +Bn +Dn -EI*O:R
5 +B R +CR +Gn +Bn +Cn +Gn +EI*(+il,R - YRe'lI)
6 +DR +GR +HR +DR +Gn +HR +EI*(+il'R + XRe,R)
7 Af'zR = }'f rR + YnFzR - XnFyR = 0

Table 5.14
Af zit
EquatiOiI M: p F,p F,p = (-ynF zn + XllFI/R) Fzll F'R Constant
5 +B" +C" +G" +B" +C" +GR EI*(+d.:rn - Y1l8: R )
-YRxEq.4 -ynA n -YnBll -YllD ll -YnAn -yRB n -YnDn EI' (+Yne,R)
+BR +CR +Cu +GR
I> 5'
-YnAu -ynEn
+G"
-YnDn
+B"
-YnAn -ynBn -YnDu
EI*(+il,,,)
Ij +D R +GR +H R +D" +GR +IlR EI*( +il,R + Xne,R)
+x" X Eq. 4 +xnA R +xnB n +xnD R +xRAll +xnBn +xnD n EI*(-xne.R)

L ~ 6' +D" +GR +IlI, +DR +G" +Il R EI* (+il,R)

+xRAn +xnB ll +xRD R +xnA n +xRB R +xRD R
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
at a point R with coordinates XR, Yn, zn in reference
to the origin.
If the stops are located at the' coordinate origin,
the eliminations are obviously unnecessary and the
equations may be written directly.
Sample Calculation 5.9 uses the piping of Sample
Calculation 5.8 'vith a z-stop at the origin and v-stop
at point C. The summation of the shape coefficients
for O'-C is shown on Form D-3; the other sum-
mations are shown in previous examples. The
153
elimination of the rotation equation at C is shown
on Form J. The equation solution is omitted.
5.17 Calculation of Dcformations at any Point
After the simultaneous equations have been solved.
and consequently the moments and forces are known)
it is a simple matter to calculate the deflections and
rotations at any given point in the piping. By
summing the shape coefficients from the terminal
to the point in question and arranging them in

Table 5.15
Equation M,p F,p F,p F'R F,R Constant
1 +Ap +B p +Dp [ +BR
-YRAR ] [+D R
+xnA n ] 0

2 +B p +C p +G p [ +C R
-YRBR ] [+GR
+xnB n
l
J
+EZ*t;xp

3 +D p +Gp +Hp [+G R

-YnDn ] [+H.
+xRD. ] + EZ*t;yp

5' [+BR
-YRAn
] [+CR ]
-YRB.
[+GR ]
-yRD R
[+CR
-2y nB R

+y.'A R
] -ynD R ]
[+GR
+xRB.
-znynA R
+ EZ*t;x.

6' [rD. ]
+x.AR
[+GR ]
+xRBR
i+
HR
_+xRDRJ
l +xRB R ]
[+GR
-ynD n
-ZnYnAR
+2x RDR
[+HR
+Xn 2A R _
1 + EZ*t;YR

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MW KELL083 CO PIING LE I I'§KEf<!~ S RESS ANALYSIS

...TII<: • • .,; _
fAt<-
C LC NO 5.9
154 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

MEMBERS R-O lJ·a /'.. () O'-t

o O. 0 /o.so I. / .
t .43z. /.432 t. /. B'l
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E,.IllI/IH - 22 702/2
(OLD 5PRIl-iG MOMENTS (FT-LB) AND FORCES (L6) ACTING ON RESTRAINTS 5hS 73"0 p~i
F,ACTORC,O COLP CONDITION HOT CONDITION 5c· /5; 000 psi
V) POINT (J' II Sf ·~i..~~6~T[D
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OC 1= -I-- 3/ 0 - 0 + 30 -4<;90
F:r. +$(;6 of--ZO o
c... c.
-, • 247tJO psi
F M A
THE MW KELLOGG COl PIPINGO~1~~~lt'T6~~ A~mut~~LYSIS COl
OATE
>(ED
(. CALC NO.5.

i M, I M, M, I F, Fv R,
-
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0: 0 + 9JI + 92 + IJ5 '9 ~
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- Z tb2 3/
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, ..,
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E .A +/90 20 f'A Yl 0 .6 • - 4 02 :~q .B, 0 +6"1 1/ 04G3Q

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I +C"" -I~49 19Z /0 +c.)lV -462 3all40
i'C Ill; -Z31 9945

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y u.,.,.. ...oo HIG 55 40 -cu." - /9 2JL ~
z. fK..u+ClV -evo
-STOP" SUMMAr/ON - H~HLJE~S - O'-C 1:. .C YV ""85 69' +C VI:. -I4R 33 2
1-/{,8 082 92
••
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r ... C J:l. 1104 8¥> 90
THE MW KELLOGG COI~JP'NG,.rLEXIB'llTY AI~':J. ~,..!RESS ANALYS.b
PLANE SUMMATION OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
t2~~';K'O
O~
"'...... C'. -
It. II_ 2. _ CA C.NO.

I
I

1..
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 155
equation form, the multiplication with the respective second point. Tins part of the pipe line is now con-
moments and forces and the proper summation of sidered as an independent line for which the ter-
these products will yield EI*It;, EI*8 u, EI*8" minal deformations are those calculated for the
EI*(/j*% - ll.), EI*(/j*u - llu), EI*(/j*, - ll,) for previous point.
the point in question where O*XI 0*111 0*:: are the
deflections with reference to the origin. Any Since 0* x = Ox - 20" + yO:
extraneous movement at the terminal point must, 0* tI = 011 - xO:: + zOx
of course, be included in the summation. In other 0* z = 0:: - yO,; + xOJl
words, the pipe line from the terminal to the point
in question is treated as an independent line whose the actual deflections, Ox, all' 0:, can be computed.
free-end deformations can be determined since the A deflection calculation is conveniently made on
moments and forces are known. Form G. The summations of shape coefficients
For the next point for which the deflections are from the terminal to the point in question are entered
required the same procedure is repeated with the under the columns for the respective moments and
shape coefficients summed from the first to the forces, skipping a line between each row. The equa-

• .,'.1S Fw:.

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COr'PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
THE MW.KELLOGG , MOMENTS AND STRESSES • I 0

L
156 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

CONVERSION TO POINT 8 10 // c 0 /I E
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THE MWKELLOGG col i'IPING J55~',\l1-LnNtN~T~l~Ei€sANALYSIS

CoO,LC.

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col. PIPING F~!;~I.~.ILlTY AND'i.TRE.S.?ANALYSIS
"'"'"'
CAe
ORM •I
THE MWKELLOGG "
MOMENTS AND STRESSES - C l

m
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 157
y
tions are completely written out. The moments and
forees are entered at the heads of the columns, and
the products of these and the shape coefficients are AI-----i t
placed in the blank lines. Extraneous movements
or earry-overs from previous points are listed at the r.o:;----l--·
o'
extreme left and the produets at the right of the
sheet performed. The thermal expansion constants .I------J
are computed in accordance with formulas given on FIG. 5.12 Single-plane symmetrical system:
the form. A summation horizontally produces the three points of fixation.
indicated sum (EI*Ox, EI*o% for example) from
y o' y
whieh rotations in radians and defleetions in feet are 0'
found.
Consideration must be given to intervening actions
(branches or stops) between the end point and the
point in question. In Sample Calculation 5.10 the
deflections have been calculated for the piping shown
in Sample Calculation 5.9. The rotations and deflec-
tions at point 0 are calculated twice; by summation
from end A, and again from point 0'. This provides
A
• A
•
FIG. 5.13 Multiplane symmetrical system:
a useful check when points from different branches three points of fixntion.
are computed. From point A to 0 there are no
intervening stops so that the calculation proceeds 0'

as deseribed in the preceding paragraph. Between

0' and 0 there is a stop at point C; the moment
and forces due to this must be dropped out at C.
It is a useful check to note that the 0v at point C and
the 0, at point 0 are zero because of the stops.
5.18 ~ymmetrieal Pipe Lines
One way of reducing the labor involved in flexi-
A
• A

FIG. 5.14 Multiplnne symmetrical system:

bility calculations is to take advantage of symmetry.
The proeedure varies somewhat with the system;
nevertheless, the following examples will illustrate
the general approach. It should be noted that sym-
metry must be complete, that is, the pipe size, tem-
perature, and material must be the same for corre-
sponding branches. Also, the coordinate origin must
be located on the center line of symmetry.
Consider first a single plane system such as that
shown in Fig. 5.12. Because of symmetry, no bend-
ing or rotation occurs in the common branch 0'-0.
Thus thc momcnts and forces for the A branch can
be obtaincd by considering line OA only, assuming
member 0'-0 infinitely stiff.
Next consider a multiplane system as shown in
Fig. 5.13. Due to symmetry, the only deformations
of the common branch 0'-0 occur in the x-plane.
Thus, My, M" and F% are zero for line 0'-0. If
the shape coefficients for this branch are computed
in the x-plane, only s, Sa, Sb, 8 a bt SaaJ and 8bb apply
and their values are doubled in order to account for
the loading from the two branches. In other words,
the common branch may be considcred split in two,
four points of fixation.
each having half the moment of inertia of the pipe,
and consequently a Q-value of 2. Aeeordingly, the
problem can be solved with six equations for line
0'-o-A, using the aforementioned six coefficicnts
for branch 0'-0 and all the coefficients for branch
O-A.
In Fig. 5.14, the rotations 0v and 0, and the trans-
lation 0% are zero at point O. The system ean be
solved by setting up the following nine equations:
5.19 Inversion Procedures
As previously stated, the General Analytical
Method can be applied to the flexibility analysis
of any type of piping configuration. However, the
number of simultaneous equations necessary to
solve the problem increases as the degree of com-
plexity of the system increases, i.e. as thc number
of points of fixation of the system increases. Fur-
thermore, the time required to solve a set of simul-

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THE MW KELLOGG CO I PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

DEFLECTIONS
C.... I-c.
CHEC:Io(I!:O
O ....T.
A.M.e.

12·23 53
p
FORM G
CALC. NO. 5.10
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 159
Table 5.16
M.A MUA M. A F. A FuA F. A EI*8;r; EI*Ou EI*O. EI*o. EI*ou EI*o" COllstant
Au A.u An Bu .~
B. u Bn -I 0 0 0 0 0 0
A uu Au. Bu. B uu Bu. 0 .-I 0 0 0 0 0
An Bn B.u Bn 0 0 -I 0 0 0 0
Cu C. u Cn 0 0 0 -I 0 0 EI*~x
Cuu Cu. 0 0 0 0 -1 0 EI*6 u
Cn 0 0 0 0 0 -1 EI*tl,

Table 5.17
].f~·A MUA M.A F. A FUA F. A EI*O:t EI*Ou EI*O. EI*oz EI*ou EI*o" Constant

-I 0 0 0 0 0 an a. u an bu b.u b.. K,
-I 0 0 0 0 a.u a.. au. bu. b.. bu. K,
-1 0 0 0 a.. au. a.. b.. b. u b.. K,
-1 0 0 b" bu. bn Cu C. u c.. K,
-1 0 b.u buu b. u c. u Cuu CU. K,
-1 b.. bu. b.. c.. Cu. c.. K,

taneous equations increases greatly as the number of
equations increases. Roughly, if the solution of six
equations takes a given amount of time, it would
take four times longer to solve twelve equations,
nine times longer to solve eighteen equations, and so
on. Therefore, eighteen equations representing
four points of fixation for a multiplane system are
considered as an economic limit in manual calcula-
tions.
If equations numbering more than eighteen are en-
countered in setting up the calculations of a complex
piping system, it is generally advantageous to
use the inversion and re-inversion procedures dis-
cussed below. In these solutions a complex piping
system is divided into several simpler parts and
several sets of six or twelve equations are solved
instead of one set of a great many equations. The
time saved by this method increases as the number
of equations increases. In addition, the ealculations
can be performed by several people at the same time
and checking is also simplified.
The inversion methods are very well suited for
automatic electronic computing machines which
have a limited number of storage units. The time
element, which makes manual computations of ex-
ceedingly complicated systems prohibitive, is no
longer an important factor, because of the speed of
the machines. By programming the calculations in
accordance with the inversion procedures, there is
no limit to the complexity of the piping systems
which may be handled.
To illustrate the inversion procedure, the branched
system of Sample Calculation 5.8 is used. The equa-
tion for branch OA can be written as in Table 5.16,
where Ox, 011' O~J OZ/ all, 0% are the unknown rotations
and deflections at the origin. Similar sets of equa-
tions can be written for branches OB and 00'.
Inverting the above equations the set given in
Table 5.17 is obtained.
The equations for the branches OB and 00' are
similarly inverted. For equilibrium, the sum of the
individual moments and forces at the origin must
be zero, and the equation of Table 5.18 is obtained
accordingly.
Table 5.18
EI*Ou EI*O. EI*o. E*Io uEI*o. Constant
La.u La" Lbn Lb. u Lb.. LK, = 0
La uu La u• Lb" Lb uu Lb u• LK, = 0
La.. Lb.. Lb. u Lb.. LK 3 = 0
Len LCzlI Leu 2:K.. = 0
LC uu LC u• LK, ~ 0
LC u LK, = 0
Mter the above equations are solved, the rotationR
and deflections obtained are substituted in the in-
verted equations for each of the three branches, and
the moments and forces are obtained.
Sample Calculation 5.11 gives a detailed calcula-
tion of the system in Sample Calculation 5.8, in
accordance with the above procedure. Junction
point 0, the rotations and deflections of which are
to be determined, is selected as the free end of the
three branches OA, OB, 00'. (This selection is
important when intermediate restraints in any of
the branches are involved; the equations for the
restraints are placed before the rotation and deflec-
tion equations and eliminated first in order to sim-
plify the inversion.) Each branch is solved first
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4'CALC.
THE CHI:CKEO'-':;f c.
17.. EQUATIONS IDATE //- 23 ·.53 CALC, NO. 5,//

--
0-
162 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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QATE I_;?
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0l-t MW KELLOGG col PIPING FLEXI~IL1TY AND STRESS ANALYSIS C"'L

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C~i>'PING h.t"'StLIIY B STRESS j\N~tYSIS ~ FORM E'I
THE MW KELLOGG C 6R EQUATIONS ~:~i~-/?Et'"C CALC. N-S.II
\ 163

~
164 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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!THE MW KELLOW col PIPING FLEXI~ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

AL
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U. - ·67

THE MW. KELLOW COl PIPING FLE'ltlILiTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS "
"~':KlO
J-2
AT" " ~ - CALC NO 5·1/
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY TIlE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
and checked as if it were fixed at both ends using
the known thermal constants EI* 6 z1 EI* 6 11J EI*11:.
For the unknown rotations arit! dcflections (multi-
plied by 1000) the downward operations are carried
out as shown on Form E-2. For the upward solu-
tions the prime equations on Form E-2 are trans-
ferred to Form E-4. As F, is expressed in terms of
the unknown rotations and deflections only, eq. 6'
is mUltiplied by the coefficient for F, in the 5' equa-
tion and added to the same, whereby F y is obtained.
F z is obtained by using the values for F z and
and so on. It should be noted that symmetry about
the diagonal is obtained. Lack of it indicates an
error. Since the results from every column except
the uppermost left-hand one are used to produce
symmetry, only the latter column need be checked.
Since the OA and OB branches are symmetrical,
only the solution of the equations for OA branch
are shown; the difference in signs is easily visualized.
The results of the moments and forces by the in-
version of the three branches are now listed on
Form J and added together, satisfying equilibrium
conditions. Thus a set of six equations for the un-
known rotations and deflections are obtained. These
are now solved on Form E-1, and the moments of
each branch are obtained by substituting the values
in the individual inverted equations as shown on
Form J-I and Form J-2. The figures shown in
brackets are the results from Sample Calculation 5.8
given for comparison.
The above example is naturally solved in much
less time when done as in Sample Calculation 5.8.
However, if two morc branches were connected at
point 0 the standard procedure would require the
solution of 24 equations; the inversion solution
would be less time consuming.
The inversion procedurc is especially suitable
where many branches are joined at one point. A
system shown in Fig. 5.15 which represents 42 equa-
tions when solved by the regular method is solved
by the inversion procedures in the following manner:
The rotations and dcflcctions at 0 are assumed to
be Ox, BYI Oz., Ox, 0," 0: and at point I arc 0' XI Of 111 0' t,
f/ x, b'll, o'z_
Thc system OAB is set up as twelve equations
with A as the fixed end. The six equations for the
B-branch are eliminated first and the rcmaining six
equations are inverted. The systems OeD, I EG,
and IFIl are treated thc same way. A set of twelve
equations can now be set up with the following
unknowns:
165
where
O*x = 0'% - zO'" + yO'z
o*y = a'v - xO': + zO/x
0*: = 0': - yO/x + xO'v
and x, y, z are the coordinates at point I.
The above problem can also be solved by the re-
inversion procedure which makes it possible to
handle almost any piping system, no matter how
FIll complex it may be, without solving sets of equations
of more than six unknowns.
To illustrate this procedure, the system calculated
in Sample Calculations 5.8 and 5.11 is used in Cal-
culation 5.12. From Calculation 5.11 (Form J) the
inverted equations for branches OA and OB are
added togethcr as shown on Form J, and these
equations are now inverted again as indicated on
Forms E-2 and B-1. The result from this reinver-
sion shown on Form E-4 represents a set of equations
for a fictitious line which replaces the two branches.
The coefficients in thcse equations, multiplied by
EI* X 10-·, are the shape coefficients for the ficti-
tious line and can accordingly be added to the shape
eoefficients for branch 00' which are given in Cal-
culation 5.7, as shown on Form D--4, and the problem
can be solved with six equations, shown on Form E-l ~
since it is now reduced to an equivalent two-anchor
problem. The figures shown in brackets are the
rcsults from Calculation 5.8, given for comparison.
By using these moments and forces, the rotations
and deflections can be computed at point 0, and the
G H
E F
FIG. 5.15 Pipe line with eight pointa of fixation.
166 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
moments and forces for branches OA and OB are
obtained in the same way as in Calculation 5.11.
Applying this procedure to th,tsystem shown in
Fig. 5.15, the inverted equations for OAB and OeD
are added and reinverted. The same is done for
1EF and 1GH. The reinverted coefficients arc added
to the shape coefficicnts for 01 and thc six equations
are solved.
5.20 Cold Springing
The Piping Code's rcquirement that cold spring-
ing shall be governed by sound judgmcnt leavcs the
method of cold springing to the erection supcrin-
tendent unless a dcfinite procedure is set up by the
designer which will assure that the correct rotations
and deflections are obtained at the closing joint.
The deflections are conveniently taken care of by
pulling the pipes together the amount specified. The
rotations at the closing joint, however, are more
difficult to match because they are a funetion of
couples to be applied rather than single forces. For
a single plane line the closing joint can be selected
at a point where the moment is zero; even so, it
should be remembered that each free end of the line
must be sprung exaetly the correct amount in order
to make the free end rotations the same. Such a
point may also be inconveniently loeated, however,
and for a multi plane line it is unlikely that a point
will exist where all three moments are zero.
It is generally preferable to make the final joint
as close as possible to one end of the line so that all
but a small part of its flexibility is available in the
longer part of the line. As no pulling is done of the
shorter line, its free end should be located and pref-
erably clamped in its design position. By so doing
it is established that the longer line has to be pulled
in such a way that its end rotations are zero, and
accordingly, a convenient cold spring procedure can
be prescribed since thc nceessary pulling of the
longer line can be computcd.
Sample Calculation 5.13 illustrates a procedure
for cold springing which has been succcssfully car-
ried out by The M. W. Kellogg Company on several
occasions. In this calculation, the main steam line
of Sample Calculation 5.8 is assumed to be cold
sprung 100%. In order to protect the turbine, the
final joint is located at the throttlc valvc, point 0,
permitting the valve to be clamped down in its de-
sign position. Hence, all the cold pull is taken up
by the portion of the line 00'.
The branch 00' has been computed for the full
expansion in Sample Calculation 5.7. Accordingly
the moments and forces required for 100% cold pull
at point 0 are obtained by multiplying the results

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rnt: MW KELLOGJ col PIPING FLEXltllLiTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS ,.

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o
I-'IPING FLEXIBILITY AND ~ TRI:SS ANALYSIS CALC.
THE MW KELLOGG CO CHI:CKED
OATE 12.-03' S!J CALC. NO. .5_/i?

-
~
168 DESIGN OF Pll'ING SYSTEMS

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CO" PIPING FLEX!-,'~L1TY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
~.JI :>UHHATION OF' ~HAPE COEFFICIENTS FOR REtNVERS10H
'HCOllD
M 0-4-
CALC NO Q.le
'"
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 169

of this calculation, shown on Form A, Calculation
No. 5.7, by the ratio of the cold to hot modulus of
elasticity. In practice, howcver,~it is not feasible
to apply a moment at a point. Therefore, three
unknown forces are introduced into the system to
replace the moments. The points of application of
these forces are rather arbitrary; since the purpose
is to prevent rotations at the pulled end (point 0)
their magnitude will deerease as their distance from
that end inereases. However, note that this last
rule applies also as far as the other fixed end of the
line (point 0') is eoncerned, so that the forces are
best located near the center of the line.
In Sample Calculation 5.13 an Fv-force is applied
in the riser at a convenient hanger location, denoted
as F v7' This force will create rotations around the
x- and z-axes, and by introducing another F v-force
at point C, these two rotations can be controlled.
An F,-force at point C will control the rotation
around the y-axis.
The calculation is carried out as follows: The
shape coefficients from 0' to 7 are summed on
Form D-3, and the equations for the y-deflections
at point C and 7 and for the z-deflection at point C
are computed on Form J. The simultaneous equa-
tions shown on Forms E-2 and E-3 are arranged as
follows: the three equations for the known cold pull,
the latter given on Form A, Calculation 5.8, arc
first entered; the constants are obtained by multi-
plying t!., = -0.75671 ft, t!.v = -0.54900 ft,
t!., = -0.12524 ft by EJ/144 = 231,577,080. The
three equations for the zero rotations are then
entered, and finally the three equations for the un-
known deflections, 01/7, aye, o:e, are entered. The

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HE MW KELLOGG CarPING fLOl61UTV 6 STRESS ANALYSIS ' ...L . A,~, FORM E-I
. 6-EQUATIONS o:~/ . . r: ._. CALC.N· /2.
170 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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SUMMA TtON FROM 0' TO 7 1: +en. +~ 876 43

THE MW KELLOGG col. PLANE
PIPING -FLEXIBILITY ANDSTRESS ANALYSIS
SUMMATION OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
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THE M.W KELLOGG CO HI-'INl:i FLEXIBILITY AN[ . ~ I RESS ,NALYSIS CALC.

CHt:CKEC
FORM E-2
12 EQUATIONS D....TE -2.3-53 CALC. NO. 5.13

--
...,
172 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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.175
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY TIlE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 173

M yo M., Mt.o F X7
- I. ODD 0() - 14/ - ?JI 83 'of'?f. - /

h/7 G4f::%% I "'l 2 -28 G4~Z3

I
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/ • Z 715 7 f-+-f-+++_3::5f2!"'(,';i'~~7?9 71< 4 t /6 ~ 752
II-I. 00 00 0 o 0 0 I - 734113 r ({ 441: 2 f(, 1>88
- I.DOOO _

1-'0000
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'6 11M-' fl'Z -J5a550
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r -100000 0 - 2 f8J 21 +5. 57atb o{-IO 70. /3
r -, 00000 126',50 rIO 7ofl./2 1 Z8 3116'.5

THE MW KELLOGG col PIPING FlEX~eILiTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS '~;~~'D··" FORM E-4

£5 6" CONSTANT(M~rclV-f £'Z)

" c
r90eG.OG -1v./34.e4 + I.S4 324!3.G4 .. 0

rlZoM rc.e"" e- -734.9 .3e "" {:N!49.eZ + &.8.588.47 + 10,9oB. Z(2J .. 0

r/ol1(# . lIP -813ZZ.3o (,,002.01 /5 9.73 '0

• 73 9.:3? - fJ. l' c + .584,.25 - e'(;4 <? D -0

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+ 3 9.3Z - 8 :>,. .3:34. 1 -Z.:3199.,3 IG ·0

'~.82 ..,. G9/7C'. e

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GGB .BZ + CP9/ <f:. n: or 8 ZG£;> • .!5t:D "'::>

B .BZ -;?/9.1 or Z44/.?e. "0

+ 1009 3 . .58 +- (0'1oG.84 w 0

6 G -./7£j~55G3 - -2./1 M

c - . 5.8090.9 .. -<:;.97*

l5 -. GC>4 3 51" -7.98*

THE MW KELLCXXJ CO PIING LE I ILiTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

I.
("UO
• H.
M J
CALC NO .6./3
AT'
174 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
downward solution of these nine equations is now lation equations with subscripts indicating the com-
carried out, and the upward solution is done for the ponent. Written in the conventional manner, the
known constant column only to obtain the moments equations for a space pipe line with two ends are
and a check. The 4',5',6',7', g', 9' equations are shown in Table 5.19.
now entered on Form &-4, and the solution gives
the moments and forces expressed in the unknown Table 5.19
deflections at points C and 7. If the three moments Defor-
are equated to zero, the deflections at points C and 7 Load mation
are obtained as shown on another Form J. These M. Mu M. F. Fu F. Constants Constantg
deflections are now entered on Form E-3, and the A.. A" A.. B.. B.u B.. R. EI*O.
A., Au. Bu. B., Bu. R, EI*OIl
forces at C, 7, and 0 arc obtained, using the second A.. B.. B.u B.. R. EI*O.
line for the upward solution on Forms B-2 and B-3. C.. C" C.. T. EI*o* :J:
The line ean now be cold sprung either by measur- Cuu Cu. Tu EI*o*1I
ing the forces or preferably by measuring the re- C.. T. EI*o*.;
quired movements at the points of application of
the forces. Thus the hanger in the riser is lowered In determining the weight reactions, the line usu-
7-h} in.; the force required is supplied by the weight ally is assumed fixed at the ends and, accordingly.
of the riser. The solid hanger at C is lowered 7 in. the deformation constants are zero. However, any
and as the force is positive this point is held in known end deformation can always be superim-
place. Finally a z-stop is provided at point C pre- posed on the weight effects. On the other hand, if
venting the line moving more than 2i in. in the the weight reactions have been determined, the
minus z-direction. The forces to be applied at 0 deformations at any point of the pipe line can be
are all less than 2000 lb. calculated by using the above system of equations
In order to execute the above procedure properly with the shape coefficients and load constants
it is desirable to have the line supported on adjust- summed from the fixed end.
able constant support hangers to minimize the weight Weight loading is either concentrated or uniform.
effects. Although minor adjustments due to errors The load constants for weights such as valves,
in fabrication may be necessary, the method has counterweights, constant support hangers, or true
proved to be helpful to the erecting crew, as all trial vertical pipe line members, assumed to be concen-
and error efforts are eliminated, thereby resulting in trated at a point N, are calculated according to
great time saving. Table 5.20.
The calculated stress for this condition due to the For uniform loads such as the weights of pipe, its
six forces, can be shown to be 16,750 psi. This insulation and contents, the load constants are some-
stress will remain until the final joint is finished and
the six restraints imposed on the line are removed. Table 5.20
After the hangers at points C and N and the restraint Load
at point 0 have been adjusted, the stress will be in ].[:J:N :ALN FUN Constants
accordance with Sample Calculation 5.9. A.. A.. B. u R.
A" Au. B., Ru
5.21 Weight Loading A;I;'; A.. B,u R.
The problem of determining the effects on piping B.. Bn C. u T.
B" B" Cuu Tu
"ystems due to weight loading is similar to that of B.. B.. Cu, T.
thermal expansion; the inherent flexibility of the
where A u, Au, B:: 1I1 etc. = summations of the shape
piping is expressed by the same shape coefficients,
coefficients taken from the
and accordingly the coefficients of the unknown re- fixed end 0' to the point of
actions in the equations of a given line are identical load application, N.
in either case. However, the constant terms of the F fiN = concentrated weight load
equations for thermal expansion are a function of (minus for pipe weights, plus
for counterweights).
the fictitious end displacements only, while those
].[.N = -FlINZ N .
for weight loading are also functions of the weights M:N = +FIINXN.
involved. These load constants are denoted by the IN, ZN = horizontal coordinates of the
Jetter R for the rotation equations and T for trans- point of load application.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 175

what more involved although they are computed Table 5.23 Shape Coefficients for Weight; General
Formulas for Straight Members
along similar lines. For each member of the pipe
line, they arc calculated in accoraance with Table %
L'
5.21. The summation for all members of the pipe Wb ~ -kQ- sina
6
line gives the load constants of the equations in
Table 5.19. a ,
W/>o = -k
QL' .
-SlnaCOBa
24
Table 5.21
Load ,
101>6 = +kQ£'f'
-sm . 2a
b 24
M.. AI'I(! F lIw Wv Constants
A. n An B .. D. v R, y w.. = W'b<J - aWb
An A v• B vv D vv Rv
An An B.. D.. R. x-plane W" = W'bO + bWb
Bn Bn Cn En T. X
Bn B.. C vv E vv Tv
Bn
where
Bn
w li
Cv•
= unit load, lb/ft
E: lJ
(always negative),
T. +a w. - -kQ -
6
L'
COs a

of a member whose length is L, ft. L'

FlIlD = WilL, lb (always negative). w. = +kQ-sina
6
'f =
M,w -Fvwi)
_ +F - Momen t 5 a t ongm,
.. f'lb
lr •
L'
Jt ltD - 1IICX

X, Z, = coordinates of center of gravity of WI"" = +kQ 24

the member, ft.
A,u, Au, B ZlI1 etc. = summations of shape coefficients w.. = W'u" + aw" - bwl'
for concentrated loads for all mem- y-plone
bers from the fixed end up to but y
not including the member under L'
W. = +kQ- cos a
consideration. Thus these summa- 6
tions for the first member wiII a
always be zero. L'
W'ab"'" -kQ24sinacoBa
DZI/ 1 DUll, Dill = shape coefficients for uniform load-
ing, ft:!.
E Zlil E lIlI , E 11I = shape coefficients for uniform load- -a w' +kQ-
L'
2
b Q(1
=
24 cos a
ing, ft 4,
X Woo = +W'ab + bWa
The expressions for the shape coefficients for uni-
form loading depend on the plane in which the mem- z-plone W•• = +w' Ga - aUla

ber is calculated (Table 5.22).

member and the POSltlVC horizontal axis. If the
Table 5.22
membcr is assumed rotating around the end to which
x Plane y Plane z Plane the direction arrow is pointing, this angle is positive
D.. +Wb +w. 0 if the member rotates in the countcrclockwise dircc-
Dvv 0 0 0 tion, negative if it rotates in the clockwise direction.
D.. 0 +w. +w. For a circular member, the direction is either counter-
E;;v 0 +c;.ow" +10 0 10
clockwisc or clockwise. Thc anglc <P is always posi-
E vv +Wbb +10,,0 +10 00

E.. +10100 -Cl'Wll 0 tive. The angle a is always positive measured

where elf = distance of working plane to coordinate plane.
Tbese shapc coefficients are given in Table 5.23
for straight members and in Tablcs 5.24, 5.25, 5.26,
5.27, 5.28, and 5.29 for circular members.
It is of utmost importance in the calculation of
the w-constants that the propcr direction be used.
The direction always points from the free cnd to thc
fixed end, and should bc indicatcd by an arrow. The
direetion detcrmines the angle a betwcen a straight
counterclockwise from the negative vertical axis to
the radius whcre angle <P begins. The angles <P and a
are illustrated in Figs. 5.16 and 5.17 for counter-
clockwise and clockwise directions rcspectively.
Form W v shows a convenient way to calculate the
load constants and also a key to the relationship
betwcen the shape coefficients and the load constants
in accordance with Table 5.19.
In Sample Calculation 5.14 a single plane system
is computed for W v of - 280 Ib/ft. The nccessary
176 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.2·j. Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
·....For Weight of I\:femhers in the x-Plane

Counterclockwise Direction
w, = -QkR' {<I>[sin(a + <1» + sin aJ + 2[cos(a + <1» - cos all

w',. = -QkR'\~[1 + COS2(~ +<1»] _ iHsin2(a + <1» - sin2aJ + Icos(a +<1» - cosalsina)

w'" = +QkR' {~[4> + sin 2(a + <I»J + i[cos 2(a + <1» - cos 2aJ + [sin(a + <1» - sin al sin a}

Clockwise Direction
w, = +QkR' {<I>[sin(a - <1>). + sin aJ - 2[cos(a - <1» - cos all

w',. = +QkR'{~[l + COS2(~ - <1»] + ~[sin2(a _ <1» - sin2aJ - [cos(a-<I» -cosalsina}

w'" = +QkR'\~[<I> - sin2(a - <I»J + i[cos2(a -<1» - cos2al + [sin(a-<I» -sinalsina}

Table 5.25 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular :Members
For x-Wind Acting on l\Icmbers in the x-Plane
or z-Wind Acting on l\lembers in the z-Plane
or Weight of :l\Iemhers in the y-Plane

Counterclockwise Direction

w, = -QR' \ 1.3 [<I> cos (a + <1» + ~ cos a - sin(a + <1» + 1.25 sin a - 0.25 sin (a + 2<1»]

+k [~cos a - sin(a + <I» + 0.75 sin a + 0.25 sin (a + 2<1»]}

w, = +QR' \ 1.3 [<I> sin (a + <1» + ~ sin a + cos(a + <I» - 1.25 cos a + 0.25 cos(a + 2<1»]

+k [~sin a + cos(a + <1» - 0.75 cos a - 0.25 cos(a + 2<1»]}

W'llIl =
<I>' -
+ 1.3QR4. ( "2 1 + cos ep )

Clockwise Direction

w, = +QR' {1.3 [ <I> cos(a - <1» + ~ cos a + sin (a - <1» - 1.25 sin (l + 0.25 sin (a - 2<1»]

+k [~cos a + sin (a - <1» - 0.75 sin a - 0.25 sin (a - 2<1»]}

w, = -QR'\1.3[<I>Sin(a - <1» +~sin" - cos(a - <1» + 1.25cosa - 0.25 cos (a - 2<1»]

+k [~sina - cos(a - <I» + 0.75 cosa + 0.25 cos (a - 2<1»]}

w'", = + 1.3QR' C;' - I + cos <I>)

_~ __l
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 177
Table 5.26 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular l\'fcmbcfs
For \\'cight of 1\lembcrs in the z-Planc
Counterclockwise Direction
w. = +QkR' 1<I>[cas(" + <1» + cas ,,] - 2[sin(" + <1» - sin "ll

w'., = +QkR'l~[l - caS2(~+4»J + i[sin2(" + <1» - sin 2,,) - [sin(" +<1» - sin,,] cas,,}

w'•• = +QkR'1~[4> - sin 2(" +<1») - i[cas2(" +4') - cas2a] + [cas(" +4,) - cas,,] cas,,}
Clockwise Direction
w. = -QkR'14>[cas(" - <1» + cas,,) + 2[sin(" - 4» - sin "ll

w'., = -QkR' l~ [1 - cos 2(~ - 4»J - ~[sin 2(" - 4') - sin 2,,) + [sin(" - <1» - sin ,,) cas ,,}

w'•• = +QkR'1~[4' + sin 2(" - <1»]- ~[cas2(" - <1» - cas 2,,) + [cas(" - <1» - cas,,]cas"l

Table 5.27 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90° and 180 0 Circular Members
For \Veight of Members in the x-Plane
Shape w, W'ba W'bb

,,= 0· D +OA2920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

,,= 90· D -OA2920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.39985kQR'

,,= 90· t; +OA2920kQR' -0.1781OkQR' +0.39985kQR'

a = 180 0
t; -OA2920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.I3315kQR'

" = 180· tJ -OA2920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

" = 270· tJ +OA2920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.39685kQR'

" = 270· ~ -OA2920kQR' -0.1781OkQR' +0.36985kQR'

,,= 0· ~ +OA2920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

,,= 0· D) +4.00kQR' -2.35919kQR' +2A9740kQR'

" = 180· D) -4.00kQR' +2.35919kQR' +2A9740kQR'

a = 180 0 ((J -4.00kQR' - 2.35919kQR' +2A9740kQR'

,,= 0· ((J +4.00kQR' +2.35919kQR' +2A9740kQR'

,,= 90· E-, -0.78MOkQR' +OA9740kQR'

ex = 270 0 B
° +0.78540kQR' +OA6740kQR'
°
" = 270· V -O.78540kQR' +OA9740kQR'

,,= 90·
°
V ° +O.78540kQR' +OA6740kQR'
178 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.28 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90° and 180 0 Circular Members
For x-Wind Acting on l\lembers in the x-Plane
or z-Wind Acting on l\tcmbcrs in the z-Planc
or Weight of Members in the y-Planc
Shape Wu w, WI "1'

a= O· D +0:21460QR'(1.3 + k) +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.30381QR'

a= 90· D +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) +0.30381QR'

a= 90· Cl +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) -0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) +0.30381QR'

a = 180 0 Cl +0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) -QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.30381QR'

a = 180· tJ -0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) -QR'(0.09204 - .0.50k) +0.30381QR'

a = 270· tJ -QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) -0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) +0.30381QR'

a = 270· ~ -QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) +0.30381QR'

a= O· ~ -0.21460QR'(1.3 + k) +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.30381QR'

a= O·
D! + 1.57080QR' (1.3 - k) -2.00QR'(1.3+ k) +3.81524QR'

a = 180· D) +1.57080QR'(1.3 - k) +2.00QR'(1.3 + k) +3.81524QR'

a = 180 0 (] -1.570S0QR'(1.3 - k) +2.00QR'(1.3 + k) +3.81524QR'

a= O· (] -1.57080QR' (1.3 - k) -2.00QR'(1.3 + k) +3.81524QR'

a= 90· E::, + k)
- 2.00QR' (1.3 -1.57080QR' (1.3 - k) +3.81524QR'

a = 270· [5, +2.00QR'(1.3 + k) -1.57080QR'(1.3 - k) +3.81524QR'

a = 270 0
V +2.00QR'(1.3 + k) +1.57080QR'(1.3 - k) +3.81524QR'

a= 90· -2.00QR'(1.3 + k) +1.57080QR'(1.3 - k) +3.81524QR'

V
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 179

Table 5.29 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90 and 180 0 Circular Members
Q

For Weight of Members in the z-PIanc

Shape w. 1O ' a b 1O'aa

a= ·0 Q -0.42920kQR' +0.178IOkQR' +0.36685kQR'

a= 90· Q +0.42920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

a= 90· [3 +0.42920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

a = 180· [3 -0.42920kQR' -0.178IOkQR' +0.36685kQR'

a = 180 0 tJ +0.42920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'

a = 270· tJ -0.42920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

a = 270· ~ -0.42920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

a= O· ~ +0.42920kQR' -0.178IOkQR' +0.36685kQR'

a= o· D) 0 +0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'
a = 180·
DJ 0 -0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a = 180· ((J 0 +0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a= O· (0 0 -0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a= 90· 0 +4.00kQR' +2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

ex = 270 0
E:J -4.00kQR' -2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

a = 270· V -4.00kQR' +2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

a= 90·
V +4.00kQR' -2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'
180 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
z, X, or y z, x, or y
a
a

b b

~~ __~
a. ~_y, z, orx '-~'--'------.....- y, z, or x
FIG. 5.17 Angles qi and a in the clockwise diredion.
FIG. 5.16 Angles qi and a in the counterclockwise direction.

reaction at the fixed end is the difference between

data is given on Form A-2, which also gives the data
for Sample Calculations 5.15 and 5.16. The shape
coefficients for concentrated loads are as usual cal-
culated on Form D-2. The shape coefficients for
uniform loading, in this case W a , w' ab, w' aa, are cal-
culated according to formulas given in Table 5.29
for the circular member 2-4 and in Table 5.26 for
circular members 4-5 and 6-7, and entered on Form
W". The constants for the straight members 5-6
and 7-8 are computed from the formulas on Form
W" and are entered also on that form. For member
1-2 the constants are zero. The sums of all load con-
stants are entered as constants on the equation
sheet, Form E-l, on which the summation coefficients
from Form D-2 also are entered. Solution of the
equations gives the reactions at the free end, the
moment M, referred to the origin. The vertical
the total load of 29,150 lb and the F"-force of 19,864
lb or 9286 lb.
The moment at any point N of the line is calcu-
lated in accordance with the following general
formula:
M"N= L:(M,+M,w)+ L:F,YN- L:(F"+F"w)XN
where L:F. and L:F" are the sum of the reacting
forces at the free end obtained from the equation
sheet, and any restraint in the line between the free
end and point N. L:M, is the sum of the moment at
the free end referred to the origin, obtained from the
equation sheet, and the moment at the origin caused
by any rcstraint. Since no restraint is included in
the example L:M" L:F.. L:F" are the reactions
from the cquation sheet. XN, YN are the coordinates
of point N. L:F"w is the sum of the uniform load

3.

Fx! I~
MEMBERS I-B
0 3/.00 3
t .75
-~
I
·z
R
h
8/58.5
526.4
18.50
.73
I
V-z-srop
Y

'\ X
"
'\J
~V'"
• F,
k 2.28
;-
0 2
a 5·
TEMP. //50F Z II
PRESSURE
PIPE
20 RS/.
Z42.3 -'" S
35· I
I

"0••
INSUL.
co~nEN
.37.7
'"ill 6 "0'
TOTA Z O.
w MATERIAL 5 (fl.
••UNIT WINO LOAD ON
PROJECTION OF CYLIN-
42·

-
DRICAL SURFACES
• 60 LBS/FT 2
if-
,,
B,
27.38
POINT 2 nI,
Sr: /390 PSI. A
5p:
S,+Sp:
200
1!i90 "".
"".
MOMENTS {FT-LBJ
WEIGHT {CALC. NO.5.14l
AND FDRCESILBl ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
X WIND {CALC. NO. 5.151 'Z WIND (CALC.NQ 5.16)
~,

~ POINT
Sh: 2200
{
"". POINT
M.
{ { e I
+26,000.
4
-1/82.5.
~ 51: PSI.
700 M -/9.300. -1Z750.
5 z: 740
PSI. M, +59875,. - 7.950. -30,625. -Za9So.
" Sy+ SP+ GREATER OF r. - l800, + I,Boo. f 2.700. t Z 110.
S. OR Sz' Z,05 PSt
~4/3 Sh : 29'30 PSI.
r
r
-8440. 19 e Q - '80 + /80.
.,.7 o. o· 10.
!THE MWKELL0G3
.
col PIPING ORIGINAL
FLE !!'!.I~I' Y AND STRE";;,? ANALYSIS
DATA AND RESULTS
' .
••An"'". -
M k
ALe 5-14
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 1111

Pl.At<JE Z
1-2
_.
MEM8fR 2-4 4-5 5'b b·7 7·8
,.; ",'

SHAPE
I Q W ~. <'1) f" 2:

0
• /00
/0
228
100
228
/00
100
/00
228
/00
/00
100
R /850 /8 50 /4 50

L
L
a
b
e
II
-
0
aDo
/8
150

75
a 0
a
0
a
a
a
-
-
/298
1373
0
481
7

-
25 %
?:7
0
-
-
/053
8M
34
0
924
.
5 300 13Z f>/ 25 n 7. 30 92 /0 Sf! 210 33
54 55 !if) 0 4 - 9 • - 259 9b - 8b n - 837 8

q
5b - 4 !if) 1560
•• /4/ lJ8 - /04 5 - 713 52 - 3.7 9Z 229 Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
eq 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

- /lZ13""
u 390 104 03 If> 'f7 9/3 /892 /M bl
u.
cu
72 /5 0 - 1= u - /18 5/ 181 71 5. - 59 84
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
v
v. -
300
450
/04
889 85 -
Z4 49
80 -
8
1/4 .5 -
29
73~ Z3
•• 10
3'" 'f7 -
/80 Db
/494
cv 0 0 a 0 0 0 0
SOb+CZq - 83 Z5 0 2374 14 1337 Z7 589Z 98 .3 04a Z Il 5'" /b
cu. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ev. 0 0 0 0 0 0 a

..
5.u,1"C I V 7aO 80
10'" 75 22t,79 13 1 01 I Z9Z 55 Z 215 14 715 9b 35
5bbTC. U 900 2Z (,79 13 10/7 75 / 457 za /6900 79 IZ 951 5
., 5 als 3
/343 78 2S 858 SOZ8 14 .3 /48 98 Z 8/0

•••
Uoo+VH 53 /3 9'" 7010lD
THE M.W KELLOGG CO e. No r! :fr~;II'JlI ~},""~F 5 ;55 ANAl <SIS -
5./4

MEMBER NO Z-4 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w y 1-280
IN z
PLANE DATA
• ~
•
Z.28 ~
270· F w·w L
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
4
b
0
0
Q
L
51 ....

cos oc
oc Q
R
1.00
/8.50 Rii'L• F_ w -/627!.
.14159
M_ w =-iF yw
SB./2

.ill
PLANE
c
,
x
I'ORMUl.AS I'OR
0
0
0
• kQL3
nkQL""

I'OF<"'Ul."5 I'OR
~IN Loo;

co~

CON5TANTS
~

$llo.lco.CO~<ll
kQR;" il4.43C..I2
kQR" 2'Z00.1,

FOR CURVED
GR'
QR'
e
M,w

M. w
0
M zw o::+xF yw

STRAIGHT MEMBERS
0
s "'l!... tUtl:l~
... R. .... a .. T cu ... VEO ""l!... aER
Ww .. - ' kQL cos C\ see TJlet.ES +w, +3W... _cw,~

y w "+ 'kOL':.rN""
5.25 t 5,2:8 +w_ bw_ +c.w"
w·u~" + ~kQL" .w'""
+w u "
w .. + ~ kOL co~ ... :=.eE T ....8LE5 oW, -51744.48 .bw... 0 -aw... 0
• w'd'" - ~kaL SINO( (05 <:(
5.2G t- .5.29
·""'''b -"2 q 2{,3.3J +w'..... +658.%3. '18
w"'~"+t .. Io:OL" co:.1:O( • w .. b ~GZq 2~3,3 +w ..... "'658963.98
Wb .. - 'kOL' Sn. C( SEE. TABLES oW b -awb +bwb
, w't" .. =- ,,!,kQL" ~, ... ",eot;", S. '24- &. ,5:27 +IN't>~ +w'b~

w'bb'" + ;.lkQL 51 ... ·Cl +wb... 'tWbb

M. w M.. F W ~/'-tZ7.J. ,"0 ,~

-~
, ~
Wv -Z80 LOAD CONSTANTS
An A" e" .w, OW. 0

M....... ·A u M:w'A' l B __
Fyw·B.". , ..... l> y....." 0 R,
A,_ A", 0 0 0

Mzw~A l FyW 'Byy 0 0 0

)tw·A. v
A.. Au B" - 5~..5O 0 ow_ oW, 7 .48 "
v· w'" '1-/6168,4$4.. ..,..n.07/ (,39.
M.w'Al<z
Bu
Mzw·A u
Bu c._
Yw' /85.
B1!:v +"10,3
,.,..83.25
0

•
v· ...."
.cw" +W.ll> ·62~26HJ
"'.·w.. b "'17~/9..J.7J2
'"
T. 1 ..,.174838 9so.
1<0,' 8,. Mlw"B z• Fyw·C. y -/354 '717. 0 r"W.

e,v B. c, "/026, 75 oWbb .. w"" . "'..... 6SllP6J.9A

JEw,aXY M.... ·B"v FYWMC y -/6708 9/9. V'WDl> v· W... ..,.W.... -/84,5099A Tv 1-20/218830.
en e" c_, +wC,l ~<:.w... 0

Mxw-S;w:t. MlW·B zz F"yw·C z y·wl>. v' GW • T.

S ANALY IS M W
rrHE MW.KELLOGGCO Plt~~Dr ~~t~NTSA~'bRS '~t
c.A.1.c..,,-~ F
GHT C"'l.CK~,t;:'~:.:lI
"'T~ -2 ~ AL . NO. .I
182 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

MEMBER No4~S COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA wy l-l80
IN Z PLANE DATA ~ k ~ k 2.28 ~ ~05 • F wow L
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
a
b
0
0
Q
L
51"l

cos '"
QC Q
R
1.00
/8. so R{>'L
• ·MOS?
1/.30
F w /64 -
M,w =-:z.F yw
~W·
,
c
x
0
-11.37
~kQL3
1h.!<QL"
~INl,",

cos C\
kQR.)
kQR"
4<1JG.l2 ~'"
'7,(.l68.1. GR,'
' M,w
Mz:w z;+xF yw
0
z
PLANE F'ORMUl-A$ F'OR
0
FOk .... U ... A!> <'Or-l
S'N"CQ511l

CONSTANTS- ,,"OR CURVE.D

M,w '5'.'58."
y
w.
w
STR""QHT

"
"''';'''flo"R:)
' kQL cos
-+ 'kOL',s,NQ<,
0<
cu<>.vr.:o ...eM!>""
see T",el.E:.s
5.25 t 5.2'8
'W.
'W,
.o.')"'...
-'ow"
" STRAIGHT MEMBERS
-cw,..
"CoW"
w'uv = ... ~kaL .. +,..,'""
+w .."
w .-t~kaLco~oo< SEE. TAe.\...ES .W, +1(;/.68 + low... 0 -a.w... 0
~kQL 5.2G .t- 5.29
Z ",'<1.'0. - S,NOICO:;Ol, +w'''b -5$0./6 +w·"... +-2.943.09
w ....... + z+ k:QL .. co:.:to< +"',,'0 -S"io./6 "'W a ... + 943.09
w. .. - .zkQL' SIN <X ,5ee TA61.E5 .w. -.l.Wb .. bwl>

..'". ..
5.24 It- 5,27
• ""'0",=- :h,kQLo4 ~'N"COSO< +w'l>'" +w'bb
",,'bb" - '~kQL" l5IN~a. +wb'" "Wbb
M. w Mzw +Sf.9S8.~8 F w -3/(;4,00 ," ""y -280 LOAD CONSTANTS
A.. A" B" +"",~ 0
--
M~ .... 'AH Mzw'A~t F vw 'B~y y'wl> "'y'''''" 0 R.
A" A,< 8" 0 0 0

Mn".·A~y Mzw'Ayz FyI" '6 yy 0 0 0 ~

A" Au + 1,35 .51 B" - 55. So 0 ,W,

'", nlb/.68
Mzw'A zz +1.447451. F"..... Szv 1"/75. GOZ. y·w. Hy'W~ -""S:270.
"
M..... ·A"z 0
"Z577 783.
8u 83.25 0 +cwy -5-';0.1'
B" "'/!iSb./G C" of- .W"I>

M~w' Box Mzw"B zx i<fi5.S2~ 499.

Fyw'C xy - ?(;~4o.'1. 0 "','W"'b +/54 ()4~ y·cw. T, '8S 415/4/.
8" '8, - 55.50 C, +'7~ 7115.88 <WOI> .Wuy +w...... 294~.()9
M"w'B"y Mzw·B zv -305020 . Fyw"C yy - 75,0054<14-, y'Wtt y·W... ...,.......... -8N 0(,5. T - 879 67~
Bn B" C" +WI>.. .cw... 0

M~w·B~z ~ZW·BH FYW'CYI , .....1> .. Y ·~w 0 T,

~I~I'!." fL 0');!i~'!Y AND STRE~~ ANALySIS ~::~~KE-lr" N.~ F. M
THE MWKEL.LOGGCO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE GHT O ...... f: 1Z·23-'5~ .AL . NO,5,/-I

.\
MEMBER Nof·' COORDINATE STRAIGHT ME.MBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w, - 280
IN Z PLANE DATA k /.00 ~
-55' k ~ F w '" wyL
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
S
a
b
-12.98
- /..3.73
Q
L
/.00
7· c.o
SIN 0<

cos '"
-.8192
+.57.3'
Q
R R ~'L
• F w
Mow
-2/28.
=-z.Fyw
~'
c ~kQL.\ ~IN~o;:<. kQR~
0 7.J.1" ~ "7/1 QR' M. w 0
x
.. • kQR 4
4
-/2,98 nkQL /,3qtJl '0' +. ;290 QR' Mzw:+xF yw
• 0 $'N"'Oll« -.4G99 M %ow t"'2761/,'If.
PLANE
w.
STR ... ,QM'"... "' ...
"'Ofl ..... U1..A5

.. - .z.kQL'cos
'00
~""':')
0\
FO ...MU"' ... 5
cU","v/iO
see T ... eLE5
'OR
... " ... 6Cfl

,
CONSTANTS
'W.
""OR CURVE.D
+:l.w",
• STRAIGHT
-cw' 4
MEMBERS

5.25 5.£:8
..
y ow, -bw y .c:.W y
W,
w.
"' 'kQL)5'N"'-
uy '" + AkQL'" .w

, 41.96
• w'-'v

w, "+~\;QLco~", SEE. TAe.LE.~ .W, .-bw.. ~5Zf?_~jI -J.w... f-S44.64

5.20;; .t- 5.29
Z .....~b .. - l!ikQL S'Ne< COSe< +",,'lIb • "-5.JZ +w'"" + 45.7J

w. .
w·...... +l~kQL~ <;o~~o<
~,kOLl 5", ~ SEE TABLES
5.24 ~ 5.27
.w.
"W ..

-""'10
b -510.79 ""'",.1

• 'owl>
1--
r590. .37

•
.. ..
W·IO ... '" - ,qkQL'" :>, ... "'co . . '" .",' t~ "",'lOt

w'bb '" + '~kQL A. SIN "",

l 1------- +wb.l. "<Web
M. w Mzw +27.62/.44 ,,",w 2/28 - z .t ., -280 LOAD CONSTANTS
A.. A" Bw ~Wt
~'-~~~ 0
-0 - - - - -
M.w·A .. "':w· A .: ;:~ ..'5 • .,. "-,'W" "'y ....." 'CT-----
Aw A" Ow -
0 0 0
- 0-
Myw'A~y Mzw'Ay: ~ w·e 0 0 ~

A" A" r IGI. ?A B" -r .3 9 2.~_10 0 .W, +W~

'" 41. qG
M,w'A~:< Mzw'A u +4:454,18G. F'vw • B: y - 834 389. 0 y'Wy "~ ·w .. - 1/ 749. -~z "'3.G08.648.
Bu B~,.
"'t.4IS . 0?-=-:: F.,.....C.~~ -2291. '1'1 0 .C"' y ~WJ" -~/O.19_
M.w·B.. M::.w·B u ~39. 08G547. ·C. y . . ;ffi7" :2 iii. 0 "y'CW, ... ·w4t
-1'143021. 1T:l~" 44" laS. 8~
B., "'392.10 Ow "3&'507. 15 "W u • . ,...... !590, 37
K'wu • . , .... ..
8" • .... bl>

'vI.w·B. y M~w·8.y "'10.830,.36 Fyw·C.,..,. -G7047.2/5. "'f'''~t ~

.-/~5..J04 T -r:56.382~
·""0.. -<;"'", 0
B" B" C"
M~ ... ·B.z l,lzw'B u F.,. .... ·(yt ..~·WD. y'C""" 0 T,
PI~I,:!-~/L Xll!l~I!Y AND 51.REiS ANALYSIS ~~'t:~><t.t" FCi?M W
THE MW KELLOGG CO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE GHT
H.5.
c ...... ro; 12·23- S3 CAL~, '10 .t'
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 183

MEMBER No6 - 7 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA W y 1- 280
IN Z PLA.NE
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
..
b
DATA
- 25.9G
- 27.'<
.~ k
Q
L
c>:
tu.... oc
c:.os (>(
Q
k

f, .50
R
2. 211
1.00
R
0'

t>
~: L
F
F w
<AI ..

'6.lb
M"w =-z,F vw
wyL
-,]

c ~kQL~ ~INI.~ kQR~ !J44fto/1. QR J

<EJl
7
•
0
- ".4' lh.kOL'"
M .. w 0
Mr:w a:+xF w

PLANE " 0
CONSTANTS ~OR CURVED e
Mz. w ~9JI.O
STRAIGHT MEMBERS
-cwu,
y -bw" .
+w·...."
+w ... v
w .. + ~ kaL"cQ~ « :;,EE TA8LES +bw... +5805./8
, w'.. o" - i4kQL SINe< cos 0\ 5.2(i; .t- 5.29 +w·...b r /928. 23 -.Jt;.Qt:...22
W ....... +;r.ok.QL 4 CO~;rc>( +w.b - 42/0./9- 01-2/08.
w" = .!;IcOL ~ SIN <X -awb
, w·".. =- ilkQL 4 ~l>I«C06'" 5.24 4- 5.27 +w'bl
w'bh= . 'hkQL SI"l"QI, "w\:lb
M ltw M:r.w ""3/.93/.09 F w -.379(;..80 X R. w., -280 LOAD CONSTANTS
a
Mn.'·A~~ Mzw"A~z o R.
A"y Ayz, o o
M~w'A~y Mzw'A : F W -6 a 0 a
A,,: Az.z. "fo 1GB. 88 B tv +490.75 ° -4-W y -4-Wa .,.223. "2
M.w"A,,:r. M:r.w~Au r5392 522 F.,.."xS:. -186 2AO 0 y'''''v
y·w.. ~/4 'R;z -"2
Bu Bu .. /.1/0.73 C;w.v -3'28.76 0 +CWy +w"b -42/0./4
b"~'~'~B-
••+-----kMT,~w~·~B,,-.rr~47.'~8.~"'~~~tJ~J~8"'F~,w
=:C·<"'-'+'~/:':".3.'::':17.~7~ ° y'Cw Wy'Wn +//78 839 T"
Bh .,. 4t10. 7S Cvv .,..j?7?Q.7" H"DO +WUy +W,u. +2/08.96
Mzw·Bt. ,,"/$ ~10 182 Fyw"C yy -/24.53.3 90/ y'Wbbf"y'''''u~i'''Y''''''''' -S90 S09 Tv -109,4542.30
Bt. t C..,z. +Wt». ~c;w.... 0

M:.... ·S u Fvw.C z y·"'b.. y"W 0

THE MWKELlOGGCO "'"'N'.

"LOAD"L-X<H'UTY AND S'"E~"S ANALY.b
CONstANTS FOR WEIGHT'
F M W
AL . NO. S.I

~.-lEMBER NO 7-8 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEM8ER DATA w, - 280
IN Z PLANE DATA k /.00 « - 97' k « F w '" w..,L
SHAPE ANa
DIRECTION
4
b
-8.24
- 34.94
Q
L
/.00 51N 0<

10.53 cos '" •. /21"1

-.9925 Q
R RI-:L
• F w -2948.4
M. w =-z:F yw

PLANE
)1 FORMULAS FO~
c
•
"
0
- 8.24 lh.kQL"" 5/2,21
0
.l.kQL~ /94.59 SIN""" "'.985/

F'O ..... UL ...S ""OR

cos
51'H'<.COli«
~ t:0149
,..1210
kQR~

kQR·
Q"
G~'

e STRAIGHT
M. w 0
Mz. w =+xF yw
M:. w !"i4294,82
MEMBERS
~T~""'Q ... "" .... r: .... D£<l:'lo cU",""'f.O ...." ... Gen· CONSTANTS ""OR CuRVE.D
'. • . i-kQLc.oso< 5Ee T ... e.LE~ +w u +~WU c ..... ,~
y w .. i' I kOL'$IN ~ 5.25 t 5.~8 +w. _bw" -tcw y
W'Uy" -t hkQL'" +w .....
+w",y
w .. -t ~-kaL~c03 '" 5Ee. TA~LE5 • w. - 23.72 +bw... .,.ez,§.78 -aw.. - /95.4.5
, w·.. b" - iikOL 511>10-;(0:';<,\
5.2cP to .5.29 -4-w·.. b - ~/. qlJ +w·" ... + ?~3
w·a.... +l'~l(OL.. co~zO(
w. ,,- :.kOL 3 $1'" 0: seE TABLES .w.
+w·.. b
-awb
T' 7~{' .80 "''''' ..
+bwb
", - 181·82
, - 5.24 4- 5.27

. ..
w·o... ~kQL ... :>1"'0< co,; co +w·b.l +w'bt
+ ·.:.kOL -t"'b... "wob
M,w
",'bb" 51 .. '""
M,w + 24,t91-.82- F,w -2948.4 ' ,. "'y - 2BO LOAD CONSTANTS
A., A" B" • w. .w• 0

M~""Au Mzw'A"z Fyw·B~y .wl> ~.w.. 0 R.

A" A" 6., 0 0 0

M,w'A>;y Mzw·A y: .Fyw ·6 yy 0 0 0 ~

A., An + 199.80 B" .,. 750. 71 a • w. +w• - 23.72
M.w·A.. :. Ml.w·A n +4854105 Fyw~8:.y -221.3 393 0 y'w. y''''a +6642 ~, -1>2'47,354
Bu Bn .,..591.21 C yv -9521.74 a +cW y +Wdb +766.80
.4"w-a•• M: w w8:" "'/4f:S09_1tr! Fyw'C~v .,.. 28.07J898 a y'CW, W.·W"D -214704- T. "'42,3'8303
B" B" .,. 750. 7/ <, ., .?.r o14.fJ4 "Wbl> +w"" -tWa .. -187.82
M.w·e • .,. Mz .... ·S zy +- JB.z3 FywwC.,.v _IOJ.2:J7,754 •• ....bl> y·w... ,........ +52590 T y ~84 94-G &~O
8., 8" C < ",wb.. -cw" 0

M"w~B"t.

THE MWKELLOGGCO
Mzw·B u Fyww(

LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE GH

t

PIPI,:!~ _.L~~I,.t~l! Y AND S I.~~ S A¥AlY IS

"'y ....I> .. y"'" 0
.
CI-le.CKE.
o ..........--rz-
..
T,
F MW
.Al . NO..5./
 ,
I-sa 5'16.741 41/, t.:5J -1-/6. (;J& ,s. - Jf ';104)
z -55,/57.7. '18,712. 351 ~?4f. (,04 IH -4015J41J4
.3 -201r4~J,ZI7 2lS589S& +71J'f,78448/ f5Jo,8g2~
4
5
G

Hz _Fx Fy ONSTA.NTS

t'" 210 Jj -+ zn 2.'1'" 37 ~ tJ4 7205

- I. 000 00 _ I 0"0 If." I 8/
z·Zf05588~ +/9S] 19 -19 9" 1/ "3 4/9 64
z foSS 0/515 w 12 ~s Ii>
- 24q9G- 9/297
,"""
-;,
3''''''
70"
I. +54- 71.5 39 - a 47813 fJ(,(, 0l.7
- 1.00000 + 24' 1/
IF... - I 79~ J' .,. 4 II - G ''"84118
.5 dS 130 80 -S3~~~
-3 3 It'..~ -!3,IS'o'S'1
-.3 /7 10 .,.90 0921860
~ "29 79 () "S7'49f~
- L 00 00
F'f .,./9 I&:'~ 78
4
F y~ • .,./98' 64,8
FYI" -+ ql8~. 0
:l': .+2fI5o.8 I~
- 1.00 00
F r", • .. t9/S0. 8 I
s

- 1.00000
I

- 1.00000
I
PIP~ fL(x'[;I\.ITY 6 STRESS ANAlY(,IS V·L. . ..... FORM E-I
THE MW. KELLOGG CO 6- EQUATIONS 15:~~"11' N,. CAlt~·5.flf'

8 ~ 5
CONVERSiON TO
cOCe!' Rl1L.ES
POINT
x 8.88 -
7
7.60 10.80 - 5.1G - "o 18.50 a +
Z
/8.50 f- 18.50

~~ ~
SE::' Ee. S'f F",
: -
40./6 -

/ 7'J5.,3';; -
2'3.71

/ 795.3(; -
- IG.84 -

17 5.3';; -
10.61

1 7'Xd(., 17%.3';;
+ 18.50

/795.3(,,-
a
/795.3';; -
J.OO

/7%.3"
" F + /98G4.78 .. I';; !!JIG.40 .. 13 JI!L~O + 10 9/.&'0'" 782.7.60 - J09.2.0 - B ~4t;.CO - 928G.()O
Sf:: F",sl Fz
&_k.c M",
R' "E. n CR +F .z
&.Ee ~ -F
R"Eh 5'E M
WHICIiE.Vf.R IS GREATER M
.Rs +Fz'X
R' - -F","z
~:(!-~c) M
- 2/G 2(;4 - 184.133 IS(/; 7/2 - 10/ 7.5-' - 5901 -101 75.3 //7293
of-53340 f 30234 + 19 049 o - 332/4 o 558G
of128 565 +/41 G9i! ..,./G(/;633 rl4481/ o f"/5C 25/ /7/ '5/
- 3435.9 - 12407 .., 2~ 970 + 4305<'3 39/1.5 T-544913 -f ~884

-M

IPE Z .OZ.ZBO .0Z Z80

.3/.00 52(",4 /.12. 1.00
/ 3'JZ I 3(;5

~ '+5' ""45 '=51::

c .......c. ......... •I
THE MWKELLOGG COl eleING':6~~\\'NTrNtN~T~lRsWtNALYSIS D"T~
1-<. 0
.. _
C. FORM
I o 5./

lIH
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 185
Table 5.31 Shape Coefficients for z-Wind: General
from the free end to point N. I:M,w is the sum of Formulas for Straight Members
the moments at the origin caused by I:F uw· F uw
and M ,ware obtained from Form·'W u· The calcula- =
L'
±kQ - coello:
z
tion of the moments at the various points, and the G
maximum stresses, are shown on Form F-L
5.22 Wind Loading
L'
The analysis of the reactions in piping systems due w' gg = ±kQ 24 cos 3 0:
L -_ _ ~y

to wind loading is similar to that for weight. The

wind is assumed to produce a load which is uniformly x-plane
Wgb = +w'gb + bW g

distributed over members perpendicular to the wind Wag = +w'O.:I - aw"

direction, and for other members, uniformly dis- Note: upper signs apply
tributed over the projection of the member in a when cos a is plus, lower
signs apply when cos a
Table 5.30 Shape Coefficients for x-Wind: General is minul'l.
Formulas for Straight Members
% L' L'
Wu -kQ-cosa = :::FkQ- sin 2 a
G x G
L' L'
W. +kQij sin a =FkQ-sin 2 ac080:

L- ~_y
,
W"V =
L'
HQz:j
Oa W'ba =

W'bb =
24
L'
±kQ- sin 3 a
'- ._z 24
x-plane Wu • = W'Ul' + awu - bw,
y_plane
Wbb +w'bb + bWb
L'
x W. = ±kQ- cos:! a Note: upper signs apply
G
when gin 0: is plus,
kQL4. lower signs apply when
I
tV "b = =F' 24 SlnaCOS '2
a
l'Iin IX is minus.

L'
'- z w' aa = ±kQ 24 cos 3 a
y
-kQ- cos
L' IX
G
y-plane Wab = +"/ b + bWa
11

= +10'nO -
L'
W,,<1 aWa +kQ6 sin 0:

Note: upper signs apply

when cos a is plus, lower , = kQ-
D'
W u.
signs apply when cos a '----+-x 24
is minus.
x-plane wuv = W',.v + aw,. - bw•.

y
plane perpendicular to the wind direction. The
equations given in Table 5.19 are applicable.
, :::r.kQ -~
L4 Sill
. :2 aCOSO'
W ba =
24
The formulas for the shape coefficients for wind
loading for straight members are given in Table 5.30
, J.., 4 •
W bb = ±kQ 24 sin 3 a for the x-wind and in Table 5.31 for the z-wind. For
curved members, the formulas are listed in Tables
'- _.-x Wba +w' b<'l - alL'b 5.25, 5.28, 5.32, 5.33. 5.34 and 5.35 for both the
x-wind and the z-wind. The projected length is
WbQ +w' btl + bWb
z-plane denoted by L'. Thus Fzw = wz,L' and F: w = w:L'
Note: upper signs a.pply for wind loading along the x- and z-axes respectively.
when sin a is plus,
lower signs apply when
Forms IV, and IV, are used for the computation of the
sin a is minus. load constants.
186 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.32 Shape CoefIicicnts for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
For z-'''ind Acting on I\Icmhcrs in the y-Planc
or x-W'ind Acting on Members in the z-Planc
Note: Signs prefixed to formulas below to be selected as follows:
Use upper signs when arc <1) lies in the I and/or II quadrant.
Use lower signs when arc <!l lies in the III and/or IV quadrant.
Split the arc into two members when 1> lies in I and IV or II and III quadmnts. ]I[

Counterclockwise Direction
<I>
±QkR' [ 4" C1 + 2 COS" a) +
0 sin 2 (a +<1»
8
. .
- cos a smCa+<I» + ~ sm 2a
J I

±QkR'l!iIcosCa+<I» - cosa]'1

10'bb ±QkR' (Hsin'Ca+<I» - sin'al - MsinCa+<I» - sinaj + co~a ['I> + sinCa+<I»cosCa+<I» - BinCa+<I»cosa j)

Clockwise Direction

lV, = 'f'QkR' [ 4",I> (I + 2cos'a) -

sin 2Ca-<l»
8 + cosasinCa-<I» - fsin2a
J
lV'.o = ±QkR'l!iIcosCa-<I» - cos a]'}

tv'" = ±QkR' {;\Isin'Ca-<I» - sin'a] - ![sinCa-<I» - sinal _ co~a [<I> - BinCa-<I»cosCa-<I» + BinCa-<l»cosal }

Tahle 5.33 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular I\fcmbcrs
For z-\Vind Acting on :Mcmhcrs in the x-Plane
or x- 'Vind Aeting on :Memhcrs in the y-Plane
Note: Signs prefixed to formulas below to be selected as follows:
Use upper signs when arc 1l lies in the I and/or IV quadrant.
Use lower signs when arc (I> lies in the II and/or III quadrant.
Split the arc into two members when 1) lies in the I and II or III and IV quadrants. ]I[ ]I

Counterclockwise Direction

QkR
tOa='=F,'
' [<I> C . 0)
4"1+2sIn~a-
sin 2(a+<I».
8 C') 3'
+smacosa+'il-sSIllkU o_.J I

w'o' = ±QkR'IUsinCa+<I» - sina]'1

lV'" ±QkR' (Mcos'Ca+<I» - cos' aj - ![cosCa+'I» - cos aj - Si~ a [<I> - sinCa+<I»cosCa+<I» + sin a cosCa+<I»[)

Clockwise Direction

tL'1l =' . ' [<I>

±QkR 4" CI +2sm
. 2a) + sin2Ca-<l».
8 (')
-SIllacosa-'l> ' 2a J
+ "if3Sill
w',. = ±QkR'l!IsinCa-<I» - sina]'1

10'. . = ±QkR' (i[cos'Ca-<I» - cos'aj- !IcosCa-<I» - cosaj + si~a [<I> + sinCa-<l»cosCa-<I» - sinacosCa-<l»J}
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY TIlE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 187
The pipe configuration previously given in Sample plus any restraint in the line betwecn the free end
Calculation 5.14 is calculated for a wind load of and point N. The sum of the moment at the free
60lb/ft in both the x- and z-directions, and shown end rcferred to the origin (obtaincd from the equa-
as Sample Calculations 5.15 and 5.16 rcspectively. tion sheet), and the moment at the origin caused by
A stop in the z- direction at point 4 is included. The any restraint is L;Mx. L;Fxw is the sum of the wind
load constant for this stop equation is calculatcd on load from the free end to point N. L;M,w is the sum
Form S,. Suffieient explanation for thc computa- of the moments at the origin due to EF zw' F:r;w and
tion is given on the form. M,w are obtained from Form lVx. The calculation
The moments at any point N are computed in is shown on Form F -1. Since no restraint is included
accordance with the following general formulas: in thc cxample, L;M" L;F., and L;Fv are the reac-
For x-wind: tions from the equation shect.
For z.-wind:
Af"N= L;M,+ L;M,w+ (L;F x+ L;Fxw)YN- L;F,;rN
M'xN = L;M x + L;Mxw - (L;F x + L;Fxw)YN
where L;F., L;Fv are the sums of thc rcacting forces
at the free end (obtained from the equation sheet), M'vN = L;Mv + L;Mvw + (L;F, + L;F,w)XN
0
Table 5.34 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90° and 180 Circular l\lembers
For z-Vlind Acting on l\fcmbers in the y-Planc
or x-Wind Acting on l\lembcrs in the z-Plane
Shape w, W'bo W'bb

a= 0' D +0.1781OkQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a= 9O' D -0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= 9O' ~ +0.39270kQR' -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a = 18O' ~ -0.1781OkQR' +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

0:: = 180 0 tJ -0.17810kQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a = 27O' tJ +0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a = 27O' q -0.39270kQR' -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= 0' q +0.17810kQR' +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a= 0' D) +2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a = 18O' D) -2.35619kQR' + 1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a = 18O' ((] -2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a= 0' ((] +2.35619kQR' +1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a= 9O' E:J +0.42920kQR' -0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a = 27O' L5 +0.42920kQR' +0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a = 27O' Q -0.42920kQR' -0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a= 9O' Q -0.42920kQR' +0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

188 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.35 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90° and umo Circular Members
For z-Wind Acting on .Members in the x-Plane
or x-Wind Acting on l\lcmbcrs in the y-PIanc
Shape Wo woo woo
a~ 0° D -0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a~ gOo D +0.17810kQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.0479:1kQR'

a~ 90° t'I +0.17810kQR' +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a = 180 0 t'I -0.39270kQR' -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a = 180 0 tJ +0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

x = 270 0 tJ -0.1781OkQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a = 270 0 q -0.1781OkQR' +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a~ 0° q +0.39270kQR' -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= 0° D) -0,42920kQR' +0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a = 180' DJ -0,42920kQR' - 0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a = 180 0 ((J +0,42920kQR' +0.33333kQR' +0.570S0kQR'

a~ 0' (0 +0,42920kQR' -0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a~ 90' Q +2.35619kQR' + 1.33333kQR' + 1.570S0kQR'

a ~ 270 0 t5, -2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a = 270 0
Q -2.35619kQR' + 1.33333kQR' + 1.570S0kQR'

a~ 90 0 Q +2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' + 1.570S0kQR'

 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 189

MEMBER No./~2 COORDINATE STRAl4HT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w. 1+ ,"0
PLANE
'" Z
SHAPE AND &
DATA
""8.50
.~ k
Q I
I
:iIN
~

0(
+ qo
+ 1
k
Q
~

.j>
F •• .. W.L
F .w 1+180
DIRECTION
- R My. .. +iF. w
11 t
b
0
y -
I. !JO
0
1.50
-tkQL~
h:kQL4
L .3.00
4.50
3.38
cos '"
51 .... ~<>(
C::O"Ee-:
0
+ I
0
kQR
Io;QR"
R 'P.L
OR'
00. 4
M . 0
M•• ... -y F.. w
I L'·LRO~l" PL"'~~" • 0
M. w + 270
0 1J,r 0< (0"" 0
:;T~f,'h"'...';."'' '.:..:::'.'.. t'l!:R''''
<1: ............ :,> FOR
PLANE CONSTANTS FOR CURVED $ STRAIGHT MEMBERS

· ..
CURveD ... ~ ... eCR:'>
w. .,-tkQL <06<'< SEe TAOoL.es. ". ..""W.. . -cw",
.. '"t-kQL SIN 0<. 5.'2'5 t5.Z8 Y.y ~bw", ...c.w"
w'"" ...... kQL ...w'ILV
~o':. :'0.t~~w.:.'.::e:~~:;:;:.'r.~·'w~';.~".:,':.t~ ....... & w .. «:o. " ....... 0" +w"'-v

W. - ±:ZkQL cos '" Sec TAel..e:lo Y•• "bw.. -a.w.

5.~3 t 5.35
y w .... b= ;~.kQL" $11>10(0$" +W' .. b ... w·.....
w'..... -::' kOLA. cos <X +W"'b ""w.....
w, -+'lOkQL~St"'Zox OEO 'Ae.l..e:~
5.~2 4- 5 •.,4-
YW, -4.50 -aw b ~ 83.2S .ow, • 75 ~.

• W·b.. ":;' kQL eo,,,, ,",cos", 'f"w· b .. 0 .. w·bb

• 10.3. 38
w'bb'" :thl<: QL" SIN "" +wt>... • 83.2.5 +Wbb • 13
M w M. w F. w ." y" ," W" +'o LOAD CONSTANTS
A. Au B.. 0 0 0
_A.
M

M
A••
Mzw·A."z
An
F"w· B.."
6y<
0

+w. .w. 0 0
0
O.

_A M2W ·A z F"w· B.... ""..'w" "",,'' '... 0 R

A , Au B.. yw. 0 Y.,
- 4.50
M~·A J M w.An F" .... B t W.'W... 0 "".'WI> - 2,.70 R. - 270
B• B, lOu 'f"W". +w.... "~ •+ O.I!.
M
B
-6 • M zw ·6z •
6.
F.w·C••
C.
W.'W•• ""•• W
-c:;w... 0
....."N>

"~ +B~.'2S
,"oB T. I • Goa
M w"e Mtw·B. F..w·C. ...• ..:W.. 0 ...• • •bf,
+ qqs. T I + 49QS.
B• 6" lOu ~(w.,. 'f"W~t> 0

'"' ..'"
M w.
• Mtw·B n F ..... ·C ... w...(W W~'W 0 T I
PIPING_"L~~.I."lLi Y AND S'RE~~. ANALY IS
C ... LC.
F· RM W
THE MW KELLOG:; CO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR X-WIND T - 0 5.IS

MEMBER No.2·4 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w. Y GO

Z PLANE DATA k
'"SHAPE AND & Q
k
::;IN
~

0< Q
2.28
1.00 .j>
~ +270
3./4/SQ
F. w _WIlL
F. w +Z220.00
DIRECTION b ° L cos. ~ R IA.Sf) RpoL M•• ..... z.F"""
If' °0 SIN'~ 0.' M••
.fi, ..LkQL' kQR
0 144,%.11 0
4
y
Z
+ Q.25
0
nkQL" co:."""
1",0«0)0<
k:QR
L'.~"o;:'" PL"'::'~"'"
2G7..... OR 4
"0 ,.
f8.50)
M. w "-)iF" ...
M. w I:OS35.00

.
OR .... UL ... ll R
PLANE ~TR ... ~":.uT" ~/~B"'~IUI <::UR"~O .. f. .. tU:Rll C.ONSTANTS FOR CURVED $ STRAIGHT MEMBERS
w. tkQL co(><'( SE' TAe-I.f!liio Y• • +lJ.w.... -c.w",
5.25 (. 5.~8
• Wy -+ kQl.: :;INe< Y. y -bw" +CW y
w'"y = + I<QL' ..w".
~~~ :.c;.~~w,:.~e:~'t'c:~'i~ ~'i~ u.:,':.~~

y
W. -t~ kQL cos '"
...

w''''b= +~kQL" 51"'01<::0)'"

seo TAtll.~:lo
5:~3 t 5.s5
.,,,-.. :> w"... ~, .... Oil

' .. +w ..."
~bw ..

.. w' .. 1>
-a.w"
.. w ......
w·........ :!:h:l.:QL" co:; oc ........ b .,w....
W, ... :; ~kQL~SIl-l toe. OEO T"e.I.l!~ YWb +6tQ5.Qa -.lwb 0 .ow,
• w·b..- :;J....kQL'I &'''' ,",cos'" ;'.~2 4- 5.'4- +w· b .. °
·'52 442.51

...
.... 8Cf02/.83 .. w'bl:>
w'bb - :!nl<: QL 5lN "" 4Wb... +-8q,02/.8S +Wbb ·/52 0442.51
M w M. w -2 535.00 F. w + 2'220.00 y~ ," w .. +GO LOAD CONSTANTS
A. Au B.. 0 0 0

M
A••
-A.

·A
Mzw·A."t
A••
Mtw·A. z
F~w'B""
6 ••
F. w ·8 yo
0

Y ••
w•• W .,.
'
W.'W..
..
0 0

0
0
o. I
R
A + B.. .w, +"/C=Js.qa
• Au 3.00 - 4.50 YW. 0

Mvw'A J M w.An -61 605. F..... ·B~ -q O. W.·W... 0 b w.·..

... .... 37115 R, .... 300 164.

M
BYo
-8 •
B,
M2W·6~.
- 4.50
... Q2 408.
lOu
F.. w·C...
• q.OO
+ 1'1 980.
+w... +w.... ~ ~
W,,'W... W.'W w....\>I>
+15 "l-42.Sf
....' lJ46 55"0. T l< I+Q25B Q38.
B e. .c.w...
..•
0
6, -5 .50 + A3.25 "~ 1"81102/.83
M w.e M.w·B. + ff3q Gq F..... ·C" +184815. W.oCW.. 0 ... ~ +5.3413/0. T 1+6'-65 B18.
B • Bu e.. ~ewy +W"b 0

M w' • Mtw~8u F"w'C,,~ w.·elY W~'''''' 0 T I

CALc. F· RM W
piPING _"L~~I."lLi Y AND,';;TRE~~. ANALY IS . ,.
THE MW KELLOG:; CO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR X- WIND "' K<
- - 05.15

L
190 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS \
MEMBER No4~5
Z
'"SHAPEPLANE
AND
COORDINATE

•
DATA
0
STRAIGHT

"Q
MEMBER DATA
.
:'1'" <><
CURVED MEMBER
2..1:8
"Q •
1.00 <P
DATA
+305-
.Glo87
w, • c;o
F. w .. W.L
F...... I "G~b
DIRECTION
4
b 0 L co~ ox R 18·50 Rq,oL M. w ..... iF"w
~ kQL~ M wlo
,\}V < 0 5' .... ·"" kQR'" 144%./2 GR'
5 ,
y - 5. 305
0
hkQL'" co~z'"

'''''''O~'''
\o:OR" 12""10(,8./ QR'
L' ' .... H ~~ .. "
.. 0 . . . P .........
.. 0
10.COI
M,. ....... y F",w
M z;w tt.3377.tG
PLANE "''''''l.A;>
5TR .. ' .... T ... c.-...."
\1:: ....
"04"'''",,,,, "0"
'0.."""<:0 "'C"'BCR,. CONSTANTS FOR CURVED ~ STRAIGHT MEM6ERS

. w.
w.
~ -tI<QL co::. ...
= .f.tkQL "n""
$" TAe.. es,
5.25 (.5.28
ow.
..w~ .
...""w.. .
-bw..
-cw""
+CW y

w· ... '" .... l<QL" ..w .....

'-0" .0 ..... 0 ..... ...,0 ,O"' ... V~ .......... H ........... '0. .. ,. .... Me .. !> ..... ,,,.
,o~ ........ "L"''' ... 0......................."'. ..w""

y
w. - :t.:. kQL"c.05
w""b
....
.... "'
see
l
:;:fil<.QL "''''''''0:'''
:!'IeQL4 co:.",
· S.~3
TAeLe~

t 5.35
ow, .. bw...

.. w' .. o
-aw..
.. w·....

." "w... t> .. w ....

w, ..... ~kQL.)5IN~o:. TABl.e~ .w, + 461. q" -awt> 0 ..bwt> 0
, w'b.,"':;: kOL 4 :!I'N''''COSD< 5.~2 4- S.~4 .. w't> ... ... 8.3'1'1. Zq .. w·bb -124'1.88

M,w
... 'bt>" :."1.. < QL s'''' '"
M~"" ... 3,377./6 F.w +"36.60 .~
"Wb<l.

y~ ,. '8 qq.2.q
w." 60
"Wbb
LOAD CON5TANTS
- 24'1.88

A. A .. B.. 0 0 0
M..... A~ t,A,w·A~. F.w·B~. 0 0 0 R.
An A .. B.. • w. ow• 0
M w.A M,w· A ". F ..... ·B y • w•• w. w.'w~ 0 R
A , Aa + 135,51 B" +'~"ib. 16 +W. 0 ow, +4GI.9(;
M ..... A , M.w·A n + 451 (,39. F~"".Bt> .. qqO 651. w~·w", 0 W"W~
• Z77/8. R, ... I 476,008
B •
w.8 y •
B" + 155~. 16 C.. +22 (,88.13 "''''' ... . "".... ow, .. -1249.88
M Mzw·B p + 5'255,401. F.w·C •• ... 4·4.4'· 264. "".'''''." -N•• W W~''''DD _ 74.993 T, "'/q 623 G12
B , B, - «.<0 C. ... A3.25 ·cw", 0 ow... +839 .29
M .... 6 M'w· 8 • - IA7.432.. F.w·C. + 52. 997. -N~ OCW. 0 ...~ ...... +503957. T + 3",Q 522.
B , Bn C" "cw.. +Wolt> 0

M...... 8 M tw ·8 u F.w·C~t w••(", W._"'. . 0 T

., .
I

THE MW KELLOGG CO PIPING ~'LEX.IJ'lLITY AND STRE"? ANALYSIS

LOAD CONSTANTS FOR X-WIND
c",-c
.
'"' . .
F· RM W
NO ./5

MEMBER t-105-b
z PLANE
'"SHAPE AND •
COORDINATE
DATA
-12.'M
STRAl14HT

"Q '.00
1.00
MEMBER
.
~I'" tx
DATA
- 55"
-.8JQ2.
CURVED MEMBER
"0 •
<P
DATA w, ·60
F. w "W.L
F. w ~373.80
DIRECTION
b - 13.73 L 7."0 c::o!> <>< 9".513'- R R;P~ L M. w ..... :iF"",
5~ < 0 3
~ kQL 13.IG 5' ... ·'" 9".'-'10 "OR OR' M. w 0
';: ->S

• ,
Y
0" .......... ~ ~c'"
/3.73
0
hkQL" 13Q.OI

<"OOl ... v .... :. "0"

GO~:C< +.3Z.QO I<QR·
,>.I .. co~" -.4699 l' .... O~l'"
.... 0>.1 "
... l'"
p ........ t
N
QR'
,
G.B
M,w =-9 F"w
M. w 3132.27
PLANE ':>T .... 'C. .. T ... .: ... IH:: .... (u .. ""o ... ~ ... 13C<l'" CONSTANTS FOR CURVED ~ STRAIGHT MEMBERS
w. :. -t IeQL ':;06 .. sc:e TAe. ... es ow. .lJ,w.... -cw....
, w, " ... t"lo:QL'",'''''' 5.25 t 5.28 ow, ·bw.. .c::w,.
w •• " .. r::,l<QL 4 +W'u.
." ...... 0 ........ " .0 .................... l v.... l"
'0"
t>~ ... " . ~O_." ...... <. ............. ~,"" .. " ww" .. f,O' . . . . . . . .
oW ...

, W.
.:;"" .......

w·,.\.>

woo
·
-
±.:.. I<QL'>':'O$
.. hkQL~ ~"''''':;O~ '"
.!:...·IeOL 4 co:. '"
· Se.
5.~3
TA6Le=-
t 5.35
ow, +I>wol
OW'''b

+W... t>
-a.wol
.. w·....
.. w ....

,
w,
· :;tkQL.)f,u"l« SEe TAe.Le~ ow. + 49./0 -awo +637.32 ..bwb - G74./4
· :!;.I.:
::;:. IeOL 4 ~,,,'''''OSl< ~.~2 4- S,~4
•
...
... ·P.. +w·b ... 53·50 ow'bb + 76,41
"obl> .. QL >ON • .Wb<l. to "qo. 82- +Whb -597.73
M,.
A.
M,w
Au
• 513'1.27 F,w
Bn
+ 31'3.80
0
y~

0
,~

0
w.
"0 LOAD CONSTANTS

M,... ·A. M'W·AH F.w·B~~ 0 0 0 R.

A .. B.. ,w. 0
M A '"
M.w·A"t F...... 8 ...
' w,
......w. w.'w" 0 R
+,,,.
N·

A , A" ZB B.. ... 1415.08 ow. 0 '., + 49.10

M w· A , e..... 528 R. + 13,sQ 63G.
........ - 591·7J
M w.An +821 733. F ...... 957. W,'W" 0 w,'W" ... 2946.
B
M ... ·S ••
B ..
M~w·B,.
i"M·/5.0B
+ 12"2,573.
C..
F.w·C .. +8861 258.
." 105.88 +""...
w~.w•• w.,w
+W,04

W,'''OD - JS aH T, ... IGp87, Qro7.

B , B, + 3q 2./0 C. -22QI.49 -cw", 0 oWo~ +~90.dZ
M o·B M. w ·6, +20123'3. F.w·C.. - 8S'- S~9. W.oCWy 0 "'.... .. 11449
~~ T .. lIq7 253.
B , Bn C" . . ,w. O"".t~ 0

M..... B. M..... ·B u F"w·'.t w.·,'" ..... w~t 0 T

THE MW KELLOGG CO PIPING ,'L ,~.IJ'!L1TY AND STRE~?, ANALY IS
LOAD CONSTANTS FOR X- WIND "' "'.
.:. ... '-.:.
". C
FORMW
NO 5./S
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 191

.... EMBER NO G·7 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w. 1+ 60
'N Z PLANE DATA k ~ k Z.28 ~
8" ".w .. W"L
SHAPE AND
OIFlEC TION
•
b
- 25. 'Ho
- 2.7. 4S
Q
L
:>11'.1 0<

G05 0<
Q
R
,. 00
/8.50 Rp-L
if> .73304 ".w
M yw
+772.20
iF"...,
~)
aT

0 0 ~ kQL' 5'''''''' kQR~ /4.436.12 OR' M w 0

;; - 23.18 hkQL" eo~Zo( kOR" 2{,7,068.( QR 4- M,w .. -y F"w
7
Z 0 It,I""O~ .. ..
L·<,"g~' P~.. ;'~"'Go .. C /2.87 M ~w ttl1.97f:,BZ
PLANE '1M" .... " ro .. .. O"l ... U ..... " >'0"
<:'-''''''''0 ... t. ... Bc .. ~ C.ONSTANTS "OR CURVED ~ STRAIClHT MEMBERS
!IT<l .. 'C.HT
•w.
.
.... 1: ... 6" .. "
w. :::-tkQL.:ot>'" SEe TAe.I..E~ +4W ...... _cw..
w. '" +tkQL ~1"0l 5.25 (.5.28 .w. ~bw". +cw y

W,~ '" "}.;.l<QL'" "w·..".

ro" .0 .... 0 ........0 .Q ..... "L~ .....n t v ......... '" .. " _ .. .... G..... 0"
+Wv,v
<:o~ _ "'Ill <>LU" , .. 0 ....... "" . . . . . """l.It
w. : ~7 kQL"c05 0< see
5.?13
TABLe::!>
t 5.35
•w. +bw ... _3.W•
Y w .. b - ;l.. k.QL'"
5'''''''0'' '" "w'o." ... w·...
w" .. "" !' kQL~ co~ or.
w. . +'~kQL S""zo;r. >e' T .... Bt.e~ +w. .. 8'15.33
• w .. 1>
_.1.w" "'232,42.. 77
'tw....
.bWb ·2457G.8/
5.~2 4- 5.~4-
• W b... " ... : kQL 4 e.'N·Q\~05" 'tw· b ... - 14Q7/.78 .w'bb .. 6751.18
.. I>b· :. ;.Ic QL 5'''' ""- ...... \:>.. ... 8270.99 .Wbb -/7825 . .33
M,w M._ + /18.16.82, F.w + 772.20 ,0< yO< '0< w. +60 LOAD CONSTANTS
A., A.. B•• 0 0 0
M..... A. Mzw·A.~ F...... B•• I
.w. .w.
0 0 0 R.
An A.. 8 .. 0

M w.A Mzw'Av~ F."".6 ... "".'w.. 0 R I

A , An +IGe.BB B .. + 13/0. 73 +w.
w ••"""
.w. 0 + a'ls.n
M w.A , Mzw·A n 1'"~03.5 '12.5. F.w·B t • +101, 14fO. w.·w.. 0 w•• w~ + 5'3 720. R, +4;101,79/.
B +1310.13 C .. + 251(;,3. II +w.." .w.....
,+ 41 '124 I'll.
ow... -/78ZS.J3
B"
M ... ·8 • M:w·B z• .. 'l.~ 5(,2 757. F.w·C •• + tq 43O,QS4. w•• w"_ w.'W... w•• w~~ _IOGQ,52o T.
B , +4CfO.7s C, - 3_"28. 7C- -c.w.. 0 .w~ .. +8270. 'Ill
B"
M .... 6 Mzw ·6z ...8822 /2.4. F.w·C.. - 2.802- 128. ",.o<:w" 0 .......... +4QCO 25'i, T 1+ (;5/6 255.
B , Bn C.. .~w" "W"' b 0

""'"w·6. M.w·B n F.w'C •• W.'c."'. W,'W.... 0 T I

PIPING JL ''';t):l~L1 Y AND STRE,S ANALY IS
., FORM W
c",-c
THE MW KELLOffiCO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR X- WINO
HC:CK£.O
- NO .1

MEMBER NO. 7·8 COORDINATE STRA1~HT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w, • GO
'N Z . PLANE DATA k 1.00 ~ _en- k ~
".w .. W.L·
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
• - B.N Q 1.00 ~IN

eos ...
ex -.99Z5 Q if> " .w "627
M yw ..... :i.F"w
b -34.H L 10.53 -./2/9 R RT-L
~ kQL~

eU"
0 0 /94.59 S,N~'" .'1851 kQR'" OR M w 0
;; - '4.44 "hkQL· 5/2.27 eo~E ... kQR" _ 0 GR' M,w "-9 F"w
Z 0 '>10«0)" L··~"o':::·... P .. ,,::,~'" 10.4-5 M. w +2.1,'01
~TA: .... :h""HUT" '::'1l:~B~r:<l'lIo
F"O<:t .... UL ... ~ FOR
PLANE cuotVIl:O ... r:"'Br:R!!o C.ONSTANTS "OR CURVED ~ STRAIGHi" MEMBERS
w. '" -~ kQL C06'" s.e TA&l.E&. • w. ..e.w.... ~c:w ...
x Wy - + kQL $11-1'" 5.25 (,5.Z8 +w. -bw.. ..cw"
w·.... _ of" kQL -+w·.."
~~~ :.o~ ... ~w~~e.:~~';;~"""""'W':."l~ ".:::..~"s S'CoN;> W"",H 6 ...... OR ..W ....

W. "" "±tkQL cos or; Se.

S.~3
TA(~L~=-
t 5.35
+w. -+bw... -aw&
y W:"b- +~.kQL· $lN"'CO~ '" -+w·.. b .. w ......
w·....... - :t:l:;;:k:aL~ cO$. or. "W...b -tw .....
W. .. :;:tkQL Sl~ Zo(. e.El! "ABl.e~ 'Wo + ,Q'.G9 -0I."'t> +j5,Q.53 .ow. -c;;~97."5
< w·b ... -
....·bb -
+-'-kQL
:!::hk QL'"
SON

$11'1 or;
«<OS" 5.~2 4- 5 •.,4- -tw· b ...
..w\:>,;.
- G 1.52
+1518·01
.w·bb + .-s"oo.85
+Wbb -GIQG.Aa
M W M,_ ... 21 907. t 627. .0< yo< , 0< w. + 60. LOAD CONSTANTS
" .w
A. Au Bn 0 0 0

Mw-A" Mzw·A"t F.w·B.." 0 0 0 R,

A,y A y, By. +W. ... w.. 0

M w'A Mzw 'A v1O "'.'W" w.·w...

F.w~By. 0 R
Ay< An +/99.BO + Q'.21 B.. 0 +/9/.GQ .w. ",
M 'A • Mzw·A n 377 0'9.• F~W·e1 +34 I. W,·W.. 0 w,'W o ~II 0/. R. +47(;2 971.
B.. Bu ~ 7. C •• t 2063.90 +w.... .. w...... .W~b -blq(;.BO
M w·e • M:..... Bz" +13.0B3.079 F.w-C•• +2b 3740GS. w.'W"_ "'.'W "'.'''0.. ~7180.r:l w T l< 1+ 3~ oB5 33G.
B B. + 750.71 C, -95Z/.7# -cw... 0 .w~ +1518·01

M w"B M..... ·Bz +113:445804. F.w·e. - 5.970 lJI. w.o<:wu 0 .....w". + 91 OBI. T + 10566 75~.
B • B.. Co< ..(W"
""'... b
0

Myw ·8 .. M.w·B n F"w·C... w.·<W w.'W... 0 T

c",-c. F· RM W
PIPING J~~~!P~LITY AND STRE'~. ANALY IS
THE MW KELLOQ; CO LOAD CONSTANTS "OR X- WIND '"', "' - - NO ./
 ,
f~ -1J.76~!l$3. -"9J~ ~/an" -t~.P.jl~.
2 nj'M.3H. -/l.Ctl'13~ r2~OO,$S5 - z£980930
~ -4$22 3 _U .,.Z~~. ~S#l9SC - U:.JZf. 030
4
5
•
M. Fx Fy ONSTANTS
, , ,
"00 -, 1 .0 ,., ,-
I 2'0 22 1 IZ "0 0
- I. 000 1
-5" o29~
, , liS• -I ~

, 0 -S7 054
"
-/3 oe2 ~
-~~~
"125

I> ;S4 ,'<,

" 3
1
"0
"//Z 1698 700
-
-2
1.000 00,
10. S6 - .... o. 1/ V/,
-2 0" So

. :1:7 3~~::¥.
~ 135 73 80 12<
~,
X 1(//1010 I~ n.- ," 17M....
.u
F xw (1lJr.)~""'80''''O
0] 0'
1.00 00
'';
""
- /8J"
•
;;, 0 - Zlo~. 5G
,c" 0 - 2703.04
~
:f. = -4809.Go - 1.00 00

>
- .. 000 00

>
- 1.000 00

PIP\NG fL(XI61t.I1Y a STRESS ANALTSIS C"I.-. •• FORM E-I

THE MW KEllOGG CO 6~EQUAT10NS fo::.~i;2?f·~ CALC. N-·5.15

(CNVERSIDN
CODE
[~. ,
~,,:!LE_S
To POIt\'T
•y -
-
• 8.88 -
-
7
7.(.0 -
-
6
/0.80 -
5
15.1t; -
4
/8.50
•
3
0 . Z
18.SO +
-
1
18.50
, 40.J~ 29.71 /(;.84 - 10.C./ 0 /8.50 0 :J.OO
'>
S,- Et:: • 5'£ F.
F
-
-
ZIOC..(. -
-
/47!J.t. -- 707.4 -
-
333.C. .
-
303.0
·- /4/;;.0 •- ;:.s?~.o-
•
-
Z 703.0

Sf U " P':::;l F,
/83.1 /83./ /83.' /83.1 /83./ /83.1 /83.1 /83.1

~c _ Ec .C
R' - [I, OR r~'
~F .z

".
R< E<
"'Eh
Si • S-'L
5'c
.....Hle HEvCl: IS GREATER
:-F"oy
M,
..~
IS}:. • of z·x
R· -f ~'z
:? -(1-j c)
M
-~-~ 5t 02~ - 32. /22 - 14 /45 - 9013 -
, -•
56' /5 '903 - Z-c. 171 - 2.5!JOI
~l' •
~F,·y 84 si, + 43 ~S!J '" 1/ 9/2. of- .3 539 Zt;141 0 - 8109

R' -CAL.CUL,..TEO
REACTIONS BA5E:> ON 5' .... co
-F x
M,
0

.- I col.e.
2:8 92.4
-
~
I 39l -
/0 445 ~
I 977 -
4 2.09 -
2. 774
825>0 -
~ .3 387
9023",
0 +
/0 Z3B -
..;I 387 +
ZZ 784 -
J 381
30 (,ZJ

"0' M)DULUS I Ell 0:050<

Y Z PLAIJE
M', M M· M.
"',
:M"
~M·"
-M\
.M·
-M'"
z(:O.!>oc.
~S'N I<

l: ~ L M'o
oM""
.M'- .~~~ ~ ~~'''' '"
~M''l .M' "C.O$",
l ~ M<
PIPE Z f-12 l .02.2130
31.0 52.co.4 /J I
Sb"f M
S'b"f.8M b
.'8
25t.=fMt
S ,5 .<5
5··5'·~4::'·;51;

~IPING FlEXI.~ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS <Ac

THE MWKELLOGG CO FORM . I
MOMENTS AND STRESSES "'
OA - C 0 S,IS
192
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY TilE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 193

MEMBER NO. 1·2 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w, ·I~ (,O
Z
'"SHAPEPLANE
AND ~
DATA
+-/8.50
k
Q /
/ ~

S'N IX
90'
,/
k
Q
~

t
F. w • Wzt...'
F. w 1+180
DIRECTION b
e
- /" $"0 L
-!-kQL,)
3.00 co:) "" 0
kQR~
R Rt·L
oR'
M"w .. -toVF"w

:I j "y
0
+-/8.50
- 1·50
nkQL 4
4.50
3.·'8
SIN"o<
<:.0.0"'",

!>'NO<COZ
+/
0
0
kQR+
..
L'.~l'\g.~fi :~D ';~"'C;;"'''
a.0.. M ...... 1-270
M w ... -1i,i=.w
M,w 1-3330
~OOlU"'l."':; ~OR
PLANE 'OT ...... >CoI-lT .... £ ... I'I£R:I
FOR"'Ul.A!> FOR
CU""~D ... E ... OtRS CONSTANTS FOR CURVED ~ STRAI~HT MEMBERS

•
Wu
· '::-:;;-kQL)cosc<
w. '" +tkQt...:.olto.l"!
SEE TAeLE.5
5.25 ... 5.28 .w.
• wu

+ 4.50
0 +~w ...
-b ..... y H,.7.
0 ~CW

"few"
.. 0
0
. . . ·.,v >: +hka~ "tw'u,", + ':. ~Hl
f~ ... O""""
c .. 0<> C
1'0 ......... 1. ... :;, lJl>~ v ....
c. ........ ~ >( "'''''''lO ...... N +w...,'" '1'/0./.3

•
w.
·
:! J.kQl)COfl"e>t

~~\>••~ .. hkQL4.o'>l~CO!ozol
5EE TACll..e~

5.33 .. S.!lS
• w. .,bw...
.. w·... b
-ll.W...

..w·.....
w'.. " .. ;!:.n\..QL... cos· ....

y
'0
·
~.t.kQL:SIOl ... coso<.
:;tkQL:sl"'~"
SOE TA&..l!'i5
5.32 If. 5.~4
.w. • w ... 1>
-"a,Wb
+w'l:>&
tw....
+bwb
+W'bt>
~_.
W'bt" :!:tkQL+s,.. 0<

. •• ,.
tWbL
,. +wbb
M....
A ••
M
A.
F ..
5 .. .w. ... 0
·w~

'4.~0
"'60 LOAD CONSTANTS

M._·A,.
A.
M~w·A ...
A.,
M ....A ••
"-
M ... ·A>y
A..
F~ .... BH
5 ..
F, ... ·B yz
5"
-
,.w.
.w.
"",'W..
0
J'W'
0
0
0
-. 0

"",,·w..
0
+-270
0
0
R.

R.
+ 270

M ....A.., M...... A., Ftw·B u 0 0 0 R.

e •• B •• c .. 'c;w... 0 ..~

M...... B n M ...··B•• F",w'C. .. "','CW- 0 W~'Wl>l T.

B•• B C , .C""., .wa..

..
0
M ...... B •• M. w'6 n Ftw,C YJ w.·e .... "',.w•• 0 T.
e •• B • C, +w~. ~ t ....... + /0./3
M ......S ... My...·D •• F.,w·C..,. w,'~ w........ w...... + c;.OA T. +608
THE MW KELLOGG CO PIP~'bG,.tlflJ~~~N\tNfo~T~~W,:i}ALY;I' .
c .....c.
C .. fCMfC
. FORM W
Ie .16

MEMBER NO.2-4 COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w, 1+ GO

'" Z PLANE
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
~
DATA
0
k
Q SIN IX
~ k
Q
2.28
/.00
~

;;
270·
180·
F. w • w.,L'
F. w +3487.17
b 0 L CO$ ..: R /P.50 R~ .. L 58./ M.~ r+yF,,,,,,

.Lb, e

"Y + 11.78
0
0
l.!,..kQL)
kQL
SIN",,:
c.O:''''C(

5'>.10«0'
kQR'
k.QR+
... 0" ., p ....... e
GR'
L' ... ~o.>tc:Tt.o ... f .. c;." .. 0.
OR' Mow 4/079
IJIJ /' M __ '" -j(F tV.;
58,/2 My .... I D
6331:

Pl.ANE fOIt ... ul,,"S fOR,

ST ..... IG .... " "'f:"'Bf<l~
;:;-:;"-kQL1 C:05l>1.
FOI\ ... Ul. ... 5 fa"
e.u" .. ~o ... t:MIlE<lS CONSTANTS FOR CURVED e
5TRAlc.:jHT MEMBERS
Wu II: SEE TA8Le:.~ ' WU "'90 ,,~q +.l..W.. D .. 0 ~c;w

Z w. '" +i'kOL3!>llo.ll>l. 5.25 (.5.2B +W. +- 974 -b ...... D "C::""'". 0

w'uv'" + "4k a~ tw· ..... +44(;.,899
I!~~ .. W'Nc. ~ORMUl.""~. U!;L UPI' <l 6'G.:-'~ W"l'''i
o'ql. e c. .. "'44(;,,899 0
w. -
p~ ~. +W ... "
t
:!; .1. kQl!COllo ", SEE TAeLes • w. -tbw.. _:~w..
-
• ';
W·...b .. .hkQ~ SIIHO,COS;QI: 5.33 .} S.?>S t"",''''1> .w......
w·••• ± hkQL: cos'"",
w.
+W.b tWa ..

y w·b...
· :;.J..kQt.:.s'N~O<
;i4kQL:SIOl 0< COSO<
SEe TA&..I!'~
5.32 If. 5.~+
+W. -awl:>
-tw"t,...
tbWb
.w·l>b
---

..... ,..
W't>b" :!:..J..kQL+51.. l>I. ",wb.. t"'bb
M••
A••
~
+
4/,079
.3.00
M"w
A.
0
0
F ••
8" .
+3487.17
4.50
.~

.w.
·w .. 1"60
+9747
LOAD CONSTANTS

M.....A....
A.
M.w·A. y
<10 I2J
0
0
237 M W·Ah
A
M w·A.
0
+- 3. ijn-
D
Fr...
8 .
·e.. z.
Frw·B z. .,. 25/,599
+/5 692
f.-:;~ .-,~-
.. '''1"
• w,
WL'W..
,'Wa
0
0
ow•
0

Wo·W..
-/.584820
.,. 90 (DGq
.,.S4t/O /40
R.

R.
t723,749

+S69/,739
A•• A.. en 0
~- 0

R.
M.w·A .." Myw·A.,
. F tw ·6 u 0 0
B .. B c •• ·c;w...
- -
, 0
..w b •
M.w·B•• M ... ·B... Ftw·C u "",·tw- 0 wz •...... T.
B•• B C , +c.w" +Wn

..
0
M"w..B.y M.. w ·6...... F"w'Cy< Wz.'<W ,.w•• 0 T.
e.. + 4.50 B • +-72./5 C. /34J.78 +W~. ~ +W.. 44'- 899
M".... ~8 ..t .,./84 1 856 My..."Dyt 0 F",w· C .." +4685/189 w........ .......... • w...... 2(; Bt.JW T., J.i.J/ (;.84 785
c ......c.
~LE~!§lIT V AN.9~~TRE?$. ANALYSIS FORM W
HE MW KELLOGG CO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR Z-WIND ~,~
T· ~. . So
194 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

MEUSER No.f·S COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA W, • <'0
Z PLANE DATA
'"
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
~ 0
k
Q
~

:SIN 0(
k
Q
2.28 305-
1.00
"t .61081
F,w .. w~ L'
F. w • +f.78
b 0 L. co~ <K R 18·50 R~.L 1/•.10 M. w ",+yF 2W
4 c
,~ 0 kQL~ SIN~"" kQR Il a.' 6331.63 M. w ·3708.'6
hkQL 4 c.O~20< kQR+ aR'
"9 -11·37
- 5-47
I'c'lI.n) ... ,,!'> FOR rOR ....... 1. ... 5 FOR
~I"'''''CO'
L· ... ItOJfC
'-
EO Lf"'G.YH 0 ..
... '" .. L ..... C
71/35.16 M w
//. .30 .... w
'" -'iF'lW
If. 776.8b
CONSTANTS FOR CURVED
Pl.ANE

z
Wu
w.
&T~"'IG"'T

·
"' 'ttkQL.:~uu ..
"'E:"'f1I<I~

-.zkQLl co.5p<
CURveo .... r ... flE"s
seE TAfH.. e.:s
5.25 t. 5.28
.wu
.w. - 127
- ,??
+.a.w..
-bw v
" 5TRA1C4HT MEMBERS
0
0
-e""",
~c.wv
0
0
w· v"' +r'.kOt.: -tw'"" 'RRO
::f~':;;~1.c w~"':: iOfH:lJl. .... ~. \1'1>'- VI''' R G'GoNfi w... , ... +w'-'" + 880
w.
· + l.kQl!coo L " , SEe TAell...e:s .w. ,bw.. _:Lw..
x .........b .. :;: hkQ~ :I'''' CJl,cothc 5.3::5 4- 5.~S +w·... b .w......
w·.... - ±hkQ~ cos·lll. "w&b +W • •

W, · :;.LkQL:~'"·,, see
5 . .32
TAeI...£~
4- ~ ~+
.w, -lI,wb .. t1""b
y w'b_ .. +hkQL.:~.. ",co!>"" ..... 'bl>

.. .w...
'tW'!>6

W'bb" :!:..LkQL+~I'" 01 "wb. +w/>I>

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A. 0 A
0
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PIPING _~LEX.I~'!-t y AN'y_~ TRE?~. ANAL'.,,,, c .. <-c. FORM W
rrHE MW KELLOGG CO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR I-WIND c .. ~Ct<~O
C .s.I€>

MEMBER No.5-' COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w, '60
Z
'"
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
PLANE
~
DATA
-12.98
k
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1.00
/.00
~

51"l to:
-55·
-.8192
k
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t
F. w .. w. L'
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I.. I<Q.L 4 1 .01 c.O.!>·'X
• "9 - 12.98
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FOR ...... 1.. ... 5
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PL.ANE fOR
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SEE "TAeLe5
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0
0
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M .... A~
0

+ 733 • .349.
B .
F..... B ••

F..... B • - 83,475
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w.'Wy
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M.w·A .. Mv... ·A v:.. F ..... B u 0 0 0 R. I
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8
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e .. -804,9/ 8" 0'"
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W Wl'W~
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c",<-c:.
CH!Ct< 0
- -
FO M W
5.16
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 195

ME~8ER NO,,"-? COORDINATE 6TRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED ME.MBER DATA w. +GO
Z PLANE
'"
5t-lAPE AND ~
DATA
-25.'96
k
Q
~

511'.1 0(
k
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2.28
/.00 .7.J304
~

f
83'
1"'8/3..'7
F. w
F. w
• wf;L'

DIRECTION b - 27.45 L co~:~ R /8.50 R~·L

1.30$6 M. w .. +yF:z w

~l
c 0 HQL' SlWt""" kQR 3 G~' 6JJU.J M KW ~/877'.s

7
•y - 8.41
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h.I<QL C.O~~D<

510,1OCCO:l
kQR4>
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~p'
T(.O ... t; .. QT,.., 01'
'- 0'" Z PL. ..... ~
/lUiS.lG M 'oN ~ -'5<I="w
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I'O"' ..u.. 1. .... s
PLANE ~T"""IQ"T .... II':M""R~
I'O~ rOR ...UI.. ... fI 1'01'1
cU"'''l!O .... f .... 8fI:lS CONSTANTS FOR CURVED ~ STRAI~HT MEMBERS

z
Wu
w, ·'" T.::kOt...:&l .... "'·
~QLlC050< SEE TAeL..E:e.
5:25 4.5.28
+w.
+w,
-2QO
-
+.lw..
-bw.,.
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- 2404'.2
~_.:.w

.. c.w..,
... 0
0
w· ,," +;.kQ.~ +w'..... .,.1.7Q,3.34-
~~1.c w;... O ... "'UL .... ~. U';;II; UP!>
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w. " ... .LkQL?co~tc< SEE TAel-~$ ow. 1"bWa _1""..
• ........... ± hkQL'"
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wb
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w·b... +t.ik Q
++kQL~'~~'"
L ~~ ~ cost>:
seE TAe.t...es
5.32 5.~44-
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+w·b./l
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.. W·bb

f*-kQL+511'~ t>:
M ••
W'bb"

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-,
z. .w.'"
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"wbb
LOAD CONSTANTS
A••
M..... ·A•• - , .,
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0
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0
0
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M......A. y
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8;:",
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0
0
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0
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M .....·A.·. M.,.......A ..... F'lw·6 u 0 0 0 R,

6" B C .. -ew... 0 .-wt>.
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B.. B C" .I:..W" .w•• 0
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B•• -"90.2~

M"'w· 8 ". HZ,962,1J8.

M.,..w·B""
B . - JOt. 57
M.. . w·B.,... ~20"S,~31.
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cn
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0

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eo.",C.
THE MW KELLOGG CO PIPING JLEXIBIJ,.r Y AN9.?TRES.S·ANALYSIS FORM W
LOAD CONSTANTS FOR Z'WIND c"CCoteo
u . tC 5./

MEM8ER No.7·S COORDINATE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w. 1+ (;0
Z
'" PLANE
SHAPE AND
DIRECTION
~
DATA
-8.24
k
Q
I
I
~

S'N eo:
-97-
-9US
k
Q
~

f
F. w
F. w
• w,L'
+'3/.80

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b -·4.94 L /O.s3 co=:> to< -121 RIf!.L M. w "' ot-VF .....
c 0 IlCkQL' 19459 SINl't>: kaR~ OR. M. w ~2 ()1S.lJ'.
•Y -B.l4 nkQ[' 512.27 c.o~:rt>: kQR"
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0,.-
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-.34.94 5'o.IIX'0' ... ON ::::. p ....... c M w ,.SZ06.#
FOflUV ......S FDK fORMU"'AS fOA
Pl-ANE 5TI'I'AO<;OUY ... "( ••UU:A", cv"'''c:o "'E ... aEAS CONSTANTS FOR CURVED t;. STRAI~HT MEMBERS

z
w.
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w, '" +ikQL:Sl .... t>:
SEE TAeI..E.~
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-/9;.13
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-b""v
~ 195. 'IS
• 67"7.9(,
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0
0

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w',," +r'..kOt
• ,!
I' LL w''''co I'O"lMULA,5,

w.
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w'•• .. :tnkQL cosloo. +W&b +w...
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4-
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5.32 !5,~4· +w'b./l +w'bl>
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LOAD CONSTANTS
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• ........ 0
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0 .
M.,..w· B""
-"8.3.28
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. e" ...c.
Tit 1-3I.Sef. .470.
FORM W
THE MW KELLOGG CO PIPlliG. FLEXlBH1
LOAD CONST NTS FOR Z'WIND
AN9.?TflESS ANALY51S CH~Cot 0
.
s.
.IG
 NOTES

END TO STOP
M R T 001
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STOP IN X DIRECTION
,
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CONSTANT FOR X STOP E UATION En

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I
PtPI/iG ~LEXIBILITY B S.TRESS. ANALYSIS c ... ~ . FORM E-I
THE MW. KEllOGG CO 6-EQUATIONS ro'.:.~~i1? - CALC. N-·S.
196
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 197
OINT 7
CONVERSION TO
cooe RULES , 8
8.!B - U - "It;10.80 -
5
15.1t; -
4
18..50
3
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•
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•
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, Y
COf,lX
< PLANE
M" M' M' M•
• M, .M xco.!!>.
-M -M'T. -M'. JrSIN.
>: M'b
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THE MWKELLOGG CO.l. PIPING. F.L~~I.H.ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS c ....l-c. #. """.
FOR'" -I
MOMENTS AND STRESSES H
• ,- - l S.lb

where "L,F, is the sum of the reacting force at the References

free end, obtained from the equation sheet, and any 1. The M. W. Kellogg Co. (by D. B. Rossheim, A. R. C. Markl,
restraint in the line between the free end and point N. H. V. Wallstrom, and E. Slezak), Design of Piping Systems,
"L,M, and "L,M yare the sums of the moments at the 1st edition, 1941 (out of print-superseded by 2nd
free end referred to the origin, obtained from the edition, 1956).
2. H. V. Wallstrom, "General Analytical Method," Heating,
equation sheet, and the moments at the origin caused
Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 19, No.5, pp. 69-74 (1947).
by any restraint,. "L,F.", is the sum of the wind load 3. L. H. Johnson, <lSolution of Pipe Expansion Problems by
from the free end to point N. M,,,, and M yw are the Punched Card !\.hehines," digest in Mech. Engr., No.
sum of the moments at the origin due to F.",. M ''''' 53-F-23, p. 1020 (Dec. 1953).
My"" and F. w are obtained from Form lV,. Since 4. 'V. Hovgaard, HStresses in Three-Dimensional Pipe
a F,-stop is included at point 4- in the example the Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 57, FSP-57-12, pp. 401-476
(1935).
F,,-force from the equation sheet and its moment at 5. W. Hovgaard, HFurther Studies of Three-Dimensional
the origin must be included from point 5 to the fixed Pipe Bends," Trans. ASME, FSP-50-13, Vol. 59, No.8,
end. The calculation is shown on Form F-l. pp. 647-650 (1937).

For a further discussion of piping analysis, see Appendix D,

Page 359, "A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis and The
Usc of Digital Computers."
 CHAPTER
'.
6
Flexibility Analysis by Model Test
P ROGRESS in the physical sciences has been
marked by the constant use of experiments
as a means of pioneering observation and a
confirmation of reasoning and mathematical predic-
tion. Following the establishment of basic "laws,1J
the experimental approach has proved invaluable
for quantitative measurement of the physical con-
stants which implcmcnt applied science and make
possible the practice of cngineering.
General design principles and specific assumptions
can often be verified or their qualitative significance
determined by simple expcriments. Although a
more refincd approach is usually necessary for
quantitative measurement, significant data are often
achieved with minimum complexity by taking
advantage of basic phenomena such as yiclding or
failure. Where the relative influencc of the variables
involved is not cstablished, or when prototypes are
used for providing designs for mass production,
full-size specimens, where economically feasible, are
favored for positive avoidance of errors. However
in many fields, such as structures, increasing knowl-
edge of fundamentals and significant improvements
in instruments for accurate measurement make it
possiblc to employ scale models with increasing
confidence for the direct solution of problems, partic-
ularly where ovcrall rathcr than highly localized
influences arc undcr study.
6.1 The Experimental Approach
As a pioneer contributor to high-temperature
piping design, The M. W. Kellogg Company, by the
employment of strain gages, made early use of
experimental verification of the load-deflection rela-
tions of so-called cxpansion bends and of the primary
and secondary stresses in curved pipe. Later effort
was dcvoted toward establishing flexibility and
198
stress intensification factors for corrugated and
creased bends and corrugated tangents; also, to
load-deflection tests of both piping assemblies and
large scale models of piping systems made of small
pipe. These combined experiences with the experi-
mental approach led to the routinized solution of
piping flexibility by Model Tcst which is presented
in this chapter.
6.2 The Routinized Model Test
Much of the early urge for the evaluation of piping
expansion cffects by model test was inspircd by the
difflculty in handling othcr than simple problems
by the analytical methods then availablc. Experi-
ence in structural and other fields had demonstrated
that rcliable results could be achicved from scale
models; however, expense limited their use to occa-
sional important problems. Economic widespread
application required, first, a comprehensive analytical
development of the gcneral irregular frame in space
for organization and evaluation of the accuracy of
the model test results, and second, rugged precision
equipmcnt and organized test methods for obtaining
reproducible results with reasonable expenditure of
timc. That these requirements havc bcen mct by
the Kellogg Modcl Test Laboratory is attested by
the demands for its services on critical piping,
particularly for public utility installations. Al-
though the horizon of economic analytical solutions
has been broadened by programmed machined cal-
culations, the IVfodel Tester continues in its useful-
ness for complex problems. Most important it t
provides an independent check method which can
parallel manual or programmed machine calcula-
tions when double assurance as to the accuracy of
design is desired.
Evolution of the Kellogg Gencral Analytical
1
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST
Method, in addition to benefits previously described,
provided the long-needed measuring stick which,
along with visualization and detail'treatment, must
underlie dependable experimental solutions; in addi-
tion it accelerated the development of suitable test
equipment. It was appreciated that extreme accU-
racy in model dimensions or reproduction of cross
section was unnecessary in view of the 12~% thick-
ness tolerance of seamless pipe, and of the largely
indeterminate degree of fixation at terminal ends or
intermediate restraints, and therefore, that solid
rod models would give adequately accurate answers
where curved piping did not predominate.
A stiff adjustable mounting frame soon demon-
strated superiority over individualized support
because of the absence of harmful deflection and the
rapidity whieh could be achieved in accurately
positioning models, applying movements, and read-
ing measuring equipment. The desirability of a
rigid arrangement with fixed model ends was appre-
ciated; however, its accomplishment was not imme-
diately aehieved, so that initial approaches resorted
to the application of loads and measurement of move-
ments at the free ends of a model, fixed at one end.
Fred G. Hill brought this concept to its highest
development in an apparatus described in 1941 [1].
The free end of the model was fitted with a fixture
consisting of three moment levers and four needle
pointer position indicators aligned with a fixed
reference ring. In operation, the entire model was
displaced in the three coordinate directions by a
micrometer movement device attached to the fixed
end. The free end was then returned to its original
position with respect to the reference ring by means
of shot-filled buckets attached to the arms of the
moment levers. This device was purchased by the
General Electric Company, but was never extensively
used. None of such designs appeared satisfactory
for sufficiently accurate measurement of rotations,
or for reproducible or rapid results.
Much of the practicable advance toward the model
testing of involved structures was pioneercd by
Beggs [2J. In papers dating back to 1922, he de-
scribes mcthods and equipment for applying accu-
rate deflections and for measuring reactions. His
HDeformeter" provided a precise mechanical means
for accomplishing the former; and his micrometer
movement movable crosswires microscope provided
a useful measuring instrument in locations where it
could be applied. His use of lapped hydraulic jacks
for applying simultaneous multilocation loading of
varying magnitude is well known and such devices
are frequently employed in testing apparatus. It is
199
also believed that Professor Beggs first made use of
the principle of successively releasing and weighing
individual reactions by providing an amount of
freedom, small in comparison with the restraining
effect being measured, and then taking the reaction
off the supporting structures and onto the weighing
fixtures within the movement limit established. He
successfully employed this approaeh on individual
tension and compression effents and in various
combinations to suit morc complex restraints.
Over a period of years, many models of involved
structures, such as bridges, buildings, support
frames, floating dry docks, machine frames, etc.,
were successfully tested. Such tests were rela-
tively expensive due to the cost of the model, the
specialized equipment, and the number of man-
hours required.
The M. W. Kellogg Company elosely followed
much of Professor Beggs' work, and were endeavoring
to adapt his general principles of limited freedom
weighing of reactions to the routine model testing
of piping, when this end was accomplished by
Harold W. Semar [3]. It involved the use of small
plungers and struts to confine a fixture attached to
the model to 0.001 in. to 0.002 in. free movement at
individual measurement locations. Each load was
weighed by a movable ealibrated spring gage which
opposed the fixture reaction passed to it through the
strut and plunger. Each reaction was balanced by
adjustment of the spring until the plungers were
moved to the center of their free travel as indicated
by a dial gage, thus assuring that all load was off the
frame and on the spring, and that the reading would
be taken at the same relative location each time.
Movement was aecomplished by a micrometer feed
mechanism which was carefully set up along the
direction of the resultant expansion.
This method of load measurement was incor-
porated into The M. W. Kellogg Company's first
produetion model test equipment, which included
an arrangement of vertical posts and horizontal
arms, the latter adjustable in elevation and in plan.
Models could be mounted by simple fixtures to
measuring heads supported by displacement heads
which applied three-dimensional translation by
means of two slides, one of which could be rotated
about the axis of the other. In spite of certain
limitations, this arrangement was in successful
continuous productive operation for several years.
It established general appreciation of the advantages
offered by the model test approach in the visualiza-
tion of complex configurations and in the economic
study and resolution of over-stiff runs in a system;
200 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
and it marked the successful establishment of the
present Model Test Laboratory.
6.3 The Kellogg Model Test
The Kellogg Model Test Method parallels The
M. W. Kellogg Company General Analytical Solu-
tion, substituting routinized tests on scale models for
organized mathematical operations in evaluation of
the shape coefficients and their summation into
deflection and rotation equations for simultaneous
solution of the terminal and other restraining forces
and moments. In establishing corresponding
stresses, including the critical locations, both ap-
proaches involve the same conventional structural
calculations; although, in some c3:ses, strains and
hence stresses are obtained directly from electrical
gages either cemented directly on the model or on
reusable fixtures which are temporarily attached to
the model. Horizontal and vertical deflections used
in designing supports or in checking critical clear-
ances, and which can be obtained in the analytical
method by supplementary calculation, are readily
measured on the model. The approach basically is
unlimited with relation to problem complexity; only
available equipment restricts the Kellogg Model
Test Method. Test equipment is presently available
for as many as 15 points of complete fixation.
In the model test, the terminal ends are usually
fixed, although completely hinged, guided, or other
partial end restraints can be provided; and similarly,
any degree or manner of intermediate restraint can
be constructed to represent solid hangers or other
types of supports, stops, guides, etc. In testing,
displacements are applied to the ends or at inter-
mediate restraints, which are representative of the
expansion of the piping or external movements, and
which are related to an initially assumed fixed
origin. The forces and couples resulting from these
displacements, as affect"d by the terminal and inter-
mediate restrictions, are read directly on the load
measuring devices.
As the end and intermediate restraints for the
model and the piping system which it represents are
assumed to be the same, and since both are struc-
tures obeying the eonventional load-deflection
relationship, their mutual force and moment re-
lationships can be expressed as a simple ratio of
their respective dimensional and elastic propcr-
ties and corresponding load-deflection relationship,
as follows:
where P = force; ill = moment; E' = modulus of
elasticity; I = moment of inertia; II = amount of
expansion (or displaccment) of each I'frce" end with
reference to some fixed point; and L = length. The
subscripts m and p refer to the model and the pipe,
respeetively.
l\1easured deflections are similarly eOllverted in
scale and corrected for free thermal expansion.
Thus, the end reactions and deflections of the actual
piping are directly proportional to the ratio of its
cross-sectional stiffness to that of the model; directly
proportional to the ratio of the expansions (or dis-
placements) applied; and inversely proportional to
the exponential ratio of their lengths.
The load-deflection relationship of a straight
circular tube, according to the elastic theory and
neglecting seeondary effeets, is identical with that
of a solid circular rod, ei ther curved or straight, of
equal moment of inertia. In curved pipe, ovaliza-
tion of the cross section occurs, which results in its
increased flexibility in bending at the expense of
augmented local stresses, i.e. stress intensification
as discussed in Chapter 3. Torsional eharaeteristics
are essentially unaffected.
In designing scale models of piping systems, it has
been impracticable, as a routine procedure, to dupli-
cate the flexibility of the curved members by the usc
of tubing as a result of the exponential relationship
between the wall thickness and pipe diameter in the
determination oCthe flexibility factor. Achievement
of the desired relative flexibility eharacteristics often
results in a tubing model of impracticable propor-
tions which, combined with the dimensional limita-
tions and tolerances of commercial tubing, make the
correlation of several branches of different sizes and
thicknesses quite infeasible by this means. For
this reason and for economic considerations, rod,
rather than tubing, is used for models. Rod sizes
are available so that variations in runs and branch
diameter and thickness, 01' in material or tem-
perature, are readily reproduced to refleet the
products of the moment of inertia and the modulus of
elasticity of the corresponding parts of the piping
system. The length scale is selected large enough to
promote accuracy within the dimensional limits of
the test frame. The basic rod size and movement
range a~e established to secure reactions within the
range of accuracy of the instruments.
For curved members of easy radius of five diam-
eters or more, flexibility factors are usually dose to
1
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST 201
uni ty, and tests made with solid rod models result in
end reactions which are correct or which contain a
small safety margin. If stress in'tensification factors
are omitted in such cases, resulting combined stresses
will, in general, reasonably approximate analytical
results in which both the flexibility and stress in-
tensification factors have been applied to the curved
members. Weld-ells and similar short radius fittings,
where they comprise only a limited part of the total
developed length, may also be simulated by rod
models with satisfactory predietion of stress.
For more precise representation of curved pipe,
where bends and weld-ells have significant effect,
their flexibility may be simulated in alternate ways
of varying accuracy and suited to different con-
figurations. For single-plane bends with in-plane
loading, or in general where torsional effects of the
curved members are minor, reduced rod size at the
bends can accurately represent relative flexibility of
curved and straight pipe. Where both bending and
torsional effects have significant influence, special
devices are required to provide the reduced stiffness
for bending on two axes, while maintaining un- FIG. 6.1 The model test laboratory.
diminished resistance to torsional deflection on the
third axis. This is accomplished by insertion of measurement heads represent the first complex
units which have been carefully calibrated against application of electrical strain gages, and also their
analytical considerations. As the use of snch special ini.tial use on a permanent installation demanding
devices increases the test time required, their em- consistent accuracy of long duration. They consist
ployment is usually restricted to cases in which the of a floating fixture, carefully designed and precisely
influence of the flexibility factors is more or less manufactured to develop the required six restraining
critical. reactions in three mutually perpendicular planes.
The model weight appears in all the readings and, To minimize interaction, this element is mounted
so long as there is no shift in weight reaction between through flexible struts to stiff constant-stress canti-
the restraints, is cancelled out by the use of differ- levers. Loads are measured by paired electrical
ences to determinc the loading corresponding to the strain gages; each load measurement circuit is
movement range. Where an appreciable weight provided with an individual bridge to minimize re-
shift occurs, counterweights must be used. sistance variations due to switching, a novel arrange-
ment specifically developed for this equipment.
6.4 The Kellogg Model Test Laboratory and The measuring heads are wired to a console on
Equipment which specialized measuring instruments of both
The model test apparatus proper consists of a self-balancing and manual balancing types are
complex but readily adjustable rigid supporting mounted for reading loads directly. Local stresses
framework, to which removable units for accurately may be evaluated by means of model-monnted
applying end or intermediate displacements are strain gages or through the use of instruments
attached; the load measuring instruments are incorporating these gages. A variety of mechanical
mounted on these units and the model, in turn, is and electrical instruments for measurement of
attached to the load measuring heads by means of specialized loading, deflections, and for calibration
special holding fixtures. purposes is also provided.
The movement heads are specially designed and of All models are fabricated in the laboratory which
precision mailUfacture, to secure individual move- is equipped with special rod and tubing benders and
ment along three perpendicular axes by means of equipment for welding, brazing, burning, and local
hand scraped ways and micrometer screws which stress relieving, as well as with machine tools, and
minimize rotational and axial backlash. The load special cutoff and grinding equipment.
202 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
and bored riser simulated by a ilr" rod. At the
lower end, the riser branches into two 10.50" OD X
1.70" lines which continue to the two stop valve:;
from which extend the four 6.625" OD X 0.932"
wall turbine leads to the steam chest. The model
counterparts are of .~-t" and ~t" diameter rod
respectively, and rigid blocks represent the valves.
The weight of the header and riser is carried by a
solid hanger tentatively located at the point of zero
vertical deflection. Variations from this position
serve to redistribute the end reactions between the
superheater elements and the turbine inlet nozzles.
In order to prevent rotation of the header about
other than its longitudinal axis, four guides are
incorporated in the design as indicated at J, K, L
and M. Two stops are also required as shown at
o and I to protect the turbine nozzles. All of these
intermediate restraints are simulated on the model
by tie rods.
The model for this system can be seen mounted in
the testing apparatus in Fig. 6.'1. The solid hanger
on the riser is suspended from a small unidirectional
load measuring unit attached to the arm above the
superheater tubes. In this test, moments which are
ordinarily transferred mathematically from the
measured end reactions to the junction with the
single riser were checked experimentally by means
FIG. 6.2 Load reading instrument console. of strain gages cemented to the model and read with
a standard indicator. This procedure is occasionally
A general view of the laboratory is shown in desirable to avoid accumulative errors.
Fig. 6.1. A model of a central station main steam As the end reactions occurring in a single super-
system is shown mounted in the testing frame; on heater terminal element are disproportionately
the right side of the photograph may be seen the small as compared to the other values being meas-
load-reading console which is shown in greater detail ured, it is necessary to group a number of these
in Fig. 6.2. The cables from the load measuring together in banks. Readings are taken at each end
instruments pass into the overhead enclosure and
through the rectangular duct to the console. Above Table 6.1 Piping System. of Fig. 6.3
the console may be scen a photograph of the meas- Moments and Forces for Operating Condition:
uring instrument with the cover removed. No Cold Spring
6.5 Typical Model Tests M. M, .'01: F• F, f,
Location r~lb r~lb r~lb Ib Ib Ib
Figure 6.3 is a sketch of the model of the main A. + 625 - 50 -1700 + 30 + 165 -135
steam system for a utility power plant designed for B. -1800 -900 -3050 + 60 - 755 +545
1990 psi steam pressure at 1050 F. As in thc model C + 75 -250 -2650 - 135 - 275 +290
shown in Fig. 6.1, the last banks of tubes of the D ... +3475 -565 -4725 - 365 + 275 -8M)

superheater have been extended through the boiler

E (one tube) .... + 20 + 35 -360 + 30 + 15 + 1
F (one tube) ". + 5 0 -360 + 30 + 15 0
arch, becoming a part of the pilling system. Five G (one tube) ... - 15 - 45 - 395 + 25 + 15 - 3
sizes of 2t% chrome I% moly piping are propor- /I. -1275
tionally simulated in the model, viz: 2.125" OD X I. .. + 45
J ...... -1050
0.375" wall superheater terminal element tubes
K .. .......... -1805
represented by 0.067" diameter rod, a 14.00" OD X -150
L ....
2.65" wall distributing header represented by -H-" M .. +225
diameter rod, and a 14.00" OD X 2.25" wall, forged 0 .... - 30 !

1
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST 203
9 "

__
tI .L"
4
~Il
TUBE HANGER MOVEf.ttNT
GUIDE K
/

o
Ie BOILER ROOF MOVEMENT

~~"71 FREE THERMAL

EXPANSION
2- (t POINT 7
S" ~
'6

FREE THERMAL
EXPANSION SOUD HANGER
e POINT 17

1O.50 OD. 1.70"W.T.

M

!J7 46
46 5
47

44.63'

FIG. 6.3 Central statioq main steam system operating at 1050 F and 1990 psi pressure.

bank and at the .middle bank; and the maximum
average stress in ten or twelve tubes is thus found.
As the individual tubes are small and highly flexible,
such determinations have been quite safe. Where,
FIG. 6.4 The model test set-up for the system of Fig. 6.3.
however, the tubes are not all of the same configura-
tion, strain gages are cemented, by means of special
attachments, to representative tubes to check the
results obtained. The end reactions, stresses, and
deflections obtained for this piping system, for the
operating and cold spring conditions, are tabulated in
Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3, respectively.
Typical of the piping systems for which the model
tester offers a clearcut solution at an important
saving in engineering cost is the 1250 psi main steam
line shown in the drawing of Fig. 6.5. The 12"
Schedule 160 piping connects two boilers with two
75,000 KVA turbines; and a 12" crossover connec-
tion permits the operation of either turbine from
either boiler. The two leads to each turbine are 8"
Schedule 160, and horizontal restraints prevent trans-
verse movement at the stop valves. The operating
temperature of the piping is 900 F, and the material
carbon-moly steel. l A free-floating system of six
IUnder present pract.ice, carbon-moly would not be recom-
mended for service Ilt this temperature.
20J
points of fixation is involved, carried entirely on
spring supports. Compensating spring hangers are
assumed to match the weight of lhe piping without
restraining its flexural movements; accordingly, they
involve negligible stress and are ignored in the test.
The model of this piping system is shown in the
testing frame in Fig. 6.6. The main run of 12"
piping is represented by it" diameter rod and the
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
8" turbine leads by i-'l.lI diameter rod, and the
model length scale is t" ~ 1'0", with the stiffness
or EI ratio ~ 1 : 1,580,000. The flexibility factors
of the long radius bends were nearly unity and hence
were neglected. The factor for converting the
model forces to those of the actual installation is
4578, and that for the moments 9157. The full-scale
maximum end forces and moments, as determined

EXTRANEOUS ("SUPERHEATER OUTLET HEAD_ER~-.~ _

MOVEMENTS FOR ·ZO '4.50'- - ;r,i
PQINTS e,F.

--:;.,--,,o/;..
(14.'7'
t .., ./
:/,o,-yO
• EXTRANEOUS
2.33 1
'f;1'/,'<:J MOVEMENTS FOR
~ POINTS B,E
'co .27393" 50.58'
N

'" t2 M
SCH.160

0
!

. '"
;;,
0. N
:t
0

'"

34.00' 2!1.16' 34.00'

54.50' 19.33'

2.96' 3.44'

F
~
N,
!'L 9.00'
(
. STOP
g,
H
,-,'!'-_
c
j_ _~_+ ----~,==:.:..:S:T~O:P=G=:::;l~
__ ,r
~(~/- ,& B/~
-/-,1'-1 ¥-,; -,L-
9.00' /
?
FIG. 6.5 1lain steam system operating al 1250 psi, supplying two 75,000 KVA power generation unit.<;.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST 205

from the model test, acting on the superheater from their respective boilers and the crossover
header connections and the turbine nozzles are valves are open. This is the condition recorded in
shown in Table 6.4. Tests for alternate operating Table 6.4; the maximum stress of 10,250 psi appears
conditions show that this system is most highly in the 8// turbine nozzle B.
stressed when both turbines are operating on steam For the determination of uniformly distributed
weight load effects, tubular models which can
alternately be filled with mercury and emptied have
Table 6.2 Piping System of Fig. 6.3 been used. Distributed loading can also be achieved
:tvloments and Force.o:; before Operation:
100% Cold Spring
F,
Table 6.4 Piping System of Fig. 6.5
M, M. M, F, F.
Location f~lb f~lb ft-Ib Ib Ib Ib 110ments and Forces for Operating Condition:
A .. ... - 825 + 75 +2275 - 40 - 220 +180 No Cold Spring
B.. .... +2400 +1200 +4050 - 80 +1005 -725 F, F,
M, M. M, F.
C... - 75 +350 +3525 + ISO + 365 -385 Ib
Location ft-Ib ft-Ib f~lb Ib Ib
D... -4625 + 750 +6275 + 485 - 365 +885
+4600 - 9550 + 390 +1750 -1l60
E (one tube) ... - 25 - 45 + 480 - 40 - 20 - 1 A ..
B ..........
-34,500
-21,050 +3250 -13,750 - 880 -1940 + 360
F (one tube) ... - 5 0 + 480 - 40 - 20 0
C -1l,050 +3050 -9000 - 410 + 70 + 800
G (one tube) ... + 20 + 55 + 525 - 35 - 20 + 4
D -33.600 -6650 + 10,350 - 480 +1760 -1010
II ............ +1695
I. ............ - 60 E. - 4400 -2400 + 6450 + 580 - 320 + 440
F .......... -14,250 +2300 + 6150 + 170 -1320 + 570
J .... +2200
G +2020
K-....... +2400
+200 II.. -1390
L.......
M...... -300 Ma.·dmum stress "" 10,250 psi at Point B.
0 + 40 Allowable stress range ... 20,300 psi.
Maximum stress in 10" line - 6850 psi at Point 59.
Maximum stress in tubes 8150 psi at Point G.
Maximum stress in 6" turbo leads 4500 psi at Point D.
Allowable stress range 20,200 psi.

Table 6.3 Piping System of Fig. 6.3

Deflections (inches)
From Design to
From Cold to Hot Position 100% Cold Spring Position
Location 0" 011 0: Location o;r: oj,. 0:
8 -0.23 -1.09 H.1l 8 0 +0.15 +0.01
I 0 -1.09 +2.11 I 0 +0.15 +0.01
40 + 4.33 -3.54 + 1.98 40 -4.72 +2.60 +0.15
41 +4.60 -3.58 +1.31 41 -4.61 +2.64 +0.43
46 +4.95 -3.58 +0.88 46 -4.57 +2.64 -0.70
47 +8.33 -4.71 +0.85 47 -8.61 +3.78 -0.67
48 +8.62 -4.08 +0.79 48 -B.51 +3.53 -0.61
61 + 7.59 -2.30 0 61 -7.24 +3.55 0
18 +0.27 -1.31 +1.81 18 +0.53 +0.38 +0.0·1
o 0 -1.31 +1.81 o +0.53 +0.38 +0.04
50 +3.58 -3.60 + 1.61 50 -4.19 +2.66 +0.2·1
51 +3.90 -3.83 +0.91 51 -4.13 +2.89 +0.55
57 +4.10 -3.83 +0.46 57 -3.94 + 2.B9 -0.65
58 +8.06 -4.66 +0.38 58 -8.34 +3.73 -0.57
59 +8.35 -4.16 +0.38 59 -8.24 +3.61 -0.57
70 0 +2.84 0 70 0 -4.15 0
80 0 +2.84 + 1.52 80 0 -4.15 0
90 0 +2.84 -1.52 90 0 -4.15 0
II +4.69 0 0 II -4.70 0 0
L + 1.05 +2.27 0 L -1.06 -4.15 0
M +3.95 +0.53 0 M -3.96 0 0 FIG. 6.6 The model t.cst set-up for the system of Fig. 6.5.
206 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

FIG. 6.7 Models of marine piping.

FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST 207

FIG. 6.8 Models of power plant piping.

203 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

FIG. 6.9 !\Iodcls of petroleum and petrochemical process piping.

i
I

sA
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST
by attaching small weights along the horizontal runs
of the model, with a larger weight for each riser in
proportion to its length. ~ Method for Cases Involving Temperature Expansion/'
The model test solution offers particular advan-
tages for the irregular contours with numerous
skewed members resulting from the extreme space
limitations of ship installations. Figure 6.7 shows
models of various main steam and auxiliary piping
systems among the many marine piping assemblies
which have been analyzed.
Power plant piping occupies the major capacity
of the Kellogg Model Test Equipment. This is due
to the complexity of the main steam, reheat, and
other piping systems of large utility installations,
the need for economy in materials and fabrication
for the expensive large-size alloy lines involved, and
the extreme care which is considered advisable in
avoiding damaging reactioIlS on large turbines and
boilers. Figure 6.8 shows various models of utility
power plant piping.
Petroleum, petrochemical and chemical process
plants frequently involve piping of large diameter
and many points of end fixation or intermediate
restraint, often for extremes of pressure and tempera-
ture. The model test is well adapted to these more
involved problems and offers considerable advantage
in the rapid study of tentative designs where plot
plans must be established to meet the usual tight
schedules. Figure 6.9 is comprised of photographs
of models of process plant piping under test.
i
i
!
L
209
References
1. Fred !\l. Hill, "Solving Pipe Problems-A Mechanical
Meeh. Eng., Vol. 63, No.1, pp. 19-22 (1941).
2. G. E. Beggs, "An Accurate Mechanical Solution of Stati-
cally Indeterminate Structures by the Use of Paper I\lodels
and Special Gages," Proc. Amer. Concrete Inst., Vol. 18,
pp.58-82 (1922); IlThe Use of t\'1odels in the Solution of
Indeterminate Structures/' J. PrQ1lklin lnst., Vol. 203,
pp. 375-386 (March 1927).
3. Harold W. Semar, "The Determination of the Expansion
Forces in Piping by Model Test," J. Appl. Mechanics,
Trans. ASME, Vol. 61, p. A-21 (1939).
4. L. C. Andrews, "Analyzing Piping Stresses by Tests of
Models/' Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 17, No.8,
pp. 425--429 (1945) j "Methods of Making Piping Flexi-
bility Analyses-The Model Test Method/' Heating,
Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 19, No.8, pp. 73-77 (1947);
"Model Test Analysis of Steam Piping," Combustion,
Vol. 20, No. 10, pp. 53-56 (1949); "Piping Flexibility
Analysis by Model Test," Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, No.1,
pp. 123-133 (1952).
5. S. W. Spielvogel, "Model Test Checks Pipe Stress Calcula-
tion," Power, Vol. 10, pp. 68-69 (1941).
6. S. Berg, H. Bernhard, and K. Th. Sippell, "Ermittlung del'
Auflagerreaktionen warmbetriebener Rohrleitungen durch
Modellversuche/' Z., VDI, Vol. 83, No.9, pp. 281-285
(1939).
7. Joseph D. Conrad, IlModel Tests Solve High-Pressure
Pipe Problems," Power, Vol. 84, No. 10, pp. 58-61 (1940).
8. Joseph D. Conrad, "Models Help Determine_ Pipe
Stresses," Westinghouse Engineer, Vol. I, No.1, p. 22 (1941).
9. John F. O'Rourke, uHow Model Tests Cut Piping Design
and Fabrication Costs," Power, Vol. 97, No.9, pp. 90-92
(1953).
 CHAPTER
Approaches for Reducing Expansion Effects:
Expansion Joints
T
HE other chapters of this volume are con-
cerned essentially with various design aspects
of specific piping configurations or details;
this chapter is devoted to the problem of fitting
piping into an allotted space or maintaining a con-
figuration within acceptable process or other cri-
teria) where conventional design is inadequate.
7.J Introduction
Making adequatc provision for expansion of pip-
ing in a confined space can introduce various com-
plexities in order to augment the flexibility of a
HstifT" piping system, such as semi-rigid, non-rigid,
or frce movement arrangements. In Chapter 5 the
calculation of semi-rigid piping systems involving
hinge points is illustrated by examples in which the
stresses are obtaincd for the rigid members, as well
as the rotations at the hinges for joint design.
Non-stiff piping systems involve expansion joints
or joining fittings, such as articulation devices or
hosc, in varying degree, in order to provide for
expansion movement with less or no stress. Hosc,
special fittings, etc. are usually restricted in size
J vibrations.
and confined to individual short piping runs; expan-
sion joints, on the other hand, are used with suffi-
cient frequency and sometimes unavoidably in
involved installations, so that their consideration is
necessarily a part of piping systcm design.
Accordingly, this chapter provides a detailed de-
~cription of the types of commercial expansion joints,
and completes the presentation of expansion joint
movement calculations with illustrative examples.
Included is a discussion of design, fabrication, in-
::;pcction, handling, and installation a.spects to assist
ill obtaining suitable joints having adequate capacity
210
when properly incorporated into the piping system,
for satisfactory service life and safe operation. The
too-frequent easy approach of complete dependence
011 catalog or sales information without adequate
understanding and sound application engineering
can lead to disastrous results.
7.2 Sources of Excessive Expansion Effects
A design involving expansion joints as a substi-
tute for a conventional piping arrangement is some-
times advantageous or necessary for one or more of
the following reasons:
A. \Vhere space is inadequate for a conventional
piping arrangement of sufficicnt flexibility without
overstress.
B. \Vhere minimum pressure drop and absence
of turbulence is essential for process, economic, 01'
operating reasons.
C. \Vhere the reactions are excessive and involve
possible damage to the terminal equipment, or for
economic structure or foundation design.
D. Where it is dcsirable to isolate mechanical
E. \Vhere economics favor other than a conven-
tional piping arrangement; particularly low-pressure
large-diameter piping.
F. \Vhere equipment spacing indicates excessive
area or building volumc.
G. Where layout was inadequatcly planned and
lacks sufficient dimensional provision for cxpansion, so
that conventional stiff design cannot be accomplishcd.
7.3 Approaches for Heducing Expansion Effects
For purposes of this discussion, piping systems or
runs can be classified with respect to the mechanics
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
by which they provide for thermal expansion move-
ments, as follows:
Stiff: If without hinge points and capable of de-
flection and rotation only through strain resulting
from bending, direct, or shcar strcss as applied to
the cross section.
Semi-rigid: If otherwise stiff, but provided with
one or more hinge points. A system might be stiff
in certain planes and semi-rigid in others within
strength limits of the hinge details.
Non-rigid: If continuously capable of transmitting
direct load and shear, but not bending, so that no
moment due to expansion effects exists anywhere in
the system (requires 3 hinge points in each plane).
Free movement: If continuously incapable of trans-
mitting any load (except by friction or bellows
resistance) whether direct, shear, or bending.
A simple illustration of these classifications is
given in Fig. 7.1
Within the same space and configuration, expan-
sion effects can obviously be lessened by resort to
lesser rigidity and may be eliminated by free move-
ment design. In the following, starting with COn-
ventional stiff piping layout, the factors influencing
required expansion capacity and the variables at-
tendant to each classification of rigidity will be
examined and compared.
The importance of adequate layout to assure plan
and elevation arrangements favorable for piping
flexibility cannot be overemphasized [1]. In general,
piping flexibility is a function of the ratio of the
developed length to the straight-line distance be-
tween the points connected, but it is also obviously
sensitive to the relative location of those points. All
advantage should be taken when establishing the
layout, to locate nozzles and elevations to balance
the vertical expansion of equipment against that of
the piping as far as possible, in order to minimize
horizontal equipment expansion which the piping
must absorb. Dead-ended lines, which create re-
straints when cold, should be avoided with two-way
flow or cireulating lines. Where possible, small
vessels, such as headers, separators, etc., should be
allowed to float with the piping, utilizing flexible
supports if necessary; or, if they arc on resting sup-
ports, they should be allowed to slide on the supports
or deflect. Excessive reactions or overstress at par-
ticular locations can often be countered by properly
selected partial restraints.
Stiff Piping Systems. Aside from judicious lay-
out and lowering of end or intermediate restraints,
the stress and reactions in stiff piping systems can
be lowered by a reduction in piping diameter: lesser
211
Stiff Somi-rigld
Non-flgid
Freo Movoment
FIG. 7.1 Classification of piping systems.
thickness reduces reactions and stresses in terminal
equipment only, not stresses in the piping. More
than one diameter of pipe can sometimes be used to
advantage to secure greater flexibility but the effects
of follow-up elasticity must not be overlooked.
Several smaller-size pipe runs ean also be used in
multiple and arranged to deerease or increase the
stiffness in selected planes. Sample Caleulation 5.2
of Chapter 5 illustrates the manner in which size
variations are handled in the flexibility calculations.
Another means for redueing stiffness and reac-
tions, but usually not stress, is to substitute corru-
gated pipe for straight pipe in locations subject to
relatively high bending or direct effects. As pointed
out in the discussion of its properties given in Chap-
ter 3, corrugated pipe possesses improved bending
and axial flexibility although the torsional flexibility
is unchanged.
Semi-rigid Piping Systems. This category in-
cludes systems which have a limited number of
articulated joints so that thermal expansion effeets
are taken partly by flexure of the pipe and partly by
movement of the joints. With this approach, only
rotation occurs at the hinge points, which must be
sealed by packing or bellows. Longitudinal pres-
sure stress is transmitted through hinge lugs and
pins, ties, or a similar structure, which bridges the
sealing element. Moment due to expansion will
vary through most of the piping but may be zero in
certain portions of the system if more than a single
hinge is used. A typical single-plane problem of
stress evaluation of the stiff members employing
conventional analysis is given in Sample Calcula-
tion 5.6 of Chapter 5. The use of semi-rigid design
in single-plane systems is limited only by availability
of a suitable sealing element at the hinge point and
212 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
by practical hinge design problems. Semi-rigid de··
sign is applicable to space configurations, but usually
involves limitations because ofllide moment effects
on hinge lugs, and is therefore limited to very low
pressure design of limited diameter. However, when
ground or packed universal movement joints art
used (limited to small size), space configurations are
entirely practical.
Such construction is useful in lowering the mo-
ment effects transmitted to terminal equipment and
in reducing the overall stress level, while at the same
time retaining the desirable features of self-support
and self-sufficiency for carrying longitudinal pressure
load. Size, pressure, and weight loads limit the
maximum size as dictated by hinge capacity. For
the usual pipe runs, there is generally no problem in
obtaining hinged joints with adequate rotation
capacity.
Non-rigid Piping Systems. A non-rigid piping
system is capable of transmitting longitudinal pres-
sure load without separate structures and is entirely
free of thermal expansion forces and moments other
than the minor friction Or bellows resistance of the
expansion joints. A one-plane non-rigid piping sys-
tem must have a minimum of three hinge points
which may be at terminal or intermediate locations.
Multiple non-rigid systems would require three addi-
tional hinge points for each added plane when the
joints are capable of movement in one plane only,
and are limited in application due to the eare which
must be exereised to avoid overload of the hinge lugs
by lateral effects. With universal joints, a non-
rigid space system requires only three points of
artieulation but speeial problems in supporting and
braeing are likely to be encountered. The thermal
expansion design of non-rigid systems involves
merely the dimensional evaluation of joint rotation
as covered later in this chapter.
Non-rigid design is exceptionally useful for large-
diameter low- or moderate-pressure service, where
the layout provides suitable locations for the hinge
points to keep rotations within economic expansion
joint capacity. This type of piping system is at-
tractive because it avoids the usc of expansion joints
with a considerable range of transverse movement
and the need for rugged external anchors to take
care of the end pressure load.
Free Movement Piping Systems and Runs.
Free movement piping systems and runs describe
piping in which all thermal expansion movement is
unrestrained, while longitudinal load except for fric-
tion or bellows effects is not carried through the
expansion joints. The longitudinal pressure load is
transmitted from the piping, usually as a direct load
near its origin to external anchors or structures, or
may be carried by terminal equipment. If there is
an intervening elbow, the pipe must sometimes
transmit not only the unbalanced pressure load, but
also the moment which it introduces. Obviously,
such a system is illcapable of transmitting forces or
moments through the joints other than those re-
quired to move the expansion joints. Unbalanced
pressure load cannot be effectively transmitted across
an expansion joint without possible interference with
free axial movement. It can be balanced with addi-
tional compensating expansion joints, as will be
described later, but sueh an arrangement is expen-
sive, so that usually unbalanced pressure loads and
frietion or bellows loads are transmitted to external
ties or anehors. This practice restricts the location
of expansion joints to positions where loads ean be
carried without exeessive eost. Where unbalanced
pressure loads are carried into equipment, care
should be exercised to assess the design provisions,
not only of the equipment, but also the anchor bolts,
foundation, etc. \Vhere more than one expansion
joint is used to provide for a greater degree of expan-
sion or to take care of movement in more than one
direction, the intervening portions of piping must be
supported and carefully guided to avoid damage to
the joints.
Free movement may be accomplished with flexible
hose instead of expansion joints. Both nonmetallic
and all-metal hoses are available with limitations
on pressure, size, and service flow. They can be pro-
vided with a flexible sheath capable of taking longi-
tudinal pressure load, thus avoiding longitudinal
pressure unbalance. Corrosion and fatigue prob-
lems, however, rule against the use of hose in most
permanent installations.
Free movement systems are useful on low-pressure
piping to elosely connect rigid equipment, or to pro-
tect equipment from piping e.xpansion reactions.
\Vhen substantial pressures are involved, their use
is limited because of the cost of the anchors or the
undesirable pressure reactions on connected equip-
ment.
7.4 Packed Typc Expansion Joints
There are basically three types of eommercial
packed expansion joints: slip (axial), swivel (angu-
lar), and ball (universal) joints. Of these, only the
slip type has been extensively used for thermal ex-
pansion; hence only this type merits full description.
Connection and articulation devices will be men-
tioned only in general terms, as details are readily
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
found in manufacturcr's litcrature, in handbooks [2J,
and in the third article of reference [3J. Many
special packed joints havc becn designcd for specific
usage.
The slip type expansion joint is essentially a pair
of telescoping cylinders, and is basically similar to a
number of common eonnecting devices, such as the
mechanical (gland type) joints used for connccting
cast-iron pipe, and compression sleeve couplings
used on plain-end cast-iron or steel pipe. These
latter joints are usually sealed by a single packing
ring and, in addition to limited axial movement,
will accommodate a small amount of angular move-
ment. They are not suited to absorb thermal ex-
pansion in other than mild services.where movements
are small and infrequent. The slip type expansion
joint requires an ample stuffing box and smoothly
finished sliding surfaces with controlled dimensions
and tolerances to be capable of satisfactory perform-
anee in severe services, lind must be limited to purely
axial movement or rotation about the pipe axis for
satisfactory freedom from binding. A typical joint
is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.2 which illus-
trates a "single-ended" unit. When greater axial
movement capacity or "traverse" is required than
is desirably incorporated in one cylinder, a "double-
ended" joint may be obtained having two stuffing
boxes in a common body usually supplied with
brackets for anchoring.
The outstanding feature of slip type expansion
joints is that large movements can be accommodated
readily, and usually with economy, since a substan-
tial proportion of the cost lies in the packing gland
and related parts which are independent of the
movement capacity. Also, the poeketing created
when used in the horizontal position is of a minimum
amount and may even be entirely eliminated by
providing a single drain on the barrel.
The significant limitation of packed joints is the
difficulty of establishing and maintaining a seal.
While ground surfaces and piston rings are occa-
sionally used, more generally the seal is dependent
upon packing with limitations on the contacting
fluid and its temperature. Packings arc not covered
herein, and arc governed by the same general con-
siderations affecting pumps, valves, etc.
The considerable amount of force required to
overcome packing friction and its effect on anchor
requirements must not be overlooked. To minimize
this some of the better designed joints are provided
with means for lubricating the packing just prior to
start-up or shutdown movement, or periodically for
joints subject to continual movement in service.
213
Slip Pipe"
lubrkolion FittingJ
Drain moy bo provil$ed 10 eliminate pocketing in horilonlol lines
FIG. 7.2 A conventional slip t.ypc expansion joint.
Maintenance must be anticipated such as tightening
and occasional repacking, the extent of which varies
widely with the service. Excess friction and binding
can be minimized by even and minimum compression
of packing; most slip joints must be depressured for
repacking although plastic packing material is com-
mercially available which may be used alone or in
combination with other packing and can be forced
into the gland during operation; piston rings or
other details are sometimes provided to obtain suffi-
cient tightness to allow repacking under pressure.
The force required to overcome packing friction and
operate the joint is a function of the packing char-
acteristics and the stuffing box pressure; for design
purposes, a value as high as 2000 pounds per inch
of diameter should be used, according to some man-
ufacturers. This figure undoubtedly is conservative
for usual materials and moderate pressure, and is
largely intended to provide some allowance for
installation and operation effects-a rather futile
objective, however} as any margin it provides is in-
adequate to compensate for badly designed or poorly
constructed guides, or for sticking due to corrosion
or deposits. With proper installation and favorable
operation,. it can be said that one-half of the above
figure has been ample for many designs within the
usual service range up t0300 psi and 750 F maximum.
Slip joints are preferably provided with an ade-
quate amount of internal guiding. With such pro-
vision, external guiding of the pipe adjacent to the
joint is usually not essential nor desirable, since the
temperature differences of supports may cause mis-
alignment. Intermediate guides are not provided if
the connecting pipes are short, with no possibility of
buckling, and not subjected to lateral expansion
movement. If, on the other hand, significant lateral
movement is present, a double guide, consisting of
two sets of double-acting stops, is usually necessary;
it must be designed and installed to assure straight-
line movement if jamming is to be avoided.
214 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Although the foregoing speeifieally applies to
joints of the axial movement type, it is also appli-
cable for the most part to rotary motion types.
Aetually, any sliding joint ean usually take rotation
either alone or in combination with movement along
the pipe axis. A sliding joint designed for rotary
motion alone may be provided with two internal
shoulders limiting axial motion to the clearanee be-
tween, and enabling the joint to transmit the longi-
tudinal pressure reaction. Rotary slip joints may
be self-sealing, at satisfactory pressure levels, if the
longitudinal pressure reaction is carried through the
packing. Certain eommonly used fittings may serve
as rotary joints. The most elementary of these are
ordinary serewed fittings, eommonly used in groups
of three or morc for taking expansion in connection
to building-heating risers, ete. Substantial move-
ments can be accommodated in this manner pro-
vided the offsets are adequate to minimize rotation
so that the threads ean be kept tight, and provided
the service fluid and temperature are favorable.
Under the tenus revolving, swing, or swivel joints,
are included fittings which permit angular (rotary
or hinge) motion about one axis only. Ball joints
permit universal motion and consist of spherical con-
taet surfaces in a ball-and-socket arrangement; sueh
joints are available with either packed or ground
joints. Both the swivel and ball type joints may
have a wide range of angular movement and can be
used in groups of two or three or more to take care
of extreme amounts of space movement. For ex-
ample, a U-shaped arrangement of five or six feet in
length with three joints provides ample range to
take eare of the relative motions of two ships moored
together when the auxiliary steam lines are con-
nected. Such joints are usually limited to 6 in. size
and to Iow- or moderate-pressure service.
7.5 Bellows Type Expansion Joints
7.Sa Discussion. In the bellows joint the seal
between adjoining pipe ends is effected by means of
a highly flexible membrane. With the need for paek-
ing eliminated it is frequently termed a Hpackless"
joint. The principal problem of paeked joints, that
of maintaining tightness is avoided since the bellows
provides a positive leakproof seal. The bellows is
generally of all-metal eonstruetion with fabrieation
possible from any eommereially available and weld-
able material. Bellows made of rubber are also
available and find important, although restricted,
application in low-temperature water piping, prin-
cipally circulating water, where their corrosion and
abrasion resistanee are noteworthy features [3J.
Other nonmetallic materials also are in use and must
not be overlooked for speeial applieations. The
(metal) bellows joint is not without drawbaeks asso-
ciated with its inherent thin wall. The major hazard
of a bellows is blowout with sqdden large-seale re-
lease of the pipe eontents. This possibility ean be
satisfaetorily minimized only through adequate de-
sign as to stress level and seam details, etc.; propel'
selection of material; quality eontrol of materials and
fabrication; and careful planning, supervision, and
inspection of the installation. In this respeet, re-
quirements are somewhat more exacting than for
sliding joints. The situation is reversed with regard
to servicing~ since bellows joints require no attention
other than hinge lubrieation on hinged joints. An
occasional inspection for possible corrosion or other
damage, and periodie measurements of the joint
position are desirable to assure that movements of
the pipe have remained within a suitable range.
The force to compress or extend a light-gage eom-
mereial bellows joint may be on the order of 50 to
300 pounds per ineh of diameter, mueh less than for
the slip joint. In the absenee of experimentally de-
rived data this foree may be estimated as suggested
in Subsection 7.5g of this seetion. The longitudinal
pressure reaction of an expansion bellows varies with
the design, but for most praetieal purposes ean be
based on the area at the mean diameter of the bel-
lows, and will normally be higher than for a slip
joint.
Exeept for its inability to aecommodate axial ro-
tation or twisting, the bellows type expansion joint
is more versatile than the paeked joint, sinee indi-
vidual assemblies may combine axial movement, it
substantial amount of angular rotation or llcocking , 1!
and also lateral movement or "offset." This versa-
tility leads to a wide variety of bellows shapes and
construction features, as well as auxiliary devices
for equalizing and supporting the bellows, whieh
will be discussed in Subsection 7.5c. There is also
a wide variety of external eonstraints which adapt
the joints to a particular movement or combination
of movements, which merit detailed treatment in
Section 7.6.
7.5b Bellows Details. The expansion bellows
has appeared in a variety of shapes, a representative
selection of whieh is shown in Fig. 7.3. Bellows eon-
tour usually represents an attempt for an optimum
compromise between the opposing requirements of
flexibility and eapacity to withstand internal pres-
sure. In the commercial expansion joint the bellow!:i
corrugations usually are formed of thin sheet metal,
and are therefore necessarily made from corrosion-
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
resistant material. Deterioration of any kind is an
all-important factor in view of the high strain level
generally utilized to meet economro and dimensional
restrictions.
Bellows corrugations fall into the following gen-
eral classifications as to ,configuration and unit
extent: (I) flat disc; (2) formed disc; (3) formed
individual element; and (,4) formed assembly, The
flat and formed discs require exterior welds for join-
ing into elements and interior welds for further com-
bination into a bellows assembly, Flat discs are not
illustrated, the upper six details of Fig, 7,3 being all
variations of formed discs, The first two of plate,
usually -h in, to i in, thick, have found occasional
use mainly on low-expansion vacuum and exhaust
steam lines when conventional joints were unavail-
able, or expensive, They are usually designed at a
moderate stress-range level to secure fatigue life
comparable to that of the piping, and to avoid stress
corrosion, The flued-head design has given good
service in a number of applications, but occupies
considerable space and is expensive for the move-
ment which it provides, The next four details are
formed discs of light-gage sheet steel. The "corru-
gated," HU-shaped~' and Clrounded" contours are
successive stages for somewhat improved capacity
for internal pressure,
In order, their shape reduces the number of bel-
lows per linear foot and total extension obtainable
with a given bellows length, The stress for a given
deflection per element is at the same time somewhat
reduced by the curved contour,
The next two details are individual elements
formed from a hoop of light-gage material and thus
eliminate exterior circumferential welds, They are
sometimes made with longitudinal welds also, but
this is not desirable, The U-shape is otherwise sim-
ilar to the preceding contours, The toroidal ele-
ments can be made to larger dimensions and of
heavier material with full emphasis on capacity to
withstand pressure without external support. Light-
gage multi-element toroidal bellows formed as a unit
assembly from a single cylinder are also available,
The last two details are again a compromise be-
tween flexibility and internal pressure capacity, but
arc formed as a unit assembly from a single light-
gage sheet metal cylinder, Sharp corners can be
avoided and favorable contour obtained,
Early preference for close pitch elements, due to
the greater number possible in a given space and
consequent greater movement capacity for equal
dimensions, has largely disappeared in favor of better
pressure capacity and a lesser amount of critically
215
JL
Flo! (Conical) U-5hcped
Buill up of Plate Built up of Flue<! He<ld~
flot (Collicol) Corrugated
Light Gogo Sheet
U-Shoped Rounded
Ught Goglt Sheet
U-5hoped Toroidal (Cirwlor) or
Semi Toroldol (ellipticoQ
light ~go Strip
N\f\U-Shoped Rounded or 5-Shoped
Formed from light Gogo Cylinder
FIG. 7.3 Various shapes of bellows.
located welding for shaped contours, Close pitch
elements afford less self-cleaning and thus are more
prone to collect sediment which may interfere with
compressive movement and inflict damage, The
open contours also provide better accessibility for
inspection and possible repairs, which are usually
limited to those of a minor nature, since when ex-
tensive, the usual result is early failure,
None of the bellows contours is self-draining for
joints in a horizontal position; the rounded and
toroidal shapes also will not completely drain in a
vertical position. Drain connections in the bellows
involve serious stress intensification and possible
weld flaws, and should be avoided,
Bellows are available in layer construction to the
U-shaped and rounded contours of Fig, 7,3, thus
providing increased total thickness for internal pres-
sure, The exact behavior of this layer cOIlStruction
is not yet established, With a close fit and absence
of relative movement at the contact surfaces, the
action would approach that of a structure of the
combined thickness, However, if the contact is such
that movement along the contact surfaces occurs
freely, then a movement capacity equal to that of
an individual layer is obtained for a given stress
range, The load to compress the bellows is a mul-
tiple of that for an individual layer, The behavior
is probably nearer that of free movement along the
216 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
~ between the assemblies, and to remove the weight
FJO. 7.4
~
Plain bcllO\vs expansion joints.
contact surfaces, in which case it is proper co specu-
late on the distribution ·of the pressure effeet be-
tween layers. With hydraulie forming, the layer
contact is likely to be occasional or absent when
pressure is removed. It is likely that movement
occurs between the layers as temperature changes,
with the pressure reaction between layers offering
only limitcd rcsistance in proportion to degree of
contact and unit load.
The outer layers are usually vented by small di-
ameter holes at the ends, out of the area of high
bending stress, to promote detection of initial rup-
ture or leakage of the inside layer and to minimize
trapping moisture in initial assembly or due to minor
service weepage with possible collapse. Since the
life of the joint is still limited to that of the thin
inner layer, the additional layers do not extend the
service period over that Axpected from a single layer
joint insofar as cyclic movement is concerned; they
do add strength against pressure cffects however,
and tend to minimize the effect of a failure.
7.5c Support and Protection of Bellows.
Simple unsupported bellows (see Fig. 7.4), some-
times referred to as of non-equalizing type, are least
expensive and are used where the service is not too
severe and in locations where ample fixation and
guiding is provided in the piping system. They may
consist of single or multiple assemblies as needed for
capaeity, the number of elements in a single bellows
being limited by considerations of lateral buekling
or llsquirming" as it is sometimes called. On un-
supported open-type (U-shaped) corrugations the
pressure limitation generally recommended by most
manufacturers is 30 psi, with higher pressures used
on more favorable contours, altpough \vithout ex-
ternal support only the toroidal contour is used for
significant pressure. Closely spaced discs, usually
corrugated, with heavy end pieces, also withstand a
reasonable degree of pressure when closely spaced,
probably by intersupport of the discs.
Angular and offset movements, as well as axial,
may be accommodated, although two or more bel-
lows assemblies are usually used for offset since, if a
spool picce of sufficient length separates tbe assem-
blies, the offset attained by this means greatly re-
duces the required bellows length. Such double
bellows joints should be provided with external con-
straint to assure distribution of the axial movement
of the spool pieces from the bellows.
:Means to equalize extreme expansion movement
in a bellows assembly, and in addition to provide
some measure of support to the elements against
internal pressurc loading, is generally considered
desirable since it guards against lateral distortion
(squirming). For corrugated-type bellows, this usu-
ally consists of rings suitably contoured to fit in the
spaces between the convolutions, as shown on the
joint of Fig. 7.5. By such arrangement, compres-
sive deflections are definitely limited for each indi-
vidual element. The support rings may be connected
externally to further insure some equalization of
element movement in all positions; this provision
may be combined with other motion-constraining
or .overall limiting devices described in Section 7.6.
As a support for the bellows against internal pressure
effects, the equalizing rings occupy a role similar to
that of the casing of a pneumatic tire in containing
its inner tube. Obviously, they are most effective
for this purpose in the fully eompressed position.
Rings are sometimes east and sometimes fabricated
0
by welding. They are usually split into 180 sec-
tions and assembled with bolted joints; where used
for substantial pressure one-piece construction is
necessary.
The expansion bellows is fragile in comparison
with the pipe and is often covered for protection
against damage during installation or subsequent
service. External sleeves at the same time provide
some measure of operator protection in the event of
a blowout, but must be arranged so as not to inter-
fere with the joint movement and should be remov-
able for inspection of the bellows.
A sleeve on the inside offers protection against
flow erosion, and also against corrosion where main-
tenance of the corrosion-products film affords pro-
tection. The use of an internal sleeve, even though
it may slightly reduce the inside diameter, usually
reduces the pressure drop through an expansion
joint by reducing turbulence. At the expense of
requiring a larger bellows, full-flow area may be had
Exlel'1ded Fully Compress.cd
FIG. 7.5 Sclf-cqualizing expansion joint
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
by recessing the sleeve; in some cases this construc-
tion may be desirable in order to minimize erosion
of the sleeve itself. An internal sleeve further assists
in keeping the flow in the line away from the bellows
when the joint is installed in a vertical position and
the sleeve is sealed at the top, and may be further
improved in effectiveness by the use of a purge
medium continuously supplied at slightly higher
than line pressure to the space between the bellows
and the sleeve. This has been found to be the most
favorable arrangement with respect to minimizing
contact with the flow or entrance of solids or fluid
whether the line is subject to up-flow or down-
flow.
Other sleeve arrangements may be necessary or
preferred where other factors are involved. A num-
ber of arrangements and details of attachment are
shown in Fig. 7.6. Sufficient clearance must be pro-
vided to permit the design movements of the joint;
however, the annular clearance should be kept to
the minimum possible to restrict entry of foreign
material and to minimize purge flow requirements,
if used. Although not often practicable, it is never-
theless desirable that the sleeve be easily removable
for possible replacement or access to the bellows for
cleaning or inspection.
7.5d Fabrication of Bellows Joints. Due to
the fact that expansion joints are used primarily in
free movement piping systems, there is a tendency
to accept lesser design and fabrication quality for
the flanges, necks, etc. This is, of course, in error
for types of joints which must transmit end load,
and it is questionable generally to allow lower
quality than required for the connecting pipe stub.
Minor flaws can jeopardize the life of the relatively
expensive expansion-joint assembly.
For the bellows assembly, where cyclic strains of
extreme magnitude arc commonly accepted in order
to attain large movement capacity with minimum
space requirements and cost, the aim should be to
achieve a construction quality (particularly of wcld-
ments) equal in fatigue performance to that of the
base material. This poses a challenging problem for
the welding which must be used in all bellows, except
for those which can be made from seamless tubing
or shells. For weld quality which will least affect
the cyclic life obtainable from the base material, the
following measures are of benefit:
1. Minimize the extent of welding.
2. Locate welds away from areas of maxImum
bending stress.
3. Avoid corner, fillet, blind root, or similar welds
217
Bleed
Connection
Simplo Welded·in
Sleevo
Recened Sleeve With
Bleed Connedion (permib
cocking or offset movement)
Two-pie<c Overlapping SI(WlV(I
fOf wckifl9
"""'"
Removable Sleeve
(permih small gap
movement)
fOr Flanged Joint
FIG. 7.6 Internal sleeve arrangements.
of undetermined root quality. Use only butt welds
where possible.
4. Minimize heat-affected zones.
5. Use full heat treatment on ferritic materials,
and on austenitic welds an homogenizing anneal.
6. Avoid root oxidation on welds, and emphasize
elimination of inclusions. Inert gas shielded welds
are preferred for this and to minimize undercuts.
7. Weld procedure should emphasize soundness
and physical properties as nearly identical to the
parent metal as possible. Skilled operators must
secure welds to this procedure.
8. Weld surfaces must be as smooth as that of
the sheet steel, which should be pickled and No. 1
finished, and preferably ground.
9. Use all applicable nondestructive examination
toward assuring the quality of welds, including
pressure and movement tests.
10. Careful fit-up is essential. No interruption
in the assembled surface is tolerable.
To comment specifically on the details of Fig. 7.3,
the conical or flat-plate weld detail as shown is con-
siderably superior to edge fillet welds which have
sometimes been used with poor results; the outer
218 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Bollows materiol
Ven Stoned oyor
£[ongo
8ellows matorial
leQ! welded 10 pipe
stub and supported
by rotaining bond
ssss~
Heavy end colTI,Igolion.
High bending slrem15
in weld are nol avoided
.... wilh this deslg'.,
FIG. 7.7 Bellows attachment details.
weld may also be made against a chill ring and in-
creased in depth or back welded if access is possible.
However, the welds are so locatcd that they are
subject to maximum cyclic bending; consequently
very minor flaws will rapidly propagate, unless
stresses of a low order are maintained. The f1ued-
head detail permits butt welds; those at the inner
diameter can usually be baek welded; at the outer
diameter back welding is possible if the bellows
width is not too great, othenvise these welds must
be deposited against less desirable chill rings. In
the past, fabricated plate-typc bellows were pre-
fen'cd, since bettcr manual welding quality could be
obtained than on thin sheet material, and thcy are
less readily eritically damaged by stress corrosion.
Such joints have been used at stress ranges com-
parable to expansion stresses in piping and much
lower than now common for commercial light-gage
bellows.
The ncxt four illustrations iu Fig. 7.3 show light-
gage formed sheet discs assembled with the bound-
aries in fiat contact, which permits seam (resistance)
welding or arc, gas, atomic hydrogen, or inert gas
arc welding. Excellent wclds have been obtained
particularly where extra precautions have been exer-
cised to minimize root oxidation; however, there is
generally a signifie:.mt stress raising effect at their
location. Resistance welds cause a surface depres-
sion, sometimes sharp, and may not be uniform,
particularly at the inner edge; fusion welds are sub-
ject to material variations even when deposited by
automatic highly controlled inert arc means and, in
any casc, involve a blind root; in addition, there is
generally a strcss raiser at the toe of the wcld. The
discs of rounded edge contour can be butt welded;
however, the high degree of control and fit-up ncc-
essary for satisfactory quality deposited metal with
smooth contour and absence of undercuts is difficult
to achieve on the shapes involved. Separate rein-
forcement is sometimes applied over edge welds, but
usually necessitates fillet or resistance wclds for
attachment and hence only serves to shift the criti-
cal location. With edge-welded discs, eonnection
to the necessarily heavier end pieces results in criti-
cal welding as illustrated in the lower detail of
Fig. 7.7.
With the U-shapcd and toroidal bellows elements,
the outer circumferential welds can be avoided.
The inner welds remain, so that they serve only to
halve the number of critical welds. Elements are
sometimes made up of several sectors joined by
longitudinal welds. If such welds are carefully
ground flush, inspected, and heat treated, they are
tolerable; unfortunately, however, they are often
left as welded with heavy reinforcement and intro-
duce a significant stress raiser. For joints of toroidal
contour the inside circumferential welds can be lo-
cated away from the zone of maximum bending by
forming the edge over intervening contoured pipe
spacers, or completely eliminated by hydraulic form-
ing of several toroidal elements from a single eylinder.
The last two details can be formed from a light-
gage cylindcr by rolling or by stretch forming under
internal hydraulic pressure or pressure as trans-
mitted through eompressed rubbcr; hydraulic pres-
sure cxpansion into external dies is most commonly
used. Drawn or spun seamlcss shclls of othcr I.han
small size are expensive, so that such cylinders are
usu~lly rolled from sheet metal and havc a longi-
tudinally welded seam. To avoid wrinkles and kinks
and failure during forming, the thickness and con-
tour at the weld must match that of the sheet metal.
The forming operation assists in the location of
flaws and assessment of ductility, provided it is fol-
lowcd by a re-examination employing applicable
no.ndestructive means. As in the case of the toroidal
element the end which attaches to the heavier pipe
stub ean be formed and extended to permit the
attachment weld to be located favorably as to stress
level; t.he weld can be further protccted against
bending by the use of external reinforcement, not
welded, but shrunk or clamped as shown in the
center detail of Fig. 7.7, or the bellows assembly can
be further lengthened and rollcd ovcr end flanges
in the manner of Van Stone construction as shown
in the upper detail of Fig. 7.7, thus eompletely
avoiding circumferential welds.
From the above discussion of details, it should be
clear that the commercial constructions which are
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
most likely to develop fatigue life comparable to
the sheet material and to have generally reproduc-
ible performance are those which~avoid welds com-
pletely in zones of high bending stress or which
involve a single longitudinal flush weld madc prior
to drastic forming opcrations, which is then care-
fully inspected and heat treated.
7.5e Establishing Purchasing Requirements
for Bellows Joints. Expansion joints are usually
supplied by a specialty manufacturer. Stock items
are available, particularly with respect to axial
movement joints of IPS standard sizes, but not in
production quantities comparable to that of fittings
and valves. More complex movement types and
large sizes are custom made assemblies utilizing
standardized details for bellows contour, and gen-
eral details to minimize tool and fixture costs.
Economy is achieved by use of the supplier's
standards, insofar as they are consistent with the
quality needed. In the purchasing of expansion
joints for other than simple installations, it is essen-
tial that the supplier be informed of all requirements
and conditions under which the joint must function.
This may be accomplished through data sheets and
specifications, although involved cases may require
drawings. The data sheet can convey design re-
quirements as to movements, service conditions, etc.
The specification is necessary wherc a level of ac-
ceptable fabrication, inspection, and tests must be
established. Drawings are required when jntricate
movements or special design features arc present.
The following check list will be found a convenient
reference when preparing information for the manu-
facturer, and also in assuring that all variables are
receiving consideration.
1. Flowing medium.
2. Design pressure and temperature. Metal tem-
peratures are sometimes much lower than maximum
flow temperatures.
3. Movement demands, normal operation, and
extreme, as required for starting-up, shutting down
or by upset or emergency conditions.
4. Cyclic effects, frequency of movement, pres-
sures and temperature variations and desired life.
Include not only those attendant to complete periods
of operation, but also those that occur during
operation.
5. Type of bellows and method of joining to body
(for bellows joints) which is acceptable for service.
6. Dimensions and details of end connections
(flanged or welding).
7. Other connections (drains or bleeds) in body.
8. Sleeves internal or external, or both.
L__..~._
219
9. Installed length and any other space limi-
tations.
10. Limit stops or other constraints required.
11. All loads on constraints (extraneous to those
produced by the joint itself).
12. Materials selection, applicable specifications,
and thermal treatment requirements.
13. Fabrication requirements, particularly as to
welding.
14. Testing and inspection, including nondestruc-
tive examination.
15. Marking and shipping requirements.
16. Temporary positioning devices to secure joint
in desired position during installation and which
also protect it during shipment; lifting lugs as re-
quired to facilitate erection handling.
17. Applying codes, specifications, and drawings.
18. Information to be furnished by vendor.
Special services will involve additional variables.
This list is not intended to encourage complex and
unnecessary, or unduly restrictive, requirements, or
insistence on minor details which will only increase
cost without proportional benefit; instead it is in-
tended for use as a checkoff design and purchasing
aid in order to avoid overlooking the essentials.
The final requirements will represent a careful bal-
ancing of the cost of various desirable features
against an evaluation of their necessity as dictated
by the hazards of joint leakage or failure and at-
tendant financial loss due to maintenance and loss
of productive capacity. Consideration must be
given to the size and importance of the plant, as
well as its dependence on the particular piping for
continued operation. Experience will dictate the
degree to which manufacturer's ratings arc reliable;
where in doubt, the check method for associating
life with stress range which is included in this section
should be used.
Expansion joints are obtainable both with and
without flanges, so that flanges can be omitted at
the expansion joint when considered undesirable.
Similar to valves or other components, which may
require servicing, some users prefer flanges rather
than cutting out and rewelding. Flanges are desir-
able on alloy lines where stress relief is necessary
and in general provide for more accurate installation.
It is important to be specific as to cocking (angu-
lar) and offset (linear) dimensions. Unless the joint
is to be preset to obtain the total motion required
by movement of the joint on both sides, with in-
stallation in a neutral position, the entire cocking
or offset will occur on one side of the center line.
In the interest of economics, it is advisable to preset
220 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the joint for installation so that when assembled
into the piping system, full capacity will be utilized.
This step is, of course, unnecessary for ocCasiO~lS
where the required range is about equally divided
on both sides of the center line.
7.5f Materials and Deterioration. A knowl-
edge of the flowing medium is important from the
standpoint of potential corrosion or erosion. On
light-gage bellows elements, even mildly corrosive
conditions may seriously affect service life in view
of the high stress levels present with conventional
movement ratings. Condensate corrosion during
standby periods, or when metal temperatures are
below the dew point in service is a. notorious con-
tributor to bellows joint failures. Careful flushing
at shutdown will avoid mueh corrosion trouble, par-
ticularly where complete drainage is not possible;
reliance on drainage alone is apt to be ineffective.
Knowledge of flow temperatures does not give com-
plete assurance as to metal temperatures, which may
be much lower, depending on exposure or degree of
insulation, with increased condensation corrosion
hazard.
The non-expansion parts. of a joint should be of
materials comparable to that required for the con-
necting pipe. As mentioned earlier, opinion exists
that for free movement piping systems, minimum
requirements for design, materials, fabrication, and
inspection can be used. However, when the relative
investment in an expansion joint is given considera-
tion, it seems unwise to risk its utility by any com-
promise in quality of its components. Packings
for sliding joints, as already mentioned, are ·a spe-
cial subject.
Deterioration of bellows material is influenced by
its thin sheet material form and severe demands in-
volving cyclic strain. Cold work, variations in
analysis or structure, thermal history, inclusions,
and segregation, all contribute to increased sensi-
tivity. Corrosion, particularly as associated with
stress and fatigue, may result from contact with
ordinarily noncorrosive media, so that weight~loss
data or conventional corrosion tests are not reliable
guides. Where a material of assured resistance to
such attack is not economically available, it is nec-
essary to reduce the stress range to purely elastic
action (within twice the yield strength), and in ex-
treme cases to no more than twice the basic allow-
able stress. Superficial overall corrosion and initial
traces of concentrated attack or pitting are sufficient
to cause accelerated fatigue failure. The possibility
of intergranular corrosion on austenitic steels, as
associated with ehromium depletion at the grain
\
I
boundaries, should be avoided by the use of stabilized
materials, with maximum resistance to other accel-
erated attack generally obtained if the composition
is completely austenitic.
Strength, ease of forming, and weldability are also
important considerations. Early expansion joints
were made mostly of copper, but this material is
now largely supplanted by the stainless steels.
These, because of their inherently greater strength
can be used in lighter thicknesses in contact with a
much .wider range of fluids and at higher tempera-
tures arid pressures.
7.5g Fatigue Basis for Predieting Bellows
Life. As a rule, the manufacturer's ratings for bel-
lows joints are not clear eut and do not indicate the
number of cycles to failure. Ordinarily, with the
high stress range attendant to the manufacturer's
rated maximum movements, the number of useful
cycles is apt to be only a small fraction of the
7000 cycles established for pipe in the 1955 Piping
Code rules. Manufacturers are inclined to cite sim-
ilar service applieations in justification of their
ratings; such statements must be discounted in the
absence of direct data of actual service, or test data,
including the number of cycles.
It is believed, however, that a rational approach
to the bellows design problem is attainable and that
the operation of a bellows, although usually in the
plastic range, does not differ greatly from that of
any loc~lized areas of stress intensification of ordi-
nary piping systems for which design criteria are
now available in the Piping Code, as outlined and
discussed in Chapter 2. Application of this stress
range approach to the fatigue performance of bel-
lows material must be accompanied by an attempt
to recognize and evaluate the effect of local stress
raisers which cannot be eliminated.
Fatigue testing of actual joints is the soundest
approach for establishing the characteristics of a
basic approach or of a specific design. Since no
simple relation has evolved for interconversion of
movement and pressure capacity, incorporation of
detailed rules in the Code would be premature in
tbe present state of knowledge. A basic design
should be verified by tests to establish sufficient data
for extrapolation to other sizes. Since tests of each
specific size of each-design are impractical, there re-
mains the necessity for translating test results to
other sizes of joints.
Until available tests are sufficiently numerons to
establish close parameters for a particular configura-
tion or a more accurate general formula, the follow-
ing approximate approach has been found to give
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS 221

reasonably useful results. Expansion joint tests [4, 5J 800,000)3.'

Ns = ( (7.2)
presently available, while not numerous, neverthe- 8R
less are in sufficient number to slillw that in general
the results parallel those obtained from tests on where N s = number of cycles which the joint should
other piping components in the relation of strain be expected to endure safely in service.
range to number of cycles to failure. Such tests This relation affords a means of combining the
show that effect of extreme emergency movements or other
I movements which can be combined with nOfmal
N,,- operation to a single equivalent condition. For ex-
En
ample, if the extreme movement produces a stress
where N = number of eycles to failure. range S 1 and is expected to occur at most N 1 times,
E = total range of unit strain due to move- the fractional part of the fatigue life used for this
ment and pressure. condition would be
n = a constant for the material used. N,
(7.3)
The exponent n usually ranges from 3.3 to 4 on
stainless steel bellows, usually nearer the lower fig-
eo~~oor
ure. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume a value
and the design number of cycles for the normal
of 3.5 for stainless steel bellows elements. In tests
movement must be increased by this fraction to
of carbon-steel piping components the range was
secure the equivalent number of cycles at normal
found to vary from 4 to 6, with an n value generally
movement.
m the vieinity of 5.
This also makes it apparent that the provision of
In keeping with the inclusion of a safety factor
design movement in the joint for installation toler-
on stress for other parts of a piping system, it would
ances or similar reasons need not be considered as
seem desirable to provide a safety factor of at least
having any significant bearing on the fatigue per-
2 on stress (or strain) in the bellows at rated eondi-
formance of the joint, since they provide for an
tions. This safety factor on stress in turn means a
initial, not a repetitive condition.
margin of (2)3.' = 11 on the number of cycles to
The range of stress in a single-layer bellows may
failure, since the change is rapid with stress varia-
be approximated by eqs. 7.4 to 7.7. These expres-
tion. In addition, a minimum performance should be
sions are based on simple beam analogues similar to
established for cases where the number of cycles in
that presented in Chapter 3, Fig. 3.15, with the
operation is expected to be rather low, and it is sug-
constants somewhat increased. The second term
gested that the same minimum number of 7000 cycles
represents the effect of pressure and should be kept
used for piping also be applied to the joints. This
within the Code allowable stress 8 h , although joints
will keep the expected performance reasonably well
of the type covered by eq. 7.4 have successfully op-
in line with the remainder of the piping system de-
erated at higher stress levels. The pressure term in
signed in accordance with the stress range as dis-
eqs. 7.6 and 7.7 ignores pressure bending stresses,
cussed in Chapter 2. Where cyclic performance
which although not entirely proper provides fair
tests are possible, they should be made at the rated
correlation with available fatigue tests. Despite
movements and pressure, with both varied over the
the drastic simplification involved in these approxi-
range for each cycle.
mations they generally yield a reasonable estimate
The following approximate relation can be used
of the strain range for purposes of estimating per-
in assessing or extrapolating test data for probable
formance using a criterion such as eq. 7.l.
performance of stainless steel bellows:
For flat disc bellows:
3EItJ. pw2
(7.1 ) 8R = w2Nd + 2f (7.4)

where N = number of cycles to failure. For U-shaped bellows without equalizing rings:'
Sn = calculated range of stress, psi, as given 2
byeqs. 7.4 to 7.7. 8 11 =
1.5EttJ.
hO·'w1.5Nd
+ -pw
21 2
(7"'

As noted above, the design serviee rating should not 1A more exact evalua.tion of the stresses in a U-sha.ped
be assumed higher than about 10% of this or bellows may be found in reference (6}.

'S'-

222 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
For U-shaped bellows having equalizing rings
which provide support against internal pressure only
along inner edge:2 """'-
1.5EUJ. pw
Sa = ho"w1.5Nd + -t
For modified toroidal bellows having minor axis
of ellipse about 0.8 to 0.9w.:
Sa = 1.5Ett>. + pw
w'Nd t
For true toroidal bellows, Sa may be found from
[7, 8) and the torus membrane formula.
SR = range of stress due to expansion and pressure,
psi.
t = bellows thickness, or thickness of longitudinal
weld seam with reinforcement, whichever is
larger, in.
ti = total movement range, extension and com-
pression, plus equivalent axial movement, in.,
as given by eqs. 7.8 to 7.11.
E = modulus of elasticity at 70 F, psi.
w = bellows width, in.
h = pitch of half-corrugation, in.
N d = number of active bellows discs or half-
corrugations.
p = internal pressure, psi.
The equivalent axial movement corresponding to
the angular rotation on universal, or hinged type,
joints may be determined by
t>. = DOj2
where D = mean bellows diameter, in.
o = total angular rotation, radians.
The equivalent axial movement for a single-bel-
lows offset joint, based on the most severely affected
corrugations (those at the ends), is found from:
t>. = 3Dh,jL
where D is as above and
h, = offset range or total lateral displacement
of one end of the joint with respect to
the other, in.
L = overall length of bellows, in.
For a joint having a double bellows separated by a
spool piece the equivalent axial movement becomes:
3Dh,
t>. =L
-=--+-/::-'[(7Cljc:'-L):-+---:1)
where L = overall length, end to end, of bellows,
including spool piece, in.
I = length of spool piece, in.
'Limit use of Eq. (7.6) aod E':. (7.12) t, w/3 :> h :> w.
\
The force, F, in lbs, necessary to deflect the bel-
lows an amount t>., can be stated as follows:
For flat disc bellows:
(7.6) F =
"EDt't>.
, (7.11)
W Nd
For V-shaped corrugations:'
4EDt't>.
(7.7) F -
- 3ho. 5W 2 .5 N d (7.12)
For toroidal expansion joints, consult [7, 8).
7.51. Testing and Quality Control of Bellows
Joints. Expansion joints must properly be classed
with special rather than mass-produced equipment,
with regard to the extent of inspection and testing
during manufacture and installation and of other
quality controls applicable to the fabrication details
and materials involved. In common with special-
ized equipment, the advisable degree of control is
also related to the reliability of the producer.
Structural tests on bellows expansion joints in-
clude independent pressure and movement tests,
and also combined pressure and movement tests.
Tests at I! times the design pressure have been
opposed as unnecessary by manufacturers employ-
ing hydraulic forming who reason that the bellows
has already been adequately tested by the forming
pressure. This position ignores the support pro-
vided by the external dies during forming which
may be absent or considerably different on the actual
(7.8) joint, particularly in the extended position which
should be the joint position for the test. Adequate
pressure tests are good insurance against possible
damage during and subsequent to hydraulic forming,
such as in flanging the ends, full heat treatment, etc.
All possible assessment of weakness is highly dc-
sirable, since once assembled, access is restricted.
(7.9) Proof tests often cannot be applied after installation
due to weak elements elsewhere, the variable of
liquid load, etc. For pressure tests, whether shop
or after installation, unless the joints are of hinged,
tied, or pressure balanced type, the end load must
be taken by a test frame or other structure.
Tightness tests at operating pressure are routinc
with each cycle of operation or period of mainte-
nance; low and intermediate pressure air tests are
often used at various stages of fabrication for the
(7.10) same purpose. Such tests essentially only cheek
for leaks.
Movement or flexure tests are desirable, particu-
larly in combination with pressure in assessing the
structural capacity of expansion joints l and assuring
that gross fabrication flaws are not present; if re-
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
peated a few times, the latter aim is more definitely
assured. When extended to an appreciable number
of cycles, the fatigue strength of.that specific joint
and also to a lesser extent of the general design· is
verified, but the joint tested is saerificed.
Flexure elements, in view of their critical nature,
are properly subjected to all nondestructive exam-
ination applicable to the material analysis. Usually,
radiographic examination is of limited value due to
the thin material, and ultrasonic examination is not
sufficiently developed for general use on the con-
figuration involved. Magnetic powder examination
is applicable to ferritic materials, and the various
crack detection aids, such as fluorescent penetrant
oil viewed under ultraviolet illumination, penetrant
dye suspensions, and volatile liquids as absorbed by
chalk powder may be used on all materials. It is
preferable that the examination follow a few flex-
ings and where practical be performed at both ex-
treme and neutral positions since tensile stress
l
would render flaws more readily detectable. The
examination should cover the sheet material, the
welds, and parts to which the bellows is directly
attached.
7.6 Expansion Joints with Built-In Con-
straints
The movement of non-stiff piping systems must
be controlled within limits which do not exceed the
working capacity of the flexible elements which it
contains. This may be accomplished to suit par-
ticular situations by:
1. Restraints at desirable locations in the piping
system but not on the flexible members.
2. Details of the flexible-member assembly which
limit the motions of individual elements, or as-
semblies.
3. Details of the flexible-member assembly which
are of sufficient strength to restrain movement of
both the piping system and its flexible units.
In addition flexible members may be preset to
establish the initial desired bellows position as a
dimensional guide in erection, or else can act as
rigid units exerting positive control of the initial
desired position. The details which limit or control
the extreme range and installed position, or which
serve as a guide for installation dimensions when
either permanently or temporarily a part of the
flexible member assembly, fall within the designa-
tion "built-in constraints" as employed herein.
This section is devoted to their examination. Bel-
lows joints, due to their morc widespread usage, afC
used as a principal vehicle for discussion.
223
Flexible elements are subject to damage with any
unanticipated movement which exceeds the margin
provided over their operating capacity. Such move-
ments may originate with foundation settlement,
failure or distortion of structures, yielding of piping
due to temporary overloads, and unexpected piping
deflection such as that due to circumferential thermal
gradients. Distortions which involve lengthy peri-
ods of time, such as creep, have the same effect
except that they can be anticipated and the ranges
of movement adjusted occasionally.
Exce.."Sive movement may disengage packed joints
or render them inoperative by distortion or rupture.
Bellows assemblies may be damaged by kinks, etc.
with subsequent rapid fatigue failure, or may suffer
direct rupture, particularly at welds; also the overall
joint may be damaged by distortion or fracture of
stops, hinges, etc.
Expansion joint failure may cause direct or con-
tingent damage resulting from the whipping effects
of the suddenly released piping, or by injury to
personnel, economic loss by fire, and loss of contents.
Packed axial-type joints usually involve some in-
herent restraint, which can also easily be provided
on the swivel type when desired. Except for highly
specialized types, bellows joints are capable of only
limited torsional resistance, which is undependable
since buckling cannot be closely predicted. In gen-
eral, bellows joints are dependent for protection
against undesired change in position on the piping
system stiffness, the external restraints provided to
limit movement of the piping system, or on their
built-in constraints. In the following paragraphs,
general types of joints will be examined for suitable
constraint arrangements to accomplish one or more
of the alternate objectives which have been men-
tioned.
In assessing the desirability for and favorable
choice of built-in constraints, the piping system
should first be examined as a complete frame.
Weight of the metal components, contents, insula-
tion, and attachments must be taken care of ex-
ternally where the joint design provides limited or
no capacity for such loading; wind, earthquake, or
possible shock effects arc similarly treated. Chap-
ter 8, while intended primarily for stiff piping, also
provides useful assistance for non-rigid piping sup-
port and restraint selection and design. Next, the
piping system should be explored as to possible
locations for the installation of suitable guides,
stops, etc., to define and limit movement at the
expansion joints, and simultaneously 1 on the basis
of preliminary analysis, as to the selection of the
224 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
flexible joint types and their number. Usually both movement may be established by integral stops,
the number of joints and their individual number details of the hinges, or by external limit rods.
of elements will be minimized iIl"' the interests of (See Fig. 7.10.)
safety, minimum maintenance, and cost. The final 4. Piston arrangement for confining bellows move-
step is the settlement of general constraint require- ment within close limits to a purely axial direction.
ments as associated with the movement tolerances (See Fig. 7.11.)
to be applied to t he operating movement range of Tie rods may be of any structural shape of suffi-
each joint. cient cross section to carry the tensile and compres-
Built-in constraints for packed joints can usually sive loading without yielding or buckling. Where
be provided simply and without appreciable cost, bending or offset motion is involved, the end con-
if the basic design is rugged and capable of carrying nections of the rods arc preferably provided with
the additional loading without distortion and at- spherically turned surfaces, hinges, or other det.ails
tendant binding or leakage. Some of the commonly which will minimize friction. Care should be exer-
used arrangements which are capable of wide vari- cised to assure that the lug plates and their attach-
ation are as follows: ment to the adjacent piping are adequate to avoid
Axial motion may be limited by an external struc- local overstressing of the pipe wall with consequent
ture, sueh as tie rods, or by providing a single excessive deflection and unpredictable performance
exterior shoulder or set of lugs on the male member of the tie rods. Stops are provided on both sides of
and two confining internal shoulders on the easing. the lug plates and are carefully positioned to estab-
The rotary angular movement of swivel joints may
be confined by lugs on the body or on the elosure Swivel or Hinged Connection
cover. Internal provision can consist of slotting
the male member to a width defining the range of
Tie Roch
\
motion and providing interior lugs on the easing
located properly within, and with respect to, the lugs.
Ball-and-soeket joints are usually capable of trans-
mitting end-pressure load without. auxiliary con-
struction, and swivel (rotary) joints, with arrange-
ments which have been described, can function in
FIG. 7.8 Tied expansion joint.
the same manner. An objection to the use of swivel
joints is the 90° change of direction with attendant
pressure drop. A special design of swivel joint has Limit Rods
/
been in service for a number of years in the main
steam line of a moderate-size high-pressure steam Ill. ;11" It\
generating unit, and employs metallic packing which
is self-sealed by the end reaction of the internal
pressure.
For bellows joints, external constraints for limit- "11 \11/ :Iv.
·u·
ing movement during scrvice usually fall within one
of the following basic types. FIG. 7.9 Universal type expansion joint.
I. Limit rods which confine single bellows assem-
blies to a desired range of rotation or lateral move- limit Rods
Hinge pin provided
wllh fiNing for servico
ment. (See Fig. 7.8, where the lateral movement lubrication
type only is illust.rated.)
2. Limit rods in one or more sets, which establish
the range of axial, angular, and lateral movements
Welding end construction
for universal type expansion joints. (See Fig. 7.9.) Ulown. If £longed. hinges
ore lrSuolly boIled 10 the
The rods also serve to minimize the influence of flanges.
weight effects of intermediate pipe runs. Similar
details are required when multiple bellows assemblies
are used on axial joints.
3. Hinges which limit bellows to bending effects
to secure purely angular movement; the range of FIG. 7.10 Hinged expansion joint.
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS
lish movement range as related to the bellows
assembly.
When joints are installed in a1iorizontal position,
full-length rods of sufficient strength to provide sup-
port for the floating pipe sections are essential, un-
less other support (external to the joint) is provided.
Such support is to be approached with caution,
however, so as to avoid imposing unanticipated
lateral deflection on the bellows.
The use of hinged expansion joints to accommo-
date substantial amounts of expansion was initiated
and developed by The M. W. Kellogg Company for
large-diameter piping in fluid catalyst cracking
units and similar applications. Figure 7.10 illus-
trates a typical design, although many variations
of hinge and other details have been employed. In
an extreme detail, hinges are integrated in complete
cylinders surrounding the joint with sufficient clear-
ance only for the necessary motion; this arrangement
is for maximum distribution of the hinge reactions
around the circumference. The hinges may be at-
tached to the backs of conventional bolting flanges
Of, for welding end construction, to special rings as
shown on the illustration. With hinges provided
on opposite sides of the bellows and installed so that
their hinge pin axes will eoincide with eaeh other,
and essentially with the midpoint of the bellows
element, the maximum movement capacity will be
realized. Machined construction and assembly with
reasonably close tolerances is required. The limita-
tion of this design is that the entire end load due
to pressure, weight, and other effects, unless relieved
by counter weights or springs, must pass through
FIG. 7.11 Axial movement type expansion joints.
225
the hinge pin; the hinges and pins must also resist
transverse loading due to wind and other effects,
unless adequate external provisions oppose their
effect.
Axial-movement-type expansion joints are quite
similar in detail to their counterpart in packed
joints, with the substitution of a bellows seal for
the packing. When constructed with machined
parts, this type of design is obviously expensive and
can be justified only for special cases where installed
location and general system arrangement make it
difficult to achieve effective guiding by other means,
or where a large amount of axial movement must
be provided and guiding of the bellows assembly
against lateral buckling is necessary. With an in-
ternal arrangement it is also possible to secure maxi-
mum confinement of the bellows against abrupt re-
lease of contents, and sometimes an auxiliary packed
joint is provided to further minimize this hazard
particularly for toxic content services. Sometimes
joints of this type arc fabricated to reasonably close
forming tolerances, without machining; however,
without lubrication, binding is much more likely to
occur.
In combination, constraints and auxiliary expan-
sion joints can be used to balance end loading due
to internal pressure at an expansion joint location.
This is most readily achieved where a joint is in-
stalled adjacent to an elbow, as shown in Fig. 7.12.
In effect, the elbow now becomes a tee with an
identical auxiliary expansion joint as an extension
of the run and with the primary and auxiliary joints
connected by tic rods or similar arrangement. It
226 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
A be accomplished without special precautions for pro-
TIe Ro<h
~connodion$
) J
Blind flongo
\ f-
.K'!'~ r
,,,, >
FIG. 7.12 Pressure balanced expansion joint.
can readily be seen that the end pressure load is
now carried across both joints through the tie rods
and that there is no unbalanced pressure load acting
on the elbow. There will, however, be an unbal-
anced force acting on the elbow equal to the sum of
the elastic forces required to compress one bellows
and simultaneously extend the other, which should
not be overlooked for the moment loading it may
introduce in the piping. Similar arrangements can
be worked out for packed joints. For joints in
straight runs of piping, designs utilizing larger con-
centric joints have been devised to effect pressure
balancing but are usually so expensive as to be im-
practical. Aside from their cost, pressure balancing
by auxiliary expansion joints usually involves the
drawback of dead ends with no flow, unless circulat-
ing lines are provided; Subsection 7.5j has pointed
out the hazards of condensation corrosion for metal
temperatures below the flow dewpoint.
Apart from the above types of built-in constraints,
the movement range of joints is sometimes con-
trolled by arrangements and connections to inde-
pendent structures; for example, limit stops may be
provided which can be temperature adjusted to
establish the maximum compression or extension of
a joint, or, similarly, to limit lateral movement.
Attention is again called to Chapter 8 for the many
types of external restraints which can be used to
control the position of piping at expansion joints.
As previously indicated, the structural capacity
necessary for built-in constraints is dependent on
whether auxiliary external limit stops or other ex-
ternal aids are provided.
To assure proper installation, it is more effective
and often economic to provide preset means for
establishing the installation position of the joints,
which may be consolidated with the built-in con-
straints for limiting service movements 'where such
afC of sufficient strength, otherwise by a separate
temporary structure.
Where the size of the line and other details per-
mit, it is preferable that these preset restraints be
adequate to provide strength comparable to the
attached piping. In such cases, the installation can
tection of the expansion joint and the restraints
released only after piping erection is entirely com-
pleted, and just before starting up the job. In the
usual assembly of a rigid piping system, weld shrink-
age, the necessity for pulling ends into alignment, as
well as pull-up effeets of flange joints, all combine to
establish an erection internal stress. When suddenly
imposed on a preset expansion joint by removal of
the preset ties, whipping of the line may occur unless
restraining means are employed; more important
deflections and rotations comparable to the internal
loading will appear at the joint, which will in some
degree obviate the preset objectives. This can be
minimized by thermally unloading the piping before
the preset ties are released in the manner described
in Chapter 3.
Built-in constraints and preset ties should be in-
stalled under adequate engineering supervision fully
familiar with the dual objective of accurate posi-
tioning and protection of the relatively fragile
elements involved. Usually this is more adequately
accomplished by the specialist manufacturer of the
expansion joints, when the necessary facilities are
at hand.
7.7 Establishing Expansion Joint Movement
Demands
The amount and direction of expansion affects the
selection of the type of expansion joint and its con-
straints which, in turn, control the movement capac-
ity needed in the jomt. Similar to stiff piping sys-
tems, design capacities must be established so as to
cover normal operation and all routine conditions.
such as starting-up and shutting down, as well as
all possible occasional and emergency eonditions.
Movements of connected vessels or other equipment
and the effect of connected structures must be in-
eluded in addition to the expansion of the pipe; in
general, any situation must be examined which may
affect movement at the joints. Prediction of service
life must distinguish between the normal and the
occasional movement demands as covered in Sub-
section 7.5g. To provide for fabrication and erec-
tion deviations, as well as for service distortion of
the piping assembly during its life, the maximum
range of movement of the joint should provide some
excess capacity over that required for thermal ex-
pansion effects alone; the amount is dependent in
some degree on the joint design and its built in con-
straint details. Therefore, setting the final purchase
conditions for an expansion joint requires a broad
knowledge of the process operations which dictate
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS 227

the expansion movements, a thorough familiarity
with installation procedures, and a fair comprehen-
sion of the structural details of the system as they
may affect deformation of the pipe immediately or
over its life period.
The approach for determining thermal expansion
movements is dependent upon the type of piping
system involved. An important consideration, as
already pointed out earlier in this chapter when the
systems of varying degrees of stiffness were de-
scribed, is whether or not the flexure of the pipe is
used to provide in any measure for the thermal
expansion of the system. If bending is present, it
is necessary to obtain the deflection and rotational
displacements by methods given in Chapters 5 or 6.
Where piping flexibility is not a contributing factor,
the task then is to obtain from the original dimen-
sions, and the expanded position, the axial and lat-
eral movements, as well as the angular displace-
ments, at each joint location. This section is
devoted to outlining a convenient approach for ob-
taining this change in line position with temperature.
No recognized nomenclature applying to express-
ing the movements of expansion joints presently
exists. Whereas misunderstanding is unlikely for
sliding joints, there has been confusion at times in
properly understanding the movement ranges of
bellows expansion joints. For this reason the con-
ventions shown in Fig. 7.13 are followed.
Tolerances for probable deviations in conventional
erection may represent a substantial part of the cost
of the joint. When such incremental cost is suffi-
ciently large, consideration should be given to more
precise and morc expensive installation, as offering
possible greater economy. Tolerances may be min-
imized by:
1. Favorable location and structural details, and
a planned and adequately presented erection pro-
cedure.
2. The usc of expansion joint prepositioning
structural arrangements, adequate for rigid assem-
affecting their performance. However, offset should
be avoided on single corrugation assemblies, and in
any case should be limited, to avoid local areas of
appreciably reduced radius, or kinks. It is neces-
sary to provide for some deviation from the desired
installation dimensions even when the joint is rigidly
restrained during erection of the piping system,
since the effects of cold pull and weld shrinkage will be
taken up by the joint when the temporary structure
is removed, although these effects may he minimized
by thermal unloading as previously mentioned.
Pressure or temperature deflection, weight and
transient effects, and minor irregularities are diffi-
cult to predict. Movement eapacity is usually not
provided for creep deformation of hot lines due to
thermal or weight loadings and similar long-time
changes in dimension, on the assumptions that ex-
pansion joints may involve periodic replacement
due to corrosion or fatigue failure and that dimen-
sions will be periodically checked and adjusted if
necessary.
In the case of packed joints the extreme move-
ment limits are needed for establishing the clearances
within the joint and, in the case of bellows joints, arc
Ulldcll~ed Position
~-- A. =Axiol Compreuion

~--8=AllgUIOr
bly of the entire piping system without deflection
of the joint, as described in Section 7.6.
Rotation (radiclld
Many j Dints present individual problems; in gen-
eral, it is more economical to depend entirely on
tolerances for installations which are not too com-
plex or when an available margin of excess move-
ment capacity exists or can be had for little extra
cost, and to resort to both tolerances and preposi-
tioning devices, etc., only where critical service or
economics justifies both. Plain bellows joints (non-
equalizing) without limit stops and with open-type FIG. 7.13 Action of expansion bellows under
corrugations will stand some deformation without various movements.
228 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
r-
I
Theofcli«ll Installed
Pcnilion
Sample Calculation 7.1
Given Data
t...lVVV\IVVV\. .~

rvvvvvv\IVl Normal·
Ronge

IA:::;:" ["--i)
~owonccs and Tolerclfl(O$
I
PLAN
Extreme limits
of Movement

FIG. 7.14 Diagram illustrating range of axial movements of

an expansion joint. SUPPORTT.::::::::of-Tt----::.

TRUE DISTANCE FROM CENTER-

Ay, Sign convention for
l
• b rotationll + rotation
Indicahn joint will
~30.92+9.022 c 132.2'

;..; ~Xb open on lid. marked

with an asterisk
y Cellfen of
Hingo Pins

" , "
FIG. 7.15 Diagram of general three-jointed
hinged-joint system.
ELEVATION

needed for establishing the maximum movement Unit Expansions

and constraint settings. Figure 7.14 diagrammati- @400 F, e ~ 0.00229 in.jin.
cally illustrates the range of movements including @700 F, e = 0.00482 in.jin.
tolerances for a simple joint. Sample Calculations
Expansion CaI.culalions
7.1 and 7.2 illustrate the calculation of joint move-
Axial:
ments including addcd allowances and tolerances. 12(1 J.l2 XO.00229 +39.1 XO.OO482) ~2.57"
Where movements of appreciable range, not evenly
distributed with respect to the center line, are in- Offset:
volved, presetting the joints to utilize both sides of 12X32.2XO.OO482 = 1.86"
the center line is recommended.
In Sample Calculation 7.1 the calculation of a Axial
Cocking Offset
universal-type expansion joint is illustrated. While
Com- Exten- (Each Side of <1<)
essentially self-explanatory, it may be of benefit to pression !lion
point out that the expansions have been calculated
on a coordinate system such that the basic coordi- Calc. expansion range 2.57
11
0" 0° 1.86"
11 11
nate lies along the axis of the joint, disregarding the Allowance (10%) 0.26 0" 0° 0.19
orientation of connected piping or vessels, a pro- Installation tolerance 0.5 " 0.5" 0° 0.5 "
cedure which is usually advantageous in simplifying 3.33" 0.5" 0° 2.55 11 •
Total
the computations.
The movement determinations for a three-hinged- Precock or pre-offset .. . ... 0° 1 "j
joint system are readily handled by the method out- ,,,
Design movement 3:}" 0° Ijll:t:
lined below and illustrated in Sample Calculation 7.2. ·~s

Such a system may be treated as a linkage assembly

of rigid members; thus the rotations are limited to
the joints and for any given layout are simply a
function of the termiual displacements of the system
and the incremental expansion change in length of
*Uequired on one side of ¢. if no pre-offset.
tPre-offset may be ! of the total movement range (not
including tolerances) = ~ (1.86 + 0.19) ="=I I".
:t:Mnxirnum movement from ¢. with 1" pre-offset =
2.55 - 1 "'" 1.55 ~ Ii".

I
l
 APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS 229

the members, or of position, if vessel movement Expansions (ft)

must be included. While a trigonometric solution (treated as given data in this sample calculation)
is indicated, it cannot be accomplished with sufficient Case I Case I!
accuracy on the slide rule, and the use of logarithms T (Line Temp. F) ... 1060 70
is time consuming. Hence, the following formulas e (Unit Exp. ft/ft) .. O.OOSIS 0
were developed which are amply accurate, giving xe . .. 0.IS4 0
slide rule solutions to within a few minutes for small 11= ..... 0.0 0
rotation angles (say about 5° or less). The notation Ll,. ........ -0.034 0
is in accordance with Fig. 7.15, which shows a gen- yeo .... . ......... 0.145 0
eral three-hinge system. 61/a. . ........ 0.111 0
If Ll x is the effective displacement of joint b rela- 6 11/, •• ,- -0.006 O.27,~

tive to a, it may be defined as:

Cal£ulations
llx = .6 x b - d xa - xc Case I
A. ~ -0.034 + 0 - 0.IS4 ~ -0.21S'
Sample Calculation 7.2
Ll, = -0.006 - 0.111 - 0.145 = -0.262'
Given Data
--<:: X'Yo - XoY' = 9.S5 X 16.05 - 12.65 X 1.75 = 136
(-0.21S X 9.S5) + (-0.262 X 1.75) ISO
<Po = 136 X -;;:-
-1.100
7' ,,- ~ (-0.21S X 12.65) + (-0.262 X 16.05) ISO
<P' = 136 X -;;:-

"'~
-;,,..
AYO
. x'
ot>-

•
::~

~
v.
l' YO
I
<Po'
=
~
-2.94°
1.10 + 2.94

A. = 0
~

t>, ~ 0.275 + 0 + 0
4.04°
Case I!

= 0.275'
X
= 0 + (0.275 X 1.75) ISO = 020°
<Po 136 X" .
Dimensions (ft)
<P' = 0 + (0.275 X 16.05) X ISO ~ I.S60
Xo ~ 12.65 Yo = 16.05 136 "
x, = 9.S5 y, = 1.75
x = 22.5 y ~ 17.S0 <Po' = -0.20 - I.S6 = -2.06 0

Summary

Rotations Rotation Range

Exp. Pre- Design Pro\'ideu
Case cock Positions Each Side ¢.
Jt. Calcu-
Tolerance AlIo\\'-
Required Provided*
:l1lce lated
(Nominal)
- - - - - - - - - ----- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4.0 i
a
hi
-1.10
+0.20
0.11
0.02
0.5)
0.5
2.43 S.O +0.5 -0.60
+0.70 4.0
----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1+ 3 .04 4.0
lr~
+4.04 0.40 0.5) 7.71 S.O -1.0
ab [-3.06 4.0
-2.06 0.21 0.5
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
b II -2.94
+I.S6
0.29
0.19
0.5\
0.5J
6.2S S.O +0.5 -2.44
+2.30
·1.0
4.0
i
\I! ---_._,-. -
Noles: All rotations given in degrees.
+ sign indicates rotation such as to open joint on side indicated on the sketch by an asterisk.
·1'he same movement capacity wa.." selected for all three joints on the assumption that the ndvantages of uniformity offset the
extra mat-crinl requirement.
230 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

.6.v is similarly defined: References

where e is the unit expansion which applies to the
piping between a and b. The rotation of joint a in
degrees is:
The rotation of joint b in degrees is:
1. F. E. Wolosewick, "Expansion Joints and their Applica-
tion," Petroleum RefinCT, Vol. 29, No.5, pp. 146-150
(1950).
2. S. Crocker, Piping Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1945.
3. J. E. York, uJoints to Permit Movement," Healing and
Ventilatino. Vol. 46, No.1, pp. 85-88 (Jan. H149)i Vol. 46,
No.2, pp. 93-07 (Feb. H149)j Vol. 46, No.3, pp. 87-91
(:-.lar. 1949).
4. F. J. Feely, Jr. and W. M. Goryl, IIStress Studies on Piping
Expansion Bellows," J. Appl. Mechania, Vol. 17, No.1,
p. 135 (1950).

cPb =
AxXa + AvYa X180
-
5. W. Samans and L. Blumberg, IlEnduraoce Testing of
Expansion Joints," ASME Paper No. 54-A-103 (1954).
XbYa - XaYb 7r
6. F. Salzmann, "Ueber die Nachgiebigkeit von Wcllrohrex-
pansionen," Schu:eiz. Bauzlg., Band 127, Nr. 11, pp. 127-
The rotation of joint ab is found from: 130.
7. R. A. Clark, "On the Theory of Thin Elastic Toroidal
cPab + cPa + cPb ~ 0 Shells," J. Math. and Phys., M.LT., Vol. 29, pp. 146-178
(1950).
Dimensions and expansion must be in consistent 8. N. C. Dahl, "Toroidal Shell Expansion Joints," J. Appl.
units. Mechanics, Vol. 20, No.4, pp. 497-503 (1953).

1

Supporting, Restraining, and Bracing
the Piping System
A
THOUGH a piping system may properly be
described as an irregular space frame, it
differs from eonventional structures in that
frequently, due to its slender proportions, it may not
be self-supporting or it may need to be restrained or
braced against eertain effects.
Service temperatures can introduce sufficient
thermal stress or lower the material strength so as
to require supplementary structural assistance.
Limiting the line movement at specific loeations may
be desirable to protect sensitive equipment, to con-
trol vibration, or to resist external influences such as
wind, earthquake, or shock loading. In the absence
of significant thermal expansion, such as in water
service, conventional structural practices and the
use of available standard hardware are entirely
adequate and economic.
For other piping where service temperatures
introduce sufficient dimension change and reduction
in material strength, adequate design of supports,
restraints, and braces requires a satisfactory grasp
of localized loading and thermal gradient effects on
high-temperature pressure shells, and reasonable
understanding of the thermal changcs attendant to
service requirements, including emergency and
auxiliary conditions. This latter background is
more readily available during the initial stages of a
project. The planning of pipe supports, restraints,
and braces simultaneously with the establishment of
layout configurations, also offers the added advan-
tage of a more cconomic installation. When rele-
gated to the status of a job-end finish-up item or left
solely to the erector, only conventional structural
treatment can be expected, with later changes
231
L
CHAPTER
needed to correct failures, sagging, leakage, eqUlp-
ment damage, difficult maintenance, etc.
The analysis of thermal and structural effects in
piping is of limited value unless paralleled by support
design sufficiently complete to assure realization
of the flexibility analysis assumptions. Injudicious
or over-use of supports or lack of advantageous
restraints and braces can create an overload hazard
instead of giving protection to sensitive equip-
ment Of, for satisfactory performance, can require
needlessly long runs of pipe. While accurate cal-
c).llations are usually not cconomically feasible for
average piping, much can be accomplished toward
economic and satisfactory design by approximations
and reasoning when applied by personnel of adequate
engineering background and experience.
Except for idealized counterbalancing as ap-
proached by counterweights, all supports involve
some degree of restraint; conversely, many restraints
and braces unavoidably resist gravitational effects,
so that it is logical and convenient to combine their
treatment ill this chapter. While they involve a
considerable expenditure, pipe supports, restraints,
and braces have received insufficient attention in the
literature from either design or economic aspects.
This chapter will attempt to present general knowl-
edge and opinions which have guided the support of
average piping, and also certain information for use
ill combination with Chapters 4 and 5 when more
careful analysis is necessary.
8.1 Terminology and Basic Functions
A discussion of the problems involved in the pro-
vision and design of supports and restraints can be
232 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
presented effectively only after the terms used to
describe them are clearly defined and their functions
are clearly understood. .~
In the absence of an authoritative text, the
terminology adopted in general for some time by
The M. W. Kellogg Company has bcen used through-
out this volume. It is summarized for the reader's
convenience in the following glossary with the hope
that it will receive general acceptance and contribute
to clarity of thinking on the subject at large as well
as in this Chapter.
Restraint. Any device which prevents, resists, or
limits the free thermal movement of the piping.
Support. A device used specifically to sustain a
portion of weight of the piping system plus any
superimposed vertical loadings.
Brace. A device primarily intended to resist dis-
placement of the piping due to the action of any
forces other than those due to thermal expansion
or to gravity. Note that with this definition, a
damping device is classified as a kind of brace.
Anchor. A rigid restraint providing substantially
full fixation (i.e., encastre; ideally permitting
neither translatory nor rotational displacement of
the pipe on any of the three reference axes). It is
employed for purposes of restraint but usually
serves equally well as restraint, support, or brace.
Stop. A device which permits rotation but prevents
translatory movement in at least onc direction
along any desired axis. If translation is prevented
in both directions along the same axis, the term
double-acting stop is preferably applied.
Two-axis Stop. A device which prevents translatory
movement in one direction along each of two axes.
A two-axis double-acting stop prevents translatory
movement in the plane of the axes while allowing
such movement normal to the plane.
Limit Stop. A device which restricts translatory
movement to a limited amount in one direction
along any single axis. Paralleling the various
stops there may also be: double-acting limit stops,
two-axis limit stops, etc.
Guide. A device preventing rotation about one or
morc axes due to bending moment 01' torsion. l
Hanger. A support by which piping is suspended
from a structure, etc., and \vhieh functions by
carrying the piping load in tension.
Resting or Sliding Support. A device providing sup-
lAlthough some users employ the term "guide" loosely
to cover both translatory and rotational restraint and bracing,
it is felt that the distinguishing terminolob,)' used herein
promotes clarity of presentation.
port from beneath the pIpIng but offering no
resistance other than frictional to horizontal
motion.
Rigid (Solid) Support. A support providing stiff-
ness in at least one direction, comparable to that
of the pipe.
Resilient Support. A support which includes one 01"
more largely elastic members (c.g., spring).
Constant-effort Support. A support which is capable
of applying a relatively constant force at any dis-
placement within its useful operating range (e.g.,
counterweight or compensating spring device).
Damping Device. A dashpot or other frictional
device which increases the damping of a system,
offering high resistance against rapid displace-
ments caused by dynamic loads, while permitting
essentially free movement under very gradually
applied displaccments.
Frequently, the detail used at a specific location
performs several functions, e.g., stop and guid<"
guidc and brace, or support and anchor. In such a
case the common practice is to designate the detail
for convenience by only one of the terms, whichever
best fits its primary function. For example, a
resisting couple is provided by a pair of parallel
stops; thus the combination may properly he referred
to as a guide.
In Chapter 2, attention has been directed to the
fact that piping systems, for reasonably economic
design, must operate over a wide range of stress
between ambient and service temperature as a
result of combined thermal expansion and pressurc
strains; the introduction to this chapter commented
on the frequent lack of structural capacity on the
part of unsupported piping to carry weight effects
simultaneously with pressure at the service tem-
perature. Supports, restraints, and braces are there--
fore desirable to reduce weight, wind, and, where
possible, expansion and transient effects, so that the
piping system stress range is not excessive for the
anticipated cycles of operation, thus avoiding fatigue
failure. Ideally it would be desirablc to providc
essentially continuous support, i.e., render the pipin~
weightless, and to provide restraints or braces
wherever stress reduction can be accomplished,
From the practical considerations of cost and general
arrangement requirements, however, supports, ett'.,
are limited to locations favorable to their installa-
tion, or where their use is offset by proportionate
piping cost reductions.
As pointed out in Chapter 2, piping systems may
function under one or more operating conditions as
J
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM
dictated by changes in feed or end products, and as
influenced by service variables, in particular, cyclic
operation or the alternate use of-spare equipment;
they may further involve auxiliary operations such
as starting-up, shutting down, solvent cleaning,
pressure testing, etc., or unanticipated operating
upsets or emergencies due to equipment leaks,
power or equipment failures, etc. Each may involve
different temperatures for individual piping systems
or parts of systems as dictated hy the location of
valves; in addition the necessity for sudden de-
pressuring or removal of contents may require abrupt
establishment of flow with extreme velocities and
reactions, sometimes accompanied by pulsations.
To avoid actual rupture, the design must give due
consideration to such possibilities, and must provide
reasonably adequate support for each set of circum-
stances. Particular emphasis is directed at condi-
tions involving lengthy duration, high temperature,
and frequent occurrence. This usually dictates that
supports be most completely effective in normal
operation, since for shutdown or other lower tem-
perature conditions the short-time structural
strength is at a higher level and provides greater
latitude for lack of support without damage to the
piping.
8.2 Layout Considerations to Facilitate Sup-
port
Initial layout study of equipment, building, and
structure location and elevation is essential for effec-
tive design j over-all economics and appearance are
further improved where the primary piping and its
associated supporting structures and their inter-
effects are simultaneously subjected to study and
planning. In addition to establishing the general
arrangement and over-all design conditions, early
decisions must be reached on the types of support
structures for intercommunicating piping and their
elevation, access provisions for maintenance of equip-
ment, cleaning and inspection requirements, and
selection of main support fixture types. Ample
space must be provided for large devices such as
counterweights.
The two cardinal principles in routing lines for
economic support, restraint, and bracing are:
1. Group pipe lines so as to minimize the number
of structures needed solely for pipe supports, re-
straints, or braces. . stresses and reactions, or developed unavoidably in
2. Keep lines located close to possible points of
support, etc., i.e. either to grade or to structures
which arc to be provided for other purposes.
From the standpoint of economy, both of these
233
are axiomatic, yet they are surprisingly often ignored
by designers, with awkward and expensive supports
the result. Wherever a number of lines are to pass
through a given space in approximately the same
direction, they should preferably be carried at the
same elevation (assuming horizontal pipe runs), and
parallel to each other, to building walls, to column
lines, or to equipment axes. The piping thus forms
Hbanks" or "racks" which are easily supported on a
common beam or stanchion if overhead, or on sleepers
if the lines are placed just above the ground. Gen-
erally, any given line must be routed away from its
minimum-run course in order to include it in the
rack; however, the cost of the attendant extra pipe
and fittings is usually offset by reduced support
costs. Appearance, while secondary to utility, is
also enhanced by regular arrangement and avoidance
of unnecessary skewed or irregular runs of piping;
eye appeal and ease of supporting are usually com-
plementary. Where there is much piping to be run
in an area, as is the case in the majority of process
plants, the most practicable scheme is to establish
specific elevations for groups of lines running in a
given compass direction (say north-south) while
setting other elevations for groups running in a
transverse direction (east-west). This arrangement
avoids interferences and also permits future piping
additions without undue difficulty or unsightliness.
The practice is exemplified in the oil refinery piping
shown in Fig. 8.1, also in the section through a
typical pipe rack in Fig. 8.2.
The decision whether to support a specific line or
group of lines from a building or structure and
thereby eliminate independent support structures is
based on the relative cost of the additional pipe as
compared with the additional supports. Detailed
comparisons are usually not readily accomplished
so that judgment on the part of the designer is neces-
sary. Important lines are occasionally run skewed at
a sacrifice in appearance when significant savings in
piping or support costs can be made. For large lines
it is advantageous aside from process requirements
to make runs as short and direct as possible so that
the piping tends to be self-supporting. The neces-
sary flexibility for thermal expansion must be
maintained regardless of the nature of the restraint
imposed by the pipe supports; (i.e., whether added
deliberately for the control of thermal expansion
the course of supporting and bracing against other
loads).
Control of thermal expansion by the use of re-
straints can serve to:
234 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
a. Sectionalize portions of a piping system for
isolation from the influences of the remainder of the
system. Ioo.c..
b. Protect against overstress such weak spots as
locally reduced size runs of pipe, and sensitive local
or terminal components.
c. Control expansion direction so as to forestall
undesirable displacement at specific locations of the
piping.
Supporting and braeing the piping against loads
originating from sources other than thermal expan-
sion will contribute additional resistance to thermal
expansion unless:
a. Supports or braces can be used which offer
negligible restraint. Constant-effort supports to take
weight, and damping devices to resist dynamic loads
assure such freedom along all axes. Hangers and
jointed struts offer resistance on one axis and frce
movement on the other axes.
b. Supports or braces can be located at or near
neutral points, i.e., points where little or no thermal
movement occurs along the one or more desired axes,
thus minimizing additional restraint.

FIG. 8.1 A pipe bank in a large unit of an oil refinery.

 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM
The significant general eonsiderations affeeting
the routing of piping for favorable support may be
summarized as follows: .....
1. The piping system should be self-supporting
insofar as praetieable and eonsistent with flexibility
requirements.
2. Exeess flexibility may make additional sup-
ports or restraints necessary to avoid movement and
vibration in such amplitude as to arouse personnel
apprehension. This situation is apt to occur on
vertical lines where only one point of support is
needed to sustain the weight.
3. Free movement expansion joint systems involv-
ing appreeiable unbalanced thrusts from pressure
should be avoided unless such forees ean be taken on
substantial struetures, or at grade.
4. Piping prone to vibrate, sueh as eompressor
suction or discharge and driver exhaust lines, should
235
be routed for support independent from other piping
and lightly braced structures and buildings. Routing
should permit the use of resting or similar supports
offering resistance to motion and providing some
damping eapaeity, rather than hanging supports.
5. The pipe line should be sufficiently close to the
point of support or restraint so that the structural
connection can have adequate rigidity and details
can be simple and economical.
6. Piping from upper connections on vertical
vessels is advantageously supported from the vessel
to minimize relative movement between supports and
piping; hence, such piping should be routed next to
the vessel and supported close to the connection.
7. Piping in structures should be routed beneath
platforms, near major structural members at points
favorable for added loading, to avoid the necessity
of making these members heavier.

Sa" nOM pia'''' ao .,,,, m.mb<n \

... ~.
A-
por1ion of in~ulalion simply cuI owoy
on modorato tomporature lines

--
I

----H /
A

~
L.
\ I
. (! ... "J. - r..
\
\fIClvQ~od temperature lines placed on shOflI I
permit1ing insulation
to dear

~Slf\ldurOI 'leol "onmion'

FlO. 8.2 Section through typical outdoor overhead pipe rack shO\.. . ing arrangement of north-south runs at two elevation:; llDd
east-west runs nt an intermedintc elevation.
236 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
8. Sufficient space should be allotted so that the
proper support assembly details may be accom-
modated. .~
9. Access clearance must be provided in order that
support fixture parts requiring maintenance can be
serviced.
8.3 The Elements of the Supporting System:
Their Selection and Location
In the design arrangement studies, the principal
piping is located for satisfactory flexibility and asso-
ciation with the equipment, buildings, and structures
to snit over-all functional requirements and maxi-
mum utilization for reactions from the supports and
restraints. In the final stages of this preliminary
engineering the stiffness of the individual piping
systems is examined with due consideration to the
selected restraints. Later when the plans and
elevations of piping, details of vessels) structures,
buildings, foundations and trenches, and setting
plans of pumps, compressors, etc. arc available, the
final selection and location of the supports, restraints,
and braces can be accomplished. This section will
be confined to discussing decisions as to the basic
types and locations of these supports, etc. Subse-
quent sections are devoted to details of these types.
Advantageous location involves consideration of
the piping proper, the structure to which the load is
transmitted, and the space limitations within which
the assemblies must operate. Preferred points of
attachment to thc piping are:
I. On pipe rather than on piping components such
as valves, fittings, or expansion joints. Under
highly localized loading, flanged or threaded joints
may leak and valve bodies may distort with resulting
seat leakage or binding. Attachments to heavy
components, however, may be acceptable and even
desirable where the effect can be properly provided
for.
2. On straight runs rather than on sharp-radius
bends or welding elbows, since these are already
subjected to highly localized stresses on which thc
local effects of the attachment would be super-
imposed. Furthermore, attachments on curved
pipe which extend well along the length or circum-
ference of the bend will seriously alter the flexibility
of such components.
3. On pipe runs whieh do not require frequent
removal for cleaning and maintenance.
4. As close as practical t.o heavy load concentra-
tions such as vertical runs} branch lines, motor
operated or otherwise heavy valves, and minor
vessels such as separators, strainers, etc.
Undesirable effeets of piping reactions on founda-
tions, other-purpose structures, buildings, or vessels
can be minimized by locating supports, etc. so as to:
1. Apply loads to eolumn and beams near main-
member intersections to minimize bending effects.
2. Avoid the introduetion of unnecessary torsion
or lateral bending effects.
3. Avoid the introduction of moments or trans-
verse loading to slender members (sueh as wind
bracing) and particularly to compression members
where instability controls the design.
4. Confine connections to independent structures
or foundations when dealing with piping subjeet to
pulsating flow or transmitted mechanieal vibration
unless a careful and comprehensive analysis is made
to assure that the struetures, buildings, etc., are of
adequate strength with nonresonant natural fre-
quency and sufficient stiffness to control amplitude
within the bounds required by psychologieal effeet
and general comfort of personnel.
5. Provide anchors and extremely flexible and
nonresonant intervening pipe runs (e.g., expansion
joints) to maehinery introducing mechanical vibra-
tions in order to isolate the effect by redueing
transmissibility.
In general the advantageous use of other-purpose
foundations, structures, ete. is dietated by their
ability to assume the additional loading with little
or no additional seetion. Recognition must be given
to the need in many cases for rigidity as well as
stress-carrying capacity of the structure used for the
attachment of supports, restraints, and braces.
Connection to relatively flexible struetures or too-
slender members of those struetures must be avoided
if their deflection prevents their assumption of
loading in the desired degree because of the relative
stiffness of the pipe. The final ehoice of whether to
provide a separate structure depends on comp4·rative
costs.
Ample clearance must be available for the piping,
including that required for expansion movements of
the pipe and for the supporting elements and their
proper functioning. Fireproofing and insulation
interferences, if overlooked, afe a source of erection
difficulties, troublesome restraint, excessive mainte-
nance, and poor appearance.
The introductory paragraph of this section calls
attention to the necessity for early establishment of
the significant restraints to the free movement of the
piping system under thermal expansion, so that the
general arrangement of equipment structures and
principal piping systems can be established with
proper appreciation of the piping flexibility, and so
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM 237
that subsequent ehanges ean be avoided. It is
further pointed out that the final seleetion and loca-
tion of the supporting system elements must neces-
sarily await completion of the plans and elevations
of the piping, details of vessels, structures, buildings,
foundations, and trenehes, and setting plans of
pumps, compressors and other equipment. With
their availability an over-all view of the supporting
system problems is obtained, and since usually the
basic functions of restraint, support, and bracing
are advantageously established in that order, the
following discussion will be so arranged, first covering
rigid piping and then followed by an examination of
the problems peculiar to semi-rigid, non-rigid, and
free movement piping systems.
Restraints. Restraints to thermal expansion are
unavoidable in the terminal connections of the piping
system to equipment, vessels, etc., and the preceding
section has shown that additional restraints may be
desirable to control the position, stress, or reactions
at selected locations. The net effect of each added
restraint is a function of its location, and the direc-
tion and degree of limitation imposed. Unavoidable
restraints may occur at supports and braces and are
either minimized in relative magnitude by selection FIo. 8.4 Typical stops employing tie rods or jointed struts.
or by location so that their effect can properly be
neglected, or else their influence must be provided Total restraint in the form of terminal connections
for by the flexibility of the piping system. to vessels or equipment for the most part establishes
the boundaries of individual legs of a piping system,
whereas that accomplished by direct anchorage to a
RehClolor
structure or foundation is limited in application to
locations where the structural subdivision of indi-
vidual runs is considered desirable. In general each
added restraint reduces the inherent flexibility;
however, where sufficient margin in the stress range
16V 0.0. Sch. 80 pipe
is available, additional anchors may be desirable to
increase the line's self-supporting capacity, to define
the behavior of complex piping systems under
alternate and involved operating conditions, to
protect runs of lesser stiffness due to reduced section
or higher temperature, to isolate mechanical vibra-
c tions, and to change the natural frequency to mini-
mize amplitude and avoid resonance.
The control of thermal expansion reactions or
Turbintl movements can often be achieved advantageously
without intermediate anchorages by the judicious
use of stops and guides. Frequently it is desired to
MomontJ (ft. kip,) and Forces (kip,) Adiog at Point A Max. Slto" (PSi) limit only a certain component of a terminal reaction
SlOp 01 Point B M. My M, F. Fy F, Magnitudo Poinl or of the displacement at some point. In such a case
Nol included +~7.7 -27.5 +38.9 -.120 -1.97 +1.77 11600 C the use of full fixation would produee unnecessary
Included -27.9 + .c.l - 5." -.730 + .71 +2.« 12400 0 restraint, in many cases intolerable, unless the piping
FIG. 8.3 Use of a stop for the control of thermal can be made more flexihle hy the addition of loops,
expansion reactions. etc. A typical application is shown in Fig. 8.3,
238
~",.""..~.
forbo
""" oxh
two'''''''''"''
rostrairrt
Fin and Sl"~ for
Small Amounts of
ExpaMion Oiometrally
~S¥
floor Dock.. or Roof
FIG. 8.5 Typical sliding type stops.
which shows a vertical double-acting restraint placed
in a high-temperature reheat steam lead in order to
lower the thermal expansion moment reaction on the
turbine. The accompanying table indicates for such
a line a typical set of results of calculations made
with and without the stop.
Two basic arrangements of restraints are used, viz.,
those such as the typical tie rods and jointed struts
shown in Fig. 8.4, wherein the structural connection
is relatively remote from the pipe attachment, and
those wherein little separation is needed between the
terminal parts, shown in Fig. 8.5. While the details
of these devices are treated in subsequent sections,
the selection of the basic arrangement to be used is
in large measure dependent on the layout, the loca-
tion of the restraint, and the purpose or combined
purpose for which it is being introduced.
In general tic rods and jointed struts are preferred
for single-acting and double-acting restraints re-
spectively whenever sufficient room is available to
provide adequate length so that the arc of motion
will not deviate sufficiently from a straight-line
path to cause unnecessary restraint. The amount of
deviation may be found as indicated in Fig. 8.6.
The principal merits of tie rods and jointed struts
are their low frictional resistance making them
positive acting and nonjamming. It should be kept
in mind that generally tie rods and single-acting
devices are only suitable for restraints when sufficient
constant load exists at the point to overcome any
thermal reaction either in the initial or the self-
sprung state of the piping, or under any variation
from normal operating conditions.
hanger rod will function properly as long as the
weight load exceeds any uplift due to thermal
expansion. Hinged-jointed or ball-jointed struts
are the ideal restraints; not only are they double
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
acting but also they can be made to suitably close
clearances.
Sliding guides and stops frequently may fit more
compactly into a structure. Particularly for vertical
lines, they may be incorporated into the platform
Clips for Small linn steel at pipe openings where they offer no reduetion
in headroom or other obstruction to passage. In
addition if their application is such as to add fric-
tional resistance to vibrational effects, some advan-
tage may be gained. For the most part, however,
sliding devices are apt to be unsatisfactory for
resisting vibratory loading because of the fabrica-
tion difficulties attendant to producing minimum
clearances.
Supports. The piping system with its terminal
anchors and partial restraints must now be explored
for its adequacy in carrying without distress all
gravitational loading including the weight of the
pipe, insulation, contents, fittings, valves, strainers,
etc., or any additional weight which may be involved.
While most of these loads are maintained both in
service and airstream, others may be present only at
one condition. Maximum loads are usually apt to
occur at service temperatures and, becauseof reduc-
tion of the material strength, must be considered
directly in the high-temperature design. In the
case of large gas or vapor lines, provision for support
when filled with liquid may be necessary as, for
example, to provide for hydrostatic testing. 2
The spacing of supports on a single horizontal pipe
line in open country is dependent only on the
strength of the pipe. Within the boundaries of a
process unit, on the other hand, support spacing is
largely determined by the spacing of conveniently
located columns. Commonly, the spacing of sup-
port racks must provide for the weakest pipe, al-
though larger spans are sometimes accepted for small
2For infrequent tests, it is sometimes economic to erect
temporary supports rather than design permanent supports
for the purpose.
Tolol movement tongll
For example, a
0= Deviation from tlto;ght line
h'
""'2i
FIG. 8.6 Motion of tie rod or jointed strut.
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM
lines if sag and attendant pocketing of the particular
small lines are not objectionable. Small lines can be
assisted across long spans by prllviding them with
intermediate supports attached to adjacent larger
lines; a group of such lines may also be tied together
so as to become chords of a simple truss. Often,
however, the most practical solution is simply to
increase the pipe size to the point of being self-
supporting over the required span.
In checking the suitability of support spacing for
pipe lines on a horizontal run, the nomographs men-
t.ioned subsequently in this section are useful for
most purposes. For critical-service piping, the
flexibility check for expansion stress can be ex-
tended to include weight effects where necessary by
using methods given in Chapter 5. As discussed
previously in this section, general considerations in
locating supports are that they be placed at points
suitable for the connections to the pipe (no inter-
ference with valves, risers, etc.) and to the structure
(in respect both to attachment details and to load-
ing requirements).
Allowable spans for horizontal lines are princi-
pally influenced by the need to:
1. Keep stresses within suitable limits. (Insta-
bility may be a factor in the case of large thin-walled
pipe. )
2. Limit deflections (sagging), if necessary for:
a. appearance,
b. avoiding pockets,
c. avoiding interferences.
3. Control natural frequency (usually by limiting
the span) so as to avoid undesirable vibration.
In most cases, an adequate estimate of the stress is
readily obtained from the simple beam relationship:
S = 1.2(wl'jZ) (8.1)
where S = maximum bending stress, (psi.)
Z = section modulus, in. 3
I = pipe span, ft.
w = total unit weight, lb per ft.
For convenience this formula is given in nomographic
form in Chart 0-16 of Appendix C. It is based on
a maximum moment of /.11 = 110wl2, and represents
a compromise between M = ,\w12 for a beam with
fixed ends and M = !w12 for a free-ended beam, as
representative of average runs. Values to suit other
end conditions can be obtained by the use of the
correction factors given in Chart C-18. Overhang
at changes of direction may be beneficial from
a structural standpoint; if provided in optimum
amount, the maximum moment in a line continu-
ous over a series of e'lual spans can be held to that
239
of fixed-end conditions. However, substantial over-
hang is best avoided on lines prone to vibration.
Major concentrated loads such as produced by
valves, pipe risers, branches, etc., should be at or
near a point of support. The effect of significant
concentrated loads, not located at supports, may be
approximated from eq. 8.1, by multiplyiug the stress
by the factor 2P jwl where P is the concentrated
load in pounds and other symbols are as previously
defined.
Deflection under weight effects is generally of sec-
ondary importance in piping just as it is in struc-
tures. In fact, some piping designers are inclined
to disregard deflection entirely and to consider the
limiting weight stress as the only criterion. In most
process units, however, the deflection of the line
should be kept within reasonable bounds in order
to minimize pocketing and to avoid possible inter-
ference in congested areas due to sagging. Appear-
ance, too, will be a factor in many cases. A practical
limit for average piping in process units is a deflec-
tion on the order of ~ in. to 1 in. For piping in
yards or for overland transmission lines a value of
It in. or greater is generally acceptable. For power
piping a deflection limit as small as! in. is specified
by some designers.
Perhaps the most important reason for limitjng
deflection is to make the pipe stiff enough, that is,
of high enough natural frequency, to avoid large
amplitude response under any slight perturbing
force. Although Chapter 9 treats this subject more
fully, it can be stated here, as a rough rule, that for
average piping a natural frequency of 4 cycles per
second will be found reasonably satisfactory. For
pulsating lines from compressorsJ etc., values of
8 cycles per second or higher may be desirable de-
pending on the characteristics of the compressor.
The deflection for a given span may be approxi-
mated by the beam rclation:
0= 17.1(wl'jEl) (8.2)
where I = moment of inertia, in. 4
I = pipe span, ft.
o = deflcction, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi.
w = total unit weight, Ib per ft.
Chart 0-17 of Appendix C gives a graphical solu-
tion for this equation. Similar to the stress formula,
it is based on M = -h-wI2; factors for other condi-
tions of constraint are included in Chart C-18.
When lines are pitched to facilitate drainage, the
supports may be spaced so as to completely elimi-
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
FIG. 8.7 Typica.l rod hanger assemblies.
nate pocketing due to sag of the piping. Pitching,
however, involves considerable added expense of
supports and is of limited effectiveness with flowing
media which cling in substantial amounts to the
pipe wall. Hence, it is becoming a widespread
practice to avoid pitching by setting up a regular
plant procedure for washing or blowing down the
pipe as dictated by safety, corrosion prevention, or
contamination requirements. Pitched lines are thus
limited to occasional applications where they may
be used either generally or in connection with specific
pieces of equipment. Where substantial pitch is
desired, hanging type supports are generally needed
in order to maintain reasonable uniformity in sup-
porting structures.
The minimum pitch of supports required to avoid
pocketing due to sag is given by the following
formula:
h = Kwl'/EI (8.3)
where h =gradient of supports in feet/IOO feet of
length, and
K = a constant, depending on constraint.
K = 116 for fixed ends, and
K = 600 for free ends.
Other symbols are as previously defined
except that the weight does not include
the contents, since the pipe empties as
it drains.
The gradient of supports determined by this for-
mula provides that the slope of the deflected line
will not be upward in the direction of drainage but,
will be horizontal or downward. To obtain positive
drainage with a given minimum piteh, the support
gradient must be further increased by the amount
of the minimum piteh. Pitching may also be needed
to vent a hot pump suction line baek to the source
in order to avoid vapor binding.
The advantageous arrangement of support is re-
lated to the degree of restraint which can be toler-
ated, or to the extent and direction of the movements
to be allowed at each location. The fundamental
types are characterized as rigid, resilient, and con-
stant effort, each of which is capable of wide varia-
tion in details and of two basic arrangements,
suspended and resting.
Rigid supports of the suspended arrangement in-
volve solid hangers, while the resting arrangement
may function as a sliding contact or be provided
with rollers or rockers; for special cases, the support
structure may be flexible or of simple- or multiple-
hinged design to secure movement in onc or two
directions, while maintaining constant elevation.
Solid hangers eliminate friction and sticking be-
tween the pipe and support,' but are limited in
movement range in proportion to their length, re-
quire higher support frames, and involve greater
usage of space; however, they are a preferred choice
where the general plant arrangement permits their
use, particularly on extreme high-temperature 01'
other critical service where unassessable restraint is
undesirable, Some typical hanger assemblies are
shown in Fig, 8.7, Resting supports, although they
involve friction, either sliding or rolling, are widely
used and are generally satisfactory, probably due
to the friction load resulting from the weight usually
being low as compared with the thermal expansion
effects; the reduction of friction by using rollers and
rockers is not as reliable as by using hangers, due to
possible wear and lack of luhrication. Typical rest-
ing support assemblies arc shown in Fig. 8.8.
Rigid supports are satisfactory for systems involv-
ing lengthy horizontal runs with little vertical ex-
3It should be noted, however, that freedom of movement
renders hangers unsuitable for the support of piping subjed-ed.
to shock loading, Le., blow down lines.
_________#Ia
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM 2'1l

pansion differential. Much process piping fits this

description since it consists of sUl?J'orted horizontal
runs with vertical runs to vessels, with the expansion
of the vertieal runs largely offset by the change in
length of the vessel shell. For the most part the
foree to produee movement at a sliding contact is
readily available except for unusually heavy lines
or those operating at a temperature where only a Ample lenglh 10 be
fraction of their room-temperaturc strcngth can be provided 100 that Ihero will
bo no dClngcr of
allowed. diulngClgemenl
Rigid supports are improperly used under certain
conditions, viz:
1. Where the restraint of expansion movement at
the support location is significant and cannot bc
absorbcd by elastic action of the line within allow'
able stress limits, i.c. the line will yield under each
····A.~i·. 'A:: .,,,"}
BCI~ El~w­
temperature cycle. (fool CCl~' inlegralty)
2. Where the line deflection involves reactions
against the support of such magnitude that reason-
ably free movement of the pipe at the support is not
assured, Le. on stiff lines.
3. For multiple supports on vertical runs.
4. For horizontal run supports adjacent to verti-
cal run connections unless little or no support is
required offstream, at which time the line moves up
from the support.
5. For vessel-attached supports where they can-
not be located at a point of negligible differential
expansion or where an intervening loop (i.e. line
flexibility) cannot be provided to take care of the
expansion differential.
FIG. 8.8 Typical resting support assemblies.
For such conditions where a substantial increase
or decrease of support reaction under line position be used. Two designs are used: so-called compen-
change can be tolerated, resilient supports offcr an sating spring devices, and counterweights. The
economic choicc. They are advantageous on long former involves one or more springs whose motion
runs of pipe where even reaction distribution is not is magnified by leverage or similar mechanical ad-
easily attained, also for piping systems subject to vantage, and is available in standardized units in a
rapid changes in temperature or uneven tempera- wide range of sizes, each of which can bc adjusted
tures with attendant bowing. Usually resilient for an individual load range. The design and manu-
supports involve single helical springs incorporatcd facture is usually sufficiently refined so that reliable
into simple suspcnded (hanger), or resting (usually load measurement indication can be incorporated.
sliding type) supports, although in multiple arrange- They should also be provided with means for ad-
ment springs are paralleled to increase load capacity justment of position to avoid use of their movement
or arranged in series to incrcase the total travel for capacity for this purpose. Such adjustment of posi-
a given load variation. Structural members are tion is not only necessary at initial installation, but
occasionally substituted for springs on large lines also with any subsequent permanent change in the
with limited movement and usually consist of flat line contour.
plates, bars, or rods, as cantilevers. Counterweights are capable of variation over a
\\There uniform support reaction must be main- wide range of mechanical advantage at the cxpense
tained over a movement range beyond the load in- of greater movement of the weight and are usually
crease limit which can be economically maintained custom designed for specific installations, since their
with resilient design, eonstant effort supports must use is occasional and largely confined to loads or
242 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
movements beyond the range of compensating spring
devices. They are advantageou;; in that the load
is closely controlled and is quitc indcpcndent of
movement, although they are subject to friction
(which, however, can be held low by suitable design
and adequatc lubrication).
Compensating spring devices and countcrweights
are usually of thc suspcnded (hanger) arrangcment,
but are occasionally furnished to a resting arrange-
ment due to clearance requirements, and as such in-
volve greater complexity and proportionate expense.
Braces. Having provided for desirable restraint
of thermal expansion and for adequate support of
gravitational effects, the next step is to assure suit-
able bracing for other loading which may be antici-
pated. Some sources of such other loading include:
wind on exposed lines; flow or mechanical vibrations
transmitted from pumps, compressors, turbines, or
other process equipment; earthquake; water ham-
mer; impact due to sudden establishment of flow
(as on relief valves), gunfire, or vehicle movements;
vibration and impact due to high-velocity release
of compressible flow at reducing valves or to atmos-
phere; and surging of compressible gas or two-phase
(gas plus solid or liquid in suspension) flow.
Protection of a piping system against such influ-
ences ean be accomplished by:
1. rvIinimizing the influence at its source, i.e. snub-
bers, pulsation bottles, elimination of unbalance, etc.
2. Controlling the resulting dcflection of the line
by limit devices or vari"ble restraint.
3. Controlling the resulting movement of the linc
by damping, i.e. energy dissipation.
4. Opposing deflcction or rotation by rigid at-
tachments.
5. Modifying the natural frequency of the line or
supporting structures.
When a disturbing influence can be eliminated or
minimized at its source within economic means, such
an approach is desirable since it avoids less positive
correction measures with possible trial and error for
final solution, as discussed in detail in Chapter 9 in
connection with vibrations. The same is true of
other than vibration disturbances, for example, if a
line is subject to impact through its attachment to
a structure which supports equipment and whose
function involves suddcnly applied loading, it may
be desirable to provide independent support.
Control of disturbing influences within a piping
system is often entirely or substantially accomplished
by the thermal expansion restraints and gravita-
tional supports in combination with the inherent
stiffness of the line. Restraints control pipe move-
ment at their location; in combination with supports
they serve to modify the natural frequency of indi-
vidual spans. Sliding supports, in addition, often
contribute damping through friction at contact sur-
faces. Where additional provision is necessary to
protect the line, braces are provided which further
alter the natural frequency by limiting or preventing
spccific movement, or by providing damping.
Deflections and rotations can be prevented by
stops and guides respectively or they can be con-
trolled to a desircd range by limit stops. Stops or
guides can be used to change the natural frequency
of individual spans, and are preferred where they
do not create excessive restraint. :Moderate re-
straint (and a minor degree of damping) can be
obtained through the usc of spring stops, usually in
opposed pairs, and is of some value in limiting de-
flection for loads of short duration such as wind
pulses or earthquake.
Appreciable damping is secured from hydraulic
shock absorbers, which are available at an attrac-
tive price in the standard sizes used for trucks,
automobiles, and railway cars. Larger size.s are
usually designed around standard sizes of hydraulic
cylinders. Braces employing dry friction damping
are usually limited in size and are apt to be unpre-
dictable in operation.
Restraints, Supports and Braces for Non-Stiff
Piping Systems. Additional supporting system
problcms are introduced by non-stiff piping design
incorporating the various kinds of expansion joints;
in what follows, these are discussed for each of the
three systems of reduced rigidity described in
Chapter 7.
Semi-rigid systems with hinged expansion joints
are closely related to stiff design in supporting sys-
tem requirements. It is sometimes necessary to
minimize weight effects on the hinges; this usually
requires counterweights or spring hangers. With
two joints and intervening pipe runs free of bending,
this problem is present in grcater degree. Sometimes
restraints are required to minimize torsion on the
hinges.
In non-rigid piping systems all members are free
of thermal bending momcnt, and the strength of
the assembled system is largely dcpendent on the
strength of the hinges at the joints. Rcstraint is
necessary to control the position and limit the ex-
pansion movement at the individual hinged joints;
it is provided by tie rods built into the joints and,
further, by external stops. For large-diameter or
otherwise heavy runs, it may be advisable to relieve
the hinges of the principal weight effects; this can
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM
be accomplished by various support details, but
usually eonstant-effort hangers ar~ required because
of the large movements involved. Non-rigid piping
is highly dependent on braeing for proteetion against
effects such as those of wind vibration. Hinges are
usually not eapable of assuming lateral loading and
if there is out-of-plane expansion, they also should
be protectcd against torsion. Bracing cmploying
pin- or ball-joint solid struts is favorcd wherc no
interference with the system movement is created;
otherwise, hydraulic snubbers are widely used for
control of vibration and also to minimize deflections
on transient loading.
Free movement piping systems, with thcir lack of
rigidity and their inability to transmit weight or
longitudinal pressure loading, are completely de-
pendent on external means for adequate and safe
operation. Restraints are necessary to maintain
position and alignment at slip joints, to assure free
movements (prevent jamming), and to maintain the
relative position of individual runs, thus limiting
the required range of movement for slip and bellows
expansion joints. A primary function is to resist
unbalanced pressure loads without excessive deflec-
tion, which is accomplished with minimum com-
plexity and cost where the location of the necessary
anehors is carefully associated with the necessary
contour of the line and proximity to grade or sub-
stantial structures capable of assuming the reaction.
Support selection and functioning is less critical
since lateral movement is absent or minimized; how-
ever, free movement piping systems require morc
accurate support installation than other systems in
order to avoid jamming in slip types and fouling of
internal sleeves or limit rods on bellows types.
Rigid supports usually suffice for horizontal runs
while vertical runs are generally self supporting from
the terminal or other point of anchorage. It is gen-
erally not necessary to provide a support adjacent
to an anchored horizontal slip joint, and details of
the nearest supports on the slip pipe should provide
for accurate adjustment during installation so that
the support will not produce any moment on the
stuffing box. Support of the adjaeent pipe is needed
for most types of bellaws joints.
Braces are a lesser factor since essentially each
run is an entity and the guides or stops necessary for
alignment usually suffice for other than unusual
transient effects.
8.4 Fixtures
Fixtures refer to that part of a pipe support as-
sembly which can perform the dual functions of
243
transmitting the reactions from pipe to structure
and of controlling the movements of a piping system.
This is in eontrast to the pipe attachment by which
the fixture is connected to the pressure wall, and
the structure which receives the loading from the
fixture; these latter parts are covered in Sections 8.5
and 8.6 respectively. Even though this division is
often artificial since two or all of these parts are
sometimes consolidated as a single unit, it is useful
in emphasizing the three basic functions to be per-
formed. It also introduces a convenient separation
for preparation of engineering detail and for order-
ing. The integral attachment, in partieular, is nec-
essarily a part of the piping on alloy or critical
construction and is morc advantageously engineered
by the pressure part designer. The structure sim-
ilarly is usually considered a part of the structural
design and fabrieation. The fixture is a specialty
which is selected and ordered when the details of
the pipe support assembly are established. This
functional division encourages the interchangeable
use of attachments with various fixtures and simi-
larly with various structures so that standardization
is made practicable.
In the preceding section, selection of the support
assembly details has been presented as related to
individual effeets on the piping system, namely, re-
straint, support, or brace. Fixtures, in themselves,
can be classed as rigid, resilient, constant effort, and
damping, each of whieh is applicable in some degree
to the three basic functional objectives (restraining,
supporting, or bracing). It should be emphasized
that while fixtures are in themselves secondaryele-
ments (i.e., not part of the pressure container), their
maloperation or failure can in many cases endanger
or actually rupture the pressure piping by either
the direet loss of support or the accompanying
shock.
It is obvious that the general design and arrange-
ment of fixtures in combination with attachments
and structures are subject to almost unlimited vari-
ation, so that no attempt will be made here to present
standardized designs with dimensional data or stress
and deflection calculations. The elements are for
the most part not complex, so that routine analysis
is entirely adequate; dimensions are susceptible to
service requirements and individual preferences, and
can easily be worked up for items whieh are fre-
quently used; also, many fixtures are readily avail-
able as pre-engineered subassemblies. The presenta-
tion in this section is therefore directed at general
background and suggestions to assist with the de-
sign (and to improve application) of fixtures for use
244 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
FIG. 8.9 A device which serves as a guide against
axial rotation and as n two-axis double-acting stop
against lateral translation.
as restraints, supports, and braces, and will follow
the descriptive classifications of rigid, resilient, con-
stant effort, and damping, in the order named.
Rigid Fixtures. A rigid fixture is one whieh
allows insignificant defleetion along its prineipal axis
and may otherwise limit deflection along other axes
or rotation along any axis. Rigid-fixture action may
be provided by any type of support assembly-viz.,
anchor, guide, or st.op-and will be discussed in that
order.
Sinee an andwr must provide essentially complete
fixation (i.e., full eonstraint against three deflections
and three rotations), the fixture part of the assembly
must neeessarily be integrated with the attaehment
and sometimes also functions as the structure, the
attachment being usually the critical part. For
this reason, anchors have been treated largcly in
,he succeeding section on pipc attachments with
various important types illustrated in Figs. 8.18k,
?n, and p. It is desirable to emphasize that since
anchors carry substantial loading, and must oftcn
develop the full strength of the attached pipe, and
further, may involve temperature considerations in
considerable degree, their design must not only pro-
vide adequate statie and fatigue strength, but also
sufficient rigidity together with a satisfactory load
distribution and avoidance of unnecessary stress
concentration attendant to contour and thermal
gradients. Favorable geometry cannot be over-
emphasized, and is best provided by surfaces of
revolution, usually at reduced cost. Dependence
on friction straps or bolted joints in locations af-
fected by temperature change is best avoided, with
preference to integral or welded construction. The
foregoing relates to conventional anchor assemblies;
complete restraint against reversible loading can
also be attained by a minimum of twelve tensile tie
rods in opposed pairs, or by six struts capable of
tensile and compressive loading so disposed along
and collaborating with both the intervening pipe
and a suitable external structure to reduce all move-
ments to negligible values. Similar results can be
achieved by combined gnides and stops which fnne-
tion along all three axcs. In these designs of an-
chors the fixtures can be identified as separate
members.
A guide, from the definition of Section 8.1, restricts
rotation (i.e. introdnces a moment reaction). Where
the degree of restraint is snch that rotation is to-
tally prevented, the gnide may be properly de-
scribed as a rigid fixture. It will be noted that the
guide fixture may be lugs or circular sleeves if no
pipe attachment is used and the fixture bears di-
rectly on the pipe wall or on '! eoncentric cylinder
attached to the pipe in the manner of a skirt to re-
move the reaction of the guide from direct influence
on the pipe wall. If pipe attachments are providcd
in the form of lugs, trunnions, rings, ears, etc., the
guide fixtures may again be lugs, rings, etc., or tie
rods, or struts. Usually there will be a translatory
movement of the pipe line through guides. Hencc,
with thc close clearances required for doublc-acting
constraint, frictional resistance and the need for
antifriction or lubrication contact surfaces is ac-
cct:ttuated; otherwise minimum area of contact is
advisable, preferably line eontact. Tie rods or
struts must be of sufficient length to minimize lat-
eral motion (as covered in greater detail in See-
tion 8.3). The most widely used gnides are those
which resist axial rotation thus taking out torsional
moment. A practical and serviceable detail for this
purpose is shown in Fig. 8.9. It should be noted,
however, that in addition to its function as a guide,
this device restrains lateral translatory movements,
thus also performing as a two-axis double-acting sfop.
A stop, as defined in Section 8.1, limits translatory
movement, total stops entirely preventing specific
deflections, thus fitting the description of a rigid
fixture. Various types of stop fixtures are tie rods
or cables, jointed struts or links, and sliding can·
tact brackets in contact with shoes, plates, trunnions,
or lugs on a pipe wall. Tie rods and struts, which
may be favored as stops due to their freedom from
frictional effects and greater reliability, deserve
special comment. Tie rods or cables offer many
additional advantages such: as low cost, ease of
installation and adjustment, versatility and mini-
mum space requirements insofar as the fixture
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM
proper is conccrned. These advantages are lost
with struts, which must usually be jointed or
hinged to take care of lateral deflections. Joints of
struts are prcferably spherical contact surfaces
which may be incorporated between bolted or
threaded unions as illustrated in Fig. 8.10, thus
permitting universal angular motion in degree
dictated by the contact radius, with essentially no
clearance except for the lubrication film. Pin joints
restrict motion to one plane, and involve some
clearance for satisfactory operation and lubrication.
On the average they are somewhat less expensive
but the saving may be offset by the necessity for
more accurate installation and by their lesser
versatility.
For assurance of unrestrained motion in the
desired directions, the contact surface of sliding
devices must be initially parallel and, during
operation, free of local thermal effects or lack of
rigidity in the pipe wall or structure which will
permit distortion. In addition to structural rein-
forcement, concentrated wear of the pressure pipe
surface, suehas at a location of line contact, should
be avoided on large or otherwise critical lines by
protective wear plates. Temperature effects require
stable attaehments such as trunnions with adequate
length or other p,ovision for heat dissipation.
Resilient Fixtures. Resilient fixtures find
widest use as supports and occasional use as braces,
but they are rarely useful as restraints. They can be
incorporated in any manner of arrangement, sus-
pended or resting, of single or dual action along one
or more axes. Resilience is almost universally
obtained through the use of helical springs, although
plates or other sufficiently flexible structural mem-
bers can be used for special designs where loads are
high and movement requirements low. Sprinll;s are
Ground spherical
surfaeo
Annular 5fXlco packed
with graphite lubricant
,
-..,
,I
~>l--{'l-+- -I-'f-r-j--.+----,-
, more practicable to use constant support devices.
-"
Dotoib of Ball Joint
U~ on Jointed SfTvtI
FIG. 8.10 Details of ball joint used on jointed struts.
245
~ lb
;::::1
IUl /)
1'Gi1
r
7)
l~
i~ ~
FIG. 8.11 Typical variable-load spring fixture.
usually single coil units although heavy loads may
necessitate the usc of multiple springs because of
availability and manufacturing limitations.
The type of variable-load spring-support mech-
anism, which has been widely accepted and is now
available as a standard design, is shown in Fig. 8.11.
It consists of a coil spring loaded in compression,
enclosed with a cylindrical cover, and provided with
a load and deflection indicator. Supporting devices
of this type are commercially available.
It is not considered necessary to cover herein the
subject of spring design. However, it is desirable to
discuss the application of a spring of given character-
istics to the support of piping. The principal
consideration is the variation in supporting effort
for a given amount of displacement. This load
variability may be defined as the absolute value of:
Operating load - Shutdown load
Operating load
Values of variability customarily used range from
25% to 50%. The higher the variability, the more
nearly the spring approaches a solid support,
consequcntly the more restraint it applies to the
thermal expansion of the piping. On the other hand,
the smaller the variability, the bulkier the spring
becomes for given load and travel requirements. If a
variability of less than 25% is required, it is apt to be
The load indicator when observed successively at
ambient and operating conditions serves to verify the
movement and load ranges. For most designs the
load can be adjusted in operation, which is a desir-
able feature; the overall support design should also
provide means for an adequate range of position
adjustment so that the proper pipe elevation can be
maintained independently of the load adjustment.
246 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Cogo which procompro,""
lho spring and odablishol
il1 maximum extension Conneding rod

Typltol Sway Broce Mechanism

limil rods which precompron Ihlll

spring Gnd olloblilh ill maximum
oldoluion

Another Momon!,m Using Two Springs

Sway brace employing

prccomprened and
limited oelion spring
ROlhtonco Plain lprill9
OHerod without limited odion

by S,do, l ~"----_:_:==,,_-
+ Ocfllldion
Connecting rod il ulually ~
adi~llld so thai operating
pOlition is 01 this point Zero
Deflection

FIG. 8.12 Typical sway brace details and load deflection characteristics.

Resilient fixtures are of limited use as restraints
for controlling thermal expansion stress or reactions
but find widespread application as supports. Oc-
casionally they are uscd for bracing when solid ties
or struts cannot be used due to the restraint which
they impose. As braces, load variability character-
istics may advantageously be higher than for
supports. The bracing effect is obtained by the
increase in spring load resulting from deflection,
which it is usually desirable to limit in extent thereby
producing the device generally known commercially
as a sway brace. Such devices may employ either a
single resilient fixture or two opposed to each other as
illustrated in Fig. 8.12 which also shows the advan-
tageous effect of precompression (and limiting of the
spring travel) upon the load-deflection characteristic.
Constant Effort Fixtures. Constant effort
fixtures are of two general types, spring loaded and
weight loaded. While these types arc quite inter-
changeable, advantages of negligible weight, com-
bell crank which is so arranged that the nsmg
characteristic of the load vs. displacement of the
spring is compensated for by a reduced lever arm
due to the changing position of the bell crank. The
basic idea, illustrated in Fig. 8.13, has been widely
exploited; some of the modifications which have been
satisfactorily used are shown in Fig. 8.14. While, as
might be suspected, the load characteristic of this
type hanger is not perfectly flat, a close enough
approximation is usually provided, the normal
Small chong.: in effedive lever arm
o
Spring
-~ Lorge change in elleclive lever Ofm

pactness, lower cost, and availability as a completely

engineered product lie generally on the side of the
spring-loaded types and since their range of capac-
ities is presently so broad, the weight-loaded types Relalively
are rendered unnecessary in all but the most extreme Can~IQnl
load
cases of load or movement.
The spring-loaded constant support fixtures FIG. 8.13 Basic idea of the spring loaded constant
consist of a spring actuated through a lever such as a support mechanism.
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM 247

variation being only on the order of one per cent. - ----".:;0-----""-.,

In some designs, auxiliary (or booster) springs are
added to improve the charactcris1<ic. In general this ~~~=~ JT~~:~ :
type of device is quite dependable, although all the 3J H~~J!' I

designs available are not as readily adjusted as

might be desired.
Constant load support may be obtained simply by
the use of a counterbalancing weight. Since it is
seldom practical to use a weight equal to that of the
pipe, it is customary to use a mechanism which will
multiply as well as invert the weight force. TwC'
different designs have been considered practical:
the lever type and the cable type. As noted before,
counterweights are used primarily for heavy load or
large travel applications. The support of the extra
weight of the counterweight itself may be a sub-
stantial item, although somewhat reduced on the FIG. 8.14 Various type:; of const-ant tlUpport hangl!fli.
cable and sheave type by the elimination of the
beam. The cable type also permits greater freedom save to reiterate the need for ample and easily made
in the location of the weights; however, slightly adjustment, also for a generom; provision for ex-
greater maintenance is involved. Typical details of cess movement.
both types of counterweights are shown in Fig. 8.15. Damping Fixtures. Damping of vibration:-)
The design of either device involves standard involves the dissipation of energy, which is accom-
structural practice and needs no elaboration here plished in substantial degree only by friction or

Mechanical advantage
obtained by lever ..
\ .~-;~•.::~.;..~;

i.1. Cable
:/

y
9 Trovel 01
weight

Piptl attachment
V

lever Beam Type

-------'\--------~
Coble :

Ti
,,
T

,,

'_:::.::
-I \ M"h"kol od,o",o,.
, / ob10;ood by
-~

t·~,
---~-
Trovolof
(il:F:ii::t{iI weight

Coble 0,,1i Sheave Type I'7l')'7.77777r

FIG. 8.15 Typical counterweights.

L
218 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Action line of
rC1training elfect
Pipo atlachmenl
link
_.-+ .
link end
level of oil in re~rvcHr_=~ .J
Connecting
11ruclurc - ----- -----
FIG. 8.16 Commercial railroad car type shock absorber
utilized as a damping device.
hydraulic snubbing. Single or opposed springs do
not perform this function hut simply store up an~
rct~lrn energy under varying load with only a
trifling amount dissipated in the process.
While dry friction absorbers have not proven
sufficiently reliable for untended simple installations,
hydraulic units such as those widely used on trucks,
railway cars, and automobiles give satisfactory
service with only occasional maintenance and are
available as standard mass produced items. A
typical installation is shown in Fig. 8.16. Larger
size units, if required, may be assembled from
standard all-purpose hydraulic cylinders and con-
ventional hydraulic valves and fittings. Hydraulic
shock absorbers may operate with any fluid; however,
most of such cquipment involves hydraulic oil with
a relatively constant viscosity over the working
range of temperatures.
8.5 I)ipc Attuchnlcnts
The attachment componcnt of a support or re-
straint assemhly usually introduces stress into the
pipc wall as a result of the structural loading which it
transmits, and also due to the localized heat loss and
the thermal gradient which it causes. Inadequate or
faulty dcsign or fahrication can rcsult in failurc of
the pressure wall with consequent energy release and
tire hazards, particularly on heavy wall thickncss,
air hardening analysis, or otherwise sensitive ma~
tcrials. In the design of pipe attachmcnts it is
essential to apprcciate thc significance of tcmper-
ature gradients and their potential for causing
distortion and cracking, particularly of blind root
welds and of hcat-affccted zones adjacent to welds
on the pipe or attachment. Without restraint,
temperature stress is not present; for example, a flat
rectangular plate heatcd all along onc cdge to pro-
dncc a linear gradient across its full width will
become curved in its plane so that the length of each
element parallel to the hcated cdge is proportional
to its temperature; similarly an opcn-end cylindcr
suhjected to uniform hcat input around thc cir-
cnmferencc at one end to produce a linear gradient
along its full length will become a cone with the
diameter of successive circumferential elements again
proportional to their individual tcmperaturc. Whcn
heat input ccases, the plate and cylinder rcturn to
their original dimensions and shape. Any inter-
ruption in the uniformity of the gradient, however,
whether due to heat input, heat loss, thermal con-
duct·ivity, or discontinuity (i.e. any influence which
opposes free expansion) results in stress whose
magnitude is a function of the character of thc
gradient intcrruption and the individual stiffnesses
of the adjoining sections. With a uniform gradient
the resulting stress is distributcd along its length to
the same pattern; with a sharp change in gradient,
highly localized stresses arise in sufficient magnitude
to maintain continuity of the structure. From the
foregoing it is evident that at clcvatcd tcmperature,
possible distortion and fatiguc failure at pipc attach-
ments is related to the magnitude of thcrmal stress
alld that this should he cOlltrolled insofar as practi-
cahle by favorablc COlltOur (surface of revolution
rather than flat surface), and minimum heat flow
and attendant gradient.
In providing pipe attachments which have no
significant adverse cffect Oil the strength of thc
pressurc wall, it is essential to control carcfully thc
magllitude and distribution of the structural bcnding
strcss introduced into the pipe wall by thc attach-
ment in additioll to stresses due. to the previously
dcscribcd thcrmal gradient influences. When such
local stresscs are evaluated they should be treatcd in
thc catcgory of sccondary or localizcd stresscs. As
discusscd in Chaptcr 2, the allowable limit for such
stresses when due to sustained loadings eaI1I1ot
reasonably be set at the limit for sustained primary
stresses Sh; instead it is recommended that a limit
of 2Sh be used for desigll purposcs. This limit has
long been used hy Thc M. W. Kellogg Company,
and is based on the secondary stress levcls inhcrcntly,
though not exprcssly, emhodied in thc Prcssure
Vcssel Code rulcs. Wherc the local strcsscs include
the cffect of thcrmal rcactions the allowablc stress
rangc used should be the same as for thc dcsign of
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM 249
Sheor lugs
the plpmg for such effects. Local strcsses for .....elded 10 pip.
trunnion type attachmcnts can bc approximated by
the approach outlined in Chapter 3, Section 3.14
for nozzle loadings on cylindrical shells. Lug attach-
ments can be similarly approximated by assuming
an appropriate equivalent circular loading.
Aside from favorable stress distribution, pipe
attachment design may involve emphasis on mini-
mum heat loss, protection of insulation, heat dissi-
pation to prevcnt cxeessive local temperature of
connecting steel or concrete members, adaptability
for connection to full fireproofed membcrs, suit-
ability for use on alloy or otherwise sensitive ma-
terials, and satisfactory service at high or sub-
zero temperatures.
Piping systems are inherently susceptible to
position changes and distortion so that attach-
ments should provide some margin of clearance and Crodlo Of Saddl.
strength for lateral loading components in excess of
normal design range. Fr~ction loading magnitude is
difficult to predict accurately; for single supports
(steel on steel, unlubricated) a friction factor of
from 0.20 to 0.50 is used, as influenced by the design
details and service, while for a line on a number of
successive identical supports this factor is usually
reduced 50% except for end supports. The frictional
effect of a bank of lines is usually less than that of a
single line due to the fact that it is unlikely that all
lines in the bank will move at one time. Hence, a
factor of 0.10 to 0.15 is often used for the lateral FIG. 8.17 Typical non-integral attachments.
shear on racks.
Pipe attachments fall into two basic classifications: Cradles or saddles are often used for supportti_ the
(1) non-integral and (B) integral with the pipe wall. pipe simply resting in place. Such attachments can
Non-integral attachments include the type of be made double acting by the use of tie rods en-
details by which the reaction between a pipe and circling the pipe; if a ring or band attachment
support structure is distributed by contact. Typical extends around the entire circumference, wedge~
details of such attachments, including clamps, are sometimes used.
slings, cradles or saddles, and clevises, are shown in Clamps, slings, and cleviscs are widely used and
Fig. 8.17. For heavy loads these are sometimes for moderate service appear as standard hardware
used in mnltiple. Only the clamp is suitable for in many shapes and of both cast and wrought
0
vertical lines; even so, it is usually necessary to matcrials. With reasonable width and the 180 or
have wclds or projections on the pipe or to locate the greater contact inherent in their design, bending
clamp below fittings or flanges to prevent slippage. stress in the pipe is minimizcd. Clamps for sub-
For usc as a stop, the clamp may assume the form stantial load and saddles or bases are standardized
of a sectional ring of angle iron or othcr shape. The only to the extent of their usage by individual
conventional clamp made of flat bar with appreei- fabricators and are usually manufactured as re-
able gap is really a close-fitting two-pieee sling and quired. Non-integral attachments offer advantag;e~
is incapable of developing signifieant contact in that their procurement and fabrication call be
pressure, since the ears are easily deformed under entirely independent of the piping, and ill that
light bolt takeup. The friction effect and attendant freedom in their location simplifies piping details,
load capacity can be cnhanccd by more rigid design, fabrication, and erection, thus reducing east.
by thc use of heavicr bar stock, or by reinforcing Further, on alloy piping the absence of welding
gussets at the ears. eliminates the need for alloy attachments and alloy
250 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
welds with attendant heat treatment requirements,
thereby aecelerating erection. Their drawback is
t,hat in applications involving the support of vertical
pipes, and for restraints or braces, they cannot
maintain effectiveness at elevated temperature since
the intial eompression is rapidly relaxed.
Integral pipe attaehments must be used for
services involving high temperature or relatively
severe load, and further, on restraints or braces
where two-direction action is desirable in a single
member. The simplest means for integration is
the use of spot or fillet welds at the edge of elamps
or saddles. However, such welds are subject. to
failure unless the parts are of similar expansion
characteristies, tightly fitted and attached with
welds of adequate proportions. More effective
design requires that the struetural and pressure
parts be unified for favorable load distribution and
adequate heat flow so that welds will not be subjeet
t.o a concentration of structural or thermal stress.
Six basie types of integral attaehments are in com-
mon use: ears, shoes, lugs, cylindrical attachments
if1fj
-
~"
." I
I
Cylindrk(lllug
o p
Skirts
FJO. 8.18
(ineluding stools and trunnions), rings, and skirts.
Illustrative examples of these appear in Fig. 8.18.
In addition the various non-integral attaehments
previously described are sometimes made integral
by welding.
The upper seven illustrations in Fig. 8.18 show
representative applications of ears to vertical and
horizontal runs. Ears which are normal to the pipe
surface are apt to introduce a fair amount of bending
in the pipe wall, although when they are loeated on
the vertical axis of an elbow a reasonable component
of the load is tangential to the elbow surface. On a
horizontal run the tangential ears, 8. 18g, are favored
to minimize bending, although for heavy loads on
large lines a welded-on sling attaehment may be
preferred in order to minimize the structural
importance of the attaehment welds. Obviously,
ears can be used in many other variations. When
used tangentially on vertical pipe, ears resemble a
seetion of a cylindrieal skirt with the intersection
angle and cireumferential spread selected to control
bending effects as in 8.18c. In general, distortion
m
$1001
"
Trurlrlion
q
Ring
Typicnl int~gral atL'lchmcnts.
1
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING TIlE PIPING SYSTEM
and weld failure is much less likely for ears in a
tangential location than for radial ears; and further-
more, assessment of their effect oitthe pressure shell
is also relatively simple. Ears are usually limited to
unidirectional loading, although they can be designed
for lateral loading in their plane. Perpendicular or
out-of-plane loading in any magnitude is best
avoided.
A shoe or lug transmits load through one or more
web plates which often are welded intermittently or
at only the ends, a practice not always to be desired
since it accentuates the temperature difference
between the lug and shell. Unless heavily insulated,
lugs composed of flat sections are subject to distor-
tion under high-temperature service and should be
avoided. Adopting a surface of revolution contour
by making the attachment of a length of pipe serves
to ameleriorate somewhat the serious intersection
problem created by the temperature gradient.
Hence, cylindrical lugs and trunnions are frequently
used in high-temperature service.
Base, stool, and a number of other terms are
applied to pipe attachments which serve directly
as a resting support or rigid anchor of piping to a
structure; a familiar example, the standard base ell,
is illustrated in Fig. 8.8.
Rings, or combinations of rings integral with the
pipe and other type attachments, are used on long
pipe spans where the support reactions are high;
also for attachments on lines subject to collapsing
pressure, and in general on braces or restr.aints for
extreme loading or concentrated effects since they
afford a maximum opportunity for favorable load
distribution.
Skirts offer the best approach for the introduction
of severe axial loading into a pipe, since distribution
around the entire circumference is attained, pro-
vided the skirt is of sufficient length. Bending is
minimized where the skirt angle is kept to a mini-
mum. For acute conditions, the skirt can be of two
courses, the first a cylinder attached to the pipe and
the second a cone for the necessary spread. The
attachment welds must receive special consideration
if thermal gradients of considerable magnitude arc
unavoidable. Where fillet weld sizes become ex-
cessive the top edge of the skirt is often cut to a
serration pattern to increase the weld length; it is
advisable to avoid sharp corners since they promote
::itress concentration and weld cracks; a wave contour
offers the ultimate advantage in this direction;
Fig. 8.180 shows this detail. Excessive fillet weld
sizes can also be avoided and stress flow lines im-
proved. For extreme thermal gradient effects,
251
vertical slots in the skirt at the top have been ad-
vantageous in the case of large pressure vessels and
can be applied to piping as well; the slots should not
interrupt the weld, to avoid stress intensification.
Favorable contour of pipe attachments to mini-
mize the level of stress and to avoid unnecessary
stress concentration is essential in proportion to the
service and loads involved; however, in many cases
conventional structural details are more costly than
equivalent pressure equipment details which use
pipe or other surfaces of revolution. An anchor
lug of pipe or a skirt anchor may seem unorthodox
from the structural engineer's viewpoint; however,
when dealing with radically reduced strength and
severe temperature gradients, loads must be intro-
duced into pressure shells in such a manner as to
avoid unnecessary intersection stresses if the attach-
ment welds and shell are to remain intact.
It must be remembered that fatigue plays an
important role in piping system design and is of
equal importance on attachments. In general,
integral pipe attachments should be subject to the
same requirements as to materials, design (in particu-
lar allowable stress), fabrication, and inspection as
the pressure pipe to which they are attached.
Every advantage should be taken in design detail
and the generous use of insulation to minimize heat
loss where excessive temperature gradients would be
harmful; in general this applies to all attachments on
lines in high-temperature service. Various ex-
pedients are resorted to in extreme designs for
minimizing heat out-flow. Internal insulation in
skirts, etc. is quite generally desirable; conductive
material such as steel chips is sometimes substituted
for the insulation near the pipe shell to bypass part
of the heat flow around the intersection. Increased
metal thickness locally at the intersection reduces
the unit heat flow in this area and increases the
attachment strength.
8.6 Structures and Structural Connections
The load from pipe supports, restraints, and
braces may be transmitted to other piping, to
pressure vessels, to buildings (roof, wall, or frame),
to a platform or other access framework, to principal
or secondary equipment support structures or
foundations, or to structures provided specifically
for this function. The structure generally serves to
transmit the piping load directly or through other
structures to a foundation and thence into the soil,
although occasionally a reaction system may be
balanced within either a single structure or a combi-
nation of structures.
252 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
their influence will be minimized by supports and
favorably placed restraints and braces which do not
significantly affect the overall stiffness. Where
restraints are included in the analysis, the usual
assumption is infinite stiffness in the direction of
their intended reaction. The degree of deflection
that can be tolerated is reliably established only by
complete analysis; however, reasoning and rough
approximations afford sufficient guidance for average
design. Excessive deflection of a support may
substantially increase the strain range of the piping.
Of importance is the strain range to which the
piping is subjected over its complete cycle of opera-
tion and, in particular, the avoidance of repetitive
yielding of the pipe. Yielding attendant to initial
or occasional adjustment of supports is usually of
insufficient frequency to affect fatigue life.
It is common practice to assume that support
deflection is not significant so long as the initial and
SCIOOndgry member which service weight distribution attained does not result
Is (frong enough 001
not wffidently sliff
in sagging, restrict expansion movement, or give
relotiyo kJ the pipo other evidence of distress. As to restraints and
to lake Cloy oppr.aablo
proportion of the load bracing, the degree of deflection which can be tolcr-
ated can usually be approximated by simple beam
calculations for single-plane or other not too complex
FIG. 8.19 Showing jointed strut attached to an piping systems; although whenever warranted, the
inadequate structure. method of Chapter 5 can be used. For existing
systems the deflection under a known load can be
The ability of a strueture to eombine with a pipe measured at critical locations and compared with
attachment and fixture to provide an adequate pipe strain gage measurements. If the load can be
support assembly depends upon its capacity to roughly estimated, such as wind load at a known
carry the imposed load without overstress and,. velocity, the load in the restraining member can be
most important, without excessive deflection under that measured with a dynamometer, strain gage, or
load. If exeessive deflection is required to develop a hydraulic jack; or the relative deflection of the line
reaction equal to the loading, the piping system must can be observed with and without tllc restraint in
either move this amount by sagging or other move- place, the differcnce indicating the restraint effective-
ment, or, if sufficicntly stiff, transfer part or all of ness. Similarly the resistance offered by individual
the load to adjacent restraints, supports, and braces, supports or braces to free expansion can be studied
or to thc tcrminals of the line. A typical example by freeing one location at a time and comparing
is shown in Fig. 8.19, wherein a large pipc is to be the relative deflection.
braeed laterally against wind load by a jointed strut The degree of deflection which can be tolerated is
which, in turn, is attached to a structural member. also related to the effectiveness of the supports,
The deflection of the structure (under the total wind restraints} and braces at the service temperature
load transmitted by the jointed stl'llt A) is large where content weight, thermal expansion movement
enough to permit essentially the same deflection of of the line, and extension of the support members all
the pipe at point B as that which would occur with- affect the distribution of load and magnitude of
out this restraint. Hence, the support is quite reactions. At the same time the structural strength
ineffective, even though alone it may be capable of the piping material is radically reduced fol'
after sufficient deflection of taking the required elevated temperature service. Transient loads such
load without overstress. as wind, earthquake, etc., are of secondary impor-
In the interest of engineering economics, the usual tance as compared with more frequent or sustained
flexibility analysis of piping systems neglects weight, loading conditions.
wind, and transient effects, on the assumption that In the interest of economics} existing structures are
 SlJl'PORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM 253

used wherever m·ailable and suitable. An inter-

mediate structural connection may be involved or the
,upport fixture may be direetly -attached. In its
,implest form, the structural connection may bc a
,imple plate or angle clip. Where the pipe is locatcd
at an appreciable distance from the support structure,
the connection may assume sizeable proportions. In
general, such auxiliary structures are of conventional
design.
The usc of pressure equipment as support struc- (0)

tun'-.s for connected piping is often advantageous in

minimizing under thermal change the relative
movement of the :mpport versus the piping, also in
avoiding differential movement of the support
structure and pipe under vibration, wind, and
similar effects. \\Then structural connections are
located on vessels or other equipment where di-
mensional change due to expansion may occur, they
must be designed to permit that expansion, avoid-
ing appreciable restraint and thc stresses attendant
thereto. To accomplish this, the three following
alternatives may be applied, singly or in combination:
1. Maintain essentially the same temperature in
the attachment as in the shell (a practicable solution
only when the bracket connects to a single vessel clip).
2. Allow flexing of bracket members, of the shell,
or of both within their stress capacity.
3. Provide articulation by the use of jointed or
sliding members.
It is important also that the local stresses in the
shell be investigated in order to design shell attach-
ments properly.
To illustrate the application of these principles, a
number of typical bracket details are shown in Fig.
S.20. They represent designs which have been success-
fully employed by The M. W. Kellogg Company for
a number of years in the support of piping from
vessels. Figure 8.20a illustrates the first alternative,
wherein a member is cantilevered out from a single
vessel clip of sufficient length to distribute the load-
ing on the shell. Satisfactory eontrol of the tempera-
ture gradient is obtained, where necessary, by cover-
ing the point of attachment to the vessel with
insulation. Heavier loads require a knee brace which,
when fixed to the shell, becomes an example of the
second alternative, resulting in the bracket of Fig.
S.20b. It is only suitable for moderate temperatures
(say not exceeding 650 F) because of the rigid
attachment and limited flexibility of the members.
For higher temperatures a detail such as that of Fig.
S.20e is employed. This represents a typical applica-
tion of the third alternative, with only one member
rigidly affixed to the shell while the other simply
Moy be bolted 10 ollow
slighl omounl of
ortit\llolion
(h)
Not welded. bearing
«Jnlod of angle
on pad only
FIG. 8.20 Typical brackets serving as connecting structure~
for the support of piping from a vessel.
bears on a shell reinforcing pad, sliding as required
to accommodate the expansion.
The foregoing brad<ets are suited for supports
involving little transverse load (e.g. for attachment
of a rod hanger). For higher transverse loads similar
brackets are used but with greater breadth thus
making it necessary to provide for the circumferential
as well as for the longitudinal differential expansion
of the vessel.
Flat roof buildings permit ready support of piping
on sleepers; direct support at grade has the same
advantage but offers obstruction to free access.
Trenches avoid this disadvantage but involve sub-
stantial expense plus drainage and corrosion prob-
lems, and may contain hazardous gas pockets for
explosive vapors.
Where other-purpose structures are subjected to
significant piping weight or restraint loads, it is
essential that the situation be anticipated during the
progress of design engineering to avoid late changes
with eonsequent undesirable details. All possible
advantage should be taken of the inherent stiffness
254 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
c Chollnell bock 10 back
,'
,
,
,:
, contour. Elevated individual support strnctures
,,
, 1/-';"
~,
"""
.~
l :r''-NO :~
for SlIIpend«l Pjping
~l
for Resting Piping
FIG. 8.21 Typical single column or pole type
supporting structures.
of a structure to minimize stress and deflection, for
example, important reactions on beams or columns
should be near main member intersections or at
bracing tic-in points; torsional effects should also be
tontrolled by favorable location. Light roof trusses,
frames, or columns may deflect due to local distor-
.tion; their use as support structurcs should be
avoided particularly for lines subject to pressure
pulsations. Compressor suction and discharge lines
cause many problcms in the vibration of buildings
and are best supported or restrained to massive
foundations or heavy concrete structures wherever
available; otherwise, isolated supports to grade are
to be preferrcd.
The interconnecting piping between interrelated
process units and similar piping within an individual
unit between vessels, exchangers, pumps, and other
equipment may be, for economics of supporting
structures as well as improved appearance and access,
often collected into a parallel arrangement or "pipe
alley" as shown in Fig. 8.1, with the support eleva-
tion usually sufficiently above grade to promote
freedom of movement for operation or access, al-
though locations at grade or in trenches may be
preferred to snit special considerations. Utility, yard
transfer, or similar piping more often involve routing
a single line or a few lines which must cross roads at
a sufficient elevation to permit free vehicular pass~ge
or must go through tunnels, culverts, sleeves, or else
be buried under the roadway. For such intercon-
necting piping where elevated location is desired, usc
is made where feasible of existing structnres by
attachment through roofs, and by utilizing building
columns as common members in support frames or
for the attachment of supplementary cantilever
support strnctures. Elsewhere individual support
structures are required.
Individual support structures at grade are almost
invariably of concrete and of simple sleeper or saddle
may be single columns made of pipe (illustrated in
Fig. 8.21) although such are usually limited to fairly
small lines. Support bents usually involve the use of
structural shapes, as shown in Fig. 8.2, or else rein-
forced or unreinforced concrete. When attached, the
material selection is influenced by that of the existing
structure. For independent supports the economie
choice depends on the number of lines and weight to
be carried, height above grade, local material and
labor costs and availability, and requirements rela-
tive to fire resistance.
Steel constrnction is preferred where supports may
require relocation with future plant additions, or
removal for access to facilitate equipment repairs or
replacement; they also have an advantage where
space limitations are imposed or extreme loads
carried. The fireproofing of steel usually makes it
compare unfavorably in cost with concrete, and
further, if the beam is also encased, complicates
individual support bracket details. Unreinforced
concrete is usually limited to low or massive struc-
tures such as saddles, sleepers, etc. Reinforced con-
crete cost, when cast in place, is greatly dependent
on the cost of forms and their placement, and the
equipment available for elevated pouring in limited
quantity. Standardized design with reusable forms
makes the first point much less critical but pouring
costs are less easily pared. Precast reinforced con-
crete promises to offer an economic solution provided
satisfactory details for individual support attach-
ments of variable size can be economically realized.
For concrete snpports or fireproofing the attachment
and fixture must be of such dimension and detail as
to allow for heat dissipation where the line tempera-
ture is above 400 F, to avoid deterioration by
calcining.
The sloping of lines is more advantageously accom-
plished from a standpoint of both economics and
appearance by variation of the pipe support fixtures
rather than the support strnctures.
8.7 Erection and I\fuintcnance of the Support-
ing, Restraining, and Bracing System
It is desirable that pipc support connecting struc-
tures be in position, and support fixtures be available
 SUPPORTING, RESTRAINING, AND BRACING THE PIPING SYSTEM
before the assembly of the piping system is initiated,
in order to minimize the expense of temporary struc-
tures and ties and to simplify rigging. Usually the
need for temporary supports and rigging and staging
details is left entirely to the field engineers sinee in
the design phase the order of equipment arrival and
ereetion proeedure is not adequately established.
With eompetent eonstruetion erews, this is the most
eeonomie way of handling the problem in the majority
of eases, provided only that struetural eonneetions
and fixtures are made available to the field so they
can use them effieiently. There will be many in-
stances, however, where at the eost of only a little
extra effort in planning, provisions can be made for
rigging, support of temporary staging for ereetion
equipment or personnel, or making up bolted joints,
etc.; or indications can be given as to how a support
can be modified or temporarily braced to earry in-
creased loading.
No detrimental effeet results from minor plastie
deformation of the pipe from overload or pulling into
alignment during ereetion, exeept for speeial mate-
rials which are of limited duetility or are sensitive to
work hardening, or where such deformation leaves
residual stresses whieh may aceelerate loealized or
overall corrosive attaek. It is a good rule for the
ereetion forees to qnestion on all alloy materials
whether sueh deformation is undesirable, and for the
designers to make a practice of warning wherever
such eannot be tolerated. In sueh speeial cases final
make-up pieees are required and must be arranged
for in the initial plans; templates must be obtained
when the piping ereetion is eomplete to the point of
the make-up pieee; support during ereetion must be
such that yielding does not occur.
With tbe completion of erection of the piping and
supports, the support fixtures must be adjusted to
avoid sagging and to attain proper distribution of the
load between supports, also to effect the desired
functioning of the restraints and braces. In the
absence of controlled prcspring, the degree of residual
fabrication strain is not known, so that successive or
cumulative yielding may occur as supports, restraints,
or braces are adjusted. It is desirable to align the
pipe first at the more critical locations and then adjust
intermediate stations to suit, repeating this sequence
until the line position remains stable relative to the
supports.
If the fabrication involves stress relief or other
post-heat-treatment of field welds, supports shonld
be adjusted and auxiliary supports provided if
necessary to minimize stresses at the successive
heated areas. For final elosure welds, not only sup-
255
port stress effeets but also those introdueed ill
obtaining alignment by bolting up flanges, and by
weld shrinkage, are present and may induee plastie
deformation at the weld. Where heat treatment is
speeified instead of, or in addition to, stress relief,
the higher temperatures involved further aeeentuate
these effects so that extreme care is desirable and
usually additional supports are necessary. For this
purpose eounterweights or spring supports are pref-
erable; rigid supports ean be used but they must be
sueeessively adjusted to an effeetive position during
heating and eooling and, partieularly, while at
temperature.
Fabrication residual stresses can be effectively re-
duced by thermal unloading at locations away from
girth welds in particular, and in general by avoiding
all locations where plastic deformation is undesirable
due to the reduced duetility attendant to biaxial or
triaxial stress distribution and to abrupt metallurgi-
cal, structure or eontour changes. Such unloading,
whieh is referred to in Chapters 2 and 3, is similar to
and follows the same procedure as loeal stress relief.
It can be employed at pumps, turbines, or other
sensitive equipment, in order to reduce fabrication
stress influence toward misalignment. It is often
applied by the use of gas or oxy-acetylene heating at
relatively rapid heating and cooling rates without
adverse aftereffects where sensitive materials, the
presence of flaws, or corrosive service are not in-
volved. In general, the same precautions as are
exercised in hot forming in the same temperature
range, are sufficient. The use of sueh thermal un-
loading is to be encouraged, since only minor expense
is involved. It is possible to secure an essentially
presprung eondition if the thermal unloading is
applied when the line is first heated as in warming up
before initial serviee, thns preventing yielding and
ereep at undesirable loeations.
Heating for thermal unloading involves the same
precautions and general approaeh as for local stress
relief. Complete eireumferential areas should be
brought to temperature nniformly and without undue
heat concentration by moving torches continuously
and preferably by using two torches at opposite
locations in the circumference. \Vhen available, ring
gas burners, gas burner mumes, or other stress relief
equipment is advantageously employed. Tempera-
tures can usually be sufficiently controlled by heat-
sensitive pellets, paint, or by the use of surface or
optical pyrometers.
The eventual distortion of the pipe line under
service and cyeles of temperature is largely depend-
ent on the dimensional stability achieved by pre-
256 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
spring or by thermal unloading, and by the effective-
ness of the support and restraint adjustment. Cyclic
overstress, with necessary adjustment on each
thermal cyele, and oecasional yielding resulting from
upset conditions, ete., will change the line contour
and modify the reactions at supports and restraints.
Temporary periods of uneven temperature, particu-
larly during heating up, may cause bowing, etc.,
which disappears when equilibrium conditions are
again established.
It is always desirable that the performance of
supports, restraints, and braces be observed during
initial heating up to see if they perform as intended.
Adjustment is needed if unanticipated restraints
oceur which will distort the line or damage the sup-
ports. When equilibrium temperature is reached the
supports should be readjusted to the most favorable
position. The operators and maintenance forces
should appreciate the importance of observing the
action of these devices during each period of major
temperature change as well as during service.
Periodic adjustment of supports may well avoid
fatigue failure, unnecessary distortion, leakage] or
other distress. In Section 2.6 of Chapter 2, the sig-
nificance of calculated deflections is shown to be
as a range of movement and not as an absolute
position. This carries with it the understanding
that supports must be adjusted to suit the immediate
working position of the line.
The foregoing is at least equally applicable to
average minimum engineered pipe systems as to
critical ones. With the former, the deflections, the
support and restraint reactions, and also the stresses
are established for the design of both the piping and
its supporting system by thumb rule or simplified
analyses subject to appreciable error. Observation
of the behavior of the line and supports is necessarily
an essential part of this approach since early correc-
tion of observable inadequacies can avoid later
extensive direct and contingent damages to the
piping and connected equipment.
For critical piping it is desirable to denne clearly
the installation and subsequent adjustment require-
ments, and where at all possible to send a design
engineer thoroughly familiar with the basic and
installation requirements, to assist with and observe
the adequacy of the installation. This is particularly
important on stiff or large high-temperature piping
or where critical materials are involved. In particu-
lar, measures for. prestress should be properly
executed, and the adjustment of special support
and restraint fixtures properly accomplished.
Stops should be adjusted so they will react in the
required degree at service temperature and, if re-
quired, also under ambient conditions. It should
be assured that the stop restricts only movement
normal to the contact surfaces, which should be
smooth and reasonably parallel.
Many supports or restraints involving sliding or
moving parts are dependent on the maintenance care
given to them for dependable operation. The
designer may easily make the mistake of placing
too much reliance on such maintenance; delicate
mechanisms are easily put out of order and should
be avoided. In all cases the designer should give
some thought to the consequences should a particular
device fail to function as planned. If consequences
are serious, a more foolproof detail should be sought.
Frictional resistance, when critical, can be com-
bated by going to antifriction devices such as rollers
or self-lubricating details. Self-adjusting features
can often be worked in. An overall appraisal of
this nature can greatly increase a system's reliability
in service..
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _efl

Vibration: Prevention and Control
T
HE aim of this chapter is to summarize the
essentials of struetural and acoustie vibra-
tions as applied to piping systems, aid the
piping engineer in establishing design practices which
will minimize the occurrence of objectionable or
damaging piping vibration such as may occur under
resonance, and indicate steps to control or eliminate
excessive vibration when it develops in service.
9.1 Introduction
The deleterious effects of vibration are often not
properly assessed. Failures actually caused by vi-
bration are sometimes attributed to other causes
while, on other occasions, harmless oscillations of
perceptiblc amplitude have given rise to undue
alarm.
The possihility of fatigue fracture and the effect
of fatigue on the life of piping and the superposition
of vibration stresses have already been discussed in
Chapter 2. Among other undesirable effects to be
considered by the piping designer are: flow pulsa-
tions leading to noisy operation and increased flow
turhulence with attendant higher heat transfer rates,
pressure drops, corrosion or erosion, and impairment
of operation of flow machinery, valves, and other
components; damage or leakage at critical joints
and scals; psychological effects of a safe but vibrat-
ing piping system,l etc.
In this chapter no attempt will be made to provide
a complete treatise on vibration. While relatively
little has been published strictly on piping vibration,
there is ample covcrage of the general subject of
mechanical vibration which is directly applicablc to
lExperience would seem to indicate that an amplitude as
small as fir in. in Illrge-size piping (say over 12 in. diameter) is
:Jufficient to cause alarm if the piping is in an enclosed building,
und i in. if in an open structure.
257
CHAPTER
structural piping oscillations. On the other hand,
there does not appear to be any gcnerally recognized
up-ta-date text on flow vibration, so that it was
considered desirable to summarize fundamcntal in-
formation relative to this important subject. When
detailed treatment of suhjects considered is readily
available, only final pertinent rcsults are given,
whereas an attempt is made to provide necessary
analysis and discussion of specific subjects whose
coverage in the literature appears to be limited.
Certain basic texts may now be briefly mentioned.
These should provide the interested reader with a
gencral acquaintance with the mechanics of vibra-
tion and further constitute very useful reference
material. The texts by Den Hartog [I] and Tima-
shenko [2J are best known for their thorough engi-
neering treatment of thc fundamentals of mechanical
and structural vibration and contain numerous ex-
amples of oscillatory motion caused by reciprocating
and rotating machinery, self-excited vibrations, etc.,
as well as a comprehensive hihliography on these
problems. Rayleigh's Theory of Sound [3J is the
classical text on acoustic, as well as structural, vibra-
tion and is recommended, with Love's treatise [4],
to those interested in dctailed derivations and proofs
of mathematical formulas. A further valuable the-
oretical work on acoustic vibrations is that of
Morse [5J. Analogies hetwcen mechanical, electrical,
and acoustic oscillatory systems are presented ad-
mirably by Olsen [6]. while Stoker [7J provides an
excellent introduction to the modern theory of non-
linear vibration, such as self-excited oscillations.
For routine design, Marks' [8J and Kent's [9J me-
chanical engineering hand hooks include a brief sum-
mary of formula.s used in engineering applications.
Vibration and shock isolation are treated by Crcde
[IOJ and by Ryder and Gatcombe [llJ.
258 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Basic concepts of vibration and a gencral discus-
sion of vibration prevention and control are given
in the next section. The sections following include
a more extensive engineering treatment of the sub-
ject of structural and acoustic vibrations, with in-
formation for the convenience of the piping engineer
and stress analyst in setting up and solving prob-
lems which require detailed investigations. This is
followed by an illustration of thc application of
basic vibration concepts and derived equations in
the design analysis of a sample piping system. The
last section of this chapter discusscs piping vibration
from the point of view of diagnosis and correction of
existing conditions, i.e. "trouble shooting".
9.2 Fundamental Considerations in Piping
Vibration
9.2a Definitions. It is appropriate to define a
few terms which are fundamental in any discussion
of vibration theory and practice.
1. The period of vibration, T, (seconds) designates
the time of one complcte oscillation which is re-
peated in every respect.
2. The frequemy of oscillation, f, (cycles per
second) is equal to the reciprocal of the period of
vibration. The angular frcquency, w, (radians per
second) = 2"fT.
3. The number of degrees of freedom equals the
number of independent quantities defining the posi-
tion of a system. Thus, a system consisting of a
mass attached to a massless spring and constrained
to unidirectional motion has one degree of freedom,
since thc systcm configuration is completely defined
by the deflection of the spring. A simply supported
flexible beam or pipe, on the other hand, has an in-
finite number of degrees of freedom because of the
f1exibiiity of each element relative to adjoining ones,
requiring an infinite number of element deflections
to describe the position completely.
4. A principal mode of vibration is a free vibration
(see 9.2b, "Types of Vibration") of a- system vi-
brating at a definite frequency. Thc number of
principal modcs is cqual to the number of degrces
of freedom. Frequcncics of thc principal modes of
oscillation are callcd natural frcquencies. The low-
est natural frequency is called the fundamcntal fre-
quency and corrcsponds to thc fundamental mode
of vibration. A beam, or pipe, has an infinite num-
ber of principal modes. Howevcr, the importance
of thc fundamental frequency is by far the greatcst.
5. Damping can be dcfined as thc reduction of
vibration amplitude through action of frictional
forces. It is a cure for resonant vibrations, whereas
nonresonant vibrations are not much reduced by
friction dcvices. An examplc of a typical friction
dampener is the shock absorber used in some piping
systcms to limit the amplitude of possible resonant
vibrations.
6. From the practical point of view the most im-
portant problem in connection with vibration is the
phenomenon of resonance. Resonance occurs when
a system (mechanical or acoustic) is excited peri-
odically with a frequency at or very near the natural
frequency of the system. If the damping (internal
or external) of the system is small, then the system
will rcspond to excitation, even by a small impulse
at the resonant frequency, with large amplitudes of
vibration, leading to large deflections in the casc of
structural vibrations or large pressure surges in
acoustic systems. These, in turn, are accompanied
by high repeated stresses which arc likely to cause
damage by fatigue failurc of the pipe or components.
7. In an clastic system, periodic application of a
force as distinct from a static force, may lead to
vibratory deflcctions (amplitude) equal to, larger
than, or smaller than static deflcctions. The ratio
between the maximum vibratory amplitude and the
static deflection is called the magnification factor
and is a function of thc ratio of forcing frequency
to natural frcquency and the amount of damping
present in the system.
9.2b Types of Vibration. Three main types of
oscillation must be carefully distinguished: free.
forced, and self-excited.
In free vibration, the system is excited by an cx-
ternal transient impulse (persisting for only a short.
time) and the system vibrates under no external
force. In real systems, some damping is present
and the systcm oscillations will subside unless
another transient impulse is imparted.
In forced vibration, the system oscillates under
the external cxcitation of a periodic perturbing force.
A primary source of excitation might be the unbal-
ance of rotating machinery (e.g. clectric motors,
turbines, compressors, fans, or pumps). Other fre-
quently encountercd sources of forced piping vibra-
tion arc thc periodic variation of fluid pressures and
acceleration of masses within the reciprocating
devices.
Self-excited oscillation is a complicated phenome-
non. The system vibrates under no periodic external
forces and the vibration persists, due to internal
energy sources, even in the presence of damping.
Among well-known examples of self-excited vibra-
tion are the humming of telegraph wires, chattering
of lathe tools, flow surging of fans or blowers, air-
_ _J
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
plane wing flutter, eombustion and flow instabilities
in furnaces and boilers, etc. In piping systems,
vibrations of self-excited charaCter have been en-
countered usually in association with flow instabili-
ties, surging of compressors due to unsuitable
operating characteristics, vortices due to steady
wind, pulsating gas-solid streams, etc. Analysis of
vibrations of this type is usually difficult and often
requires experimental investigation.
9.2c Sources of Periodic Excitation. Rotating
machinery invariably constitutes a major source of
mechanical vibration, due to the inevitable mass
unbalance existing in the rotating parts of the ma-
chine (see Subsection 9.5b). Unless rotating ma-
chinery is very carefully balanced or supported on
an elastic foundation for the purpose of vibration
isolation, forced vibration with a frequency equal
to the rotating speed may be expected in nearby
structures. If the rotating speed is in the neighbor-
hood of the natural frequency of an adjoining
structure, resonant vibration will be induced, leading
to possible failures of piping or components.
A compressor of the reciprocating type is a source
of periodic pressure excitation at a frequeney (cps.)
equal to the rotational speed (rps.) multiplied by
the number of cylinders for single aetion and twice
the number of cylinders for double action for any
given stage. If this frequency approaches the
acoustic frequency of the connected piping system,
acoustic resonance in the form of large periodic
pressure surges will appear. Apart from possible
adverse effects on machinery and its operation, these
pressure pulsations can be transmitted direetly to
the foundations and buildings, and via bends acted
on by periodically variable forces, or through the
connecting pipe itself to other vessels, structures,
or foundations. A piping system vibration fre-
quency equal to the speed of rotating machinery or
the pulses of reciprocating devices is a clear indica-
tion of the source of excitation, which can be cor-
rected or minimized by balancing of rotors, inclusion
of vibration dampeners, pulsation snubbers, or other
teehniques described in this chapter, as well as in
Chapter 8.
Another source of periodic excitation of exposed
piping systems involves the action of wind. If air
strikes at right-angles to the axis of a cylinder of
diameter D. (ft) at a steady wind vclocity U (ft/sec),
then there result periodic forces of frequency f
(eycles/sec).
f = SUID. = 0.18UID. (9.1)
where S = the Strouhal nnmber (= 0.18 for a cyl-
L
259
inder). These aerodynamic forces are due to vortex
motions around the cylinder (Von Karman vortices,
cf. [12]), and act at right angles to the direction of
the wind. Their magnitude is usually relatively
small and essentially equal to the dynamic pressure
acting on the projected area of the cylinder, but if
the frequency is in the neighborhood of a natural
frequency of a piping system the piping will be set
in resonant vibration with perhaps fairly large ampli-
tudes. An example of this phenomenon is the so-
called "humming" of telephone wires. Actual cases
of pipe vibration of this character have been ob-
served [13].
The sources of mechanical or acoustic excitation
deseribed so far are more or less of a systematic
nature and can be expected and taken into account
in design. Unexpeeted sources of excitation may
exist in an installation or may develop in the course
of operation. Inasmuch as such excitation sources
cannot be provided for in advance, they must be
dealt with as they oecur.
An example of an apparently self-exeited vibra-
tion is that which appeared in oil refine"y fluid
catalytic craeking plants in the form of structural
vibrations, as well as pressure surges, and which was
traced to the gas-solid stream in the catalyst carrier
line. Changes in the line configuration and, par-
tieularly, the catalyst injection detail greatly influ-
enced these vibrations. Other similar difficulties
are occasionally encountered in other process equip-
ment and remedies usually involve trial-and-error
changes in details of the fluid injection meehanism.
9.2d Vibration Prevention and Control.
Elimination or isolation of sources of vibration is
unquestionably the most desirable solution to a
vibration problem. However, it is often not pos-
sible to accomplish this objeetive completely. A
slight unbalance of rotating parts will probably per-
sist. Some pressure pulsations due to flow machin-
ery, wind or earthquake effects, etc. should be
expeeted by the piping engineer. Self-excited vibra-
tions are diffieult to predict analytically, and the
designer may have to rely largely on field experience
and data in estimating probable frequencies of
excitation.
Since the piping designer has numerous other con-
siderations which determine a piping system layout,
it is not suggested here that an elaborate vibration
analysis of all standard piping systems be carried
out; nevertheless, the engineer will usually be justi-
fied in spending the time needed to insure that the
fundamental natural frequency of a piping system
bearing pulsating flow (e.g. piping directly con-
260 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
nected to reciprocating compressors) will not be in
the neighborhood of a forcing frequency. Proper
choice and spacing of supports and braces (guides
and damping devices, Chapter 8), as well as gas-
pulsation smoothing devices (Seetion 9.8), may be
added in the original design at little initial cost, and
is much less expensive than correcting trouble when
encountered in the field.
Following establishment of design eriteria rela-
tive to allowable piping stresses and defleetions, the
designer should review available information on
probable foreing frequencies and estimate natural
frequencies (struetural and acoustic) of critical
piping. Formulas for the determination of natural
frequencies of simple systems arc given in Sections
9.3 through 9.8 and their use is illustrated in Sec-
tion 9.9.
Rnowing the possible forcing frequencies (e.g.
from data on rotating and reciprocating maehinery),
an attempt should be made by the designer to pre-
vent resonance of the piping system. The upper
limit of free pipe length (Le. the lower limit of
natural frequency) is usually governed by consider-
ations other than vibration. Moreover, shifting
natural frequencies toward the lower end as com-
pared with the exciting frequency has the disadvan-
tage of not completely eliminating possible vibration
during start-ups and shutdowns of maehinery. The
other approach, that of introduction of additional
intermediate fixed or elastic supports for the pur-
pose of shifting the natural frequency of piping
toward the high side, appears to be a more appro-
priate method of eliminating vibration although
less economical and conflicting with requirements
sound judgment in making simplifying assumptions,
as well as experience, is always required.
9.3 Structural Natural Frequency Calcula-
tions
The primary prerequisite of vibration prevention
and control is the determination of system natural
frequencies. This section summarizes the morc
important results pertaining to structural frequencies
of various simple configurations.
9.3a The Spring-Mass Model. The simplest
and most fundamental of all mechanical oscillatory
systems is the one degree of freedom system con-
sisting of a mass attached to a massless spring and
eonstrained to unidirectional motion (Fig. 9.1). Let
k = spring constant
= force in lb required to elongate or
compress the spring by 1 It
m = mass in slugs
_ weight (lb) W
- acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec') g
Then the undamped angular natural frequency Wn
of the system, expressed in radians per sec l is
Wn =! (9.2)

and the frequency fn in cycks per second, eps, is

of thermal expansion.
Wherever it is not possible to follow either of the
two methods described above, and the natural fre-
fn = W
n=
2'1r
~ FE.
271" '\j:;,
(9.3)
quency of the piping system remains dangerously
close to that of the exciting force, considerable Hence, the undamped natural period Tn, in seconds,
attention must be devoted to isolation by gas pulsa- is
tion dampeners, elastic foundations, balancing of 1 2". 2".
T = - = - = -- (9.4)
rotating machinery, and· provision of adequate n fn W n Vk/m
damping dcvices (shock absorbers) at strategic If the load (lb) is designated as IV = mg it is seen
points in the s,Ystem. So-called dynamic dampeners
that the static defleetion '" in feet of the spring
which couple a secondary vibratory system to the
under load will be
main piping system, the former being "tuned" so as
IV mg
to reduce the amplitude of vibration of the main Ost = - =-
k k
system at or near resonance, do not appear to be
practicable for piping. It should be emphasized Substituting this into eq. (9.3) gives another ex-
that solutions given in this chapter apply only to pression for the natural frequency fn, also in cps.
relatively simple piping and support configurations.
Unfortunately, no general analytical treatment is fn = ~ r;; = 0.906 (9.5)
available for dealing with vibration problems, and 2". '\It V".
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Equations 9.3 and 9.5 are of great usefulness, pri-
marily because of their immediate generalization to
eonfigurations far more compicX' than the simple
system for which they were derived.
W=mg
FIG. 9.2 Structure supporting II weight.
Thus, Fig. 9.2 shows a structure supporting a con-
centrated weight W (lb). Assume that the weight
of the structure can he neglected as compared with
W, and that it is desired to estimate the natural
frequency of vibration of the mass in a vertical
direction. By virtue of eqs. 9.3 or 9.5 the vibration
problem is reduced to a purely structural one. To
use eq. 9.3, calculate the concentrated force (lb)
rpquired to deflect point 0 vertically 1 ft (i.e. the
spring constant k(lb/ft) in the vertical direction at
o and also recognized as an influence coefficient in
structural deflection theory). With W = mg given,
fn is found by substitution into eq. 9.3. Alternately,
the static vertical deflection at point 0 under the
conccntrated weight W can be found and in cal-
culated from eq. 9.5.
FIG. 9.3 End weight on n cantilever.
Example. Given a concentrated weight W = mg
being supported at the end of a massless cantilever
of Icngth L, structural moment of inertia I, and
matcrial modulus of elasticity E (see Fig. 9.3). It
is required to estimate the natural frequency of
vibration of the systcm.
The vertical (static) deflcction of 0 under the
weight W is, from structural theory,
WL3
ii" = 48 EI
using dimensions of W (lb), L (ft), E (lb/in?),
I (in 4 ), and ii" (ft). From eq. 9.5,
in = 0.906
(El =
\/48WiJ 0.130
~EI
WL 3
In general, eq. 9.3 is of greater usefulness than
l
261
eq. 9.5, since in the former case the notions of spring
constant or the purely elastic cffect and notion of
mass or inertia effect are separate, while in eq. 9.5
the two notions are combined; as a result, eq. 9.3
lends itself more readily towards generalization.
This is illustrated by the eoncept of effective mass,
whieh will be introduced in the next subscction.
9.3b Frequency and :Mass Effectiveness Fac-
tors for Different End Constraints. Between
supports or anchors, a pipe is a beam with uni-
formly distributed mass. Each restrained length
possesses an infinite number of degrees of freedom,
hence vibration may occur in an infinite number of
modes singly or in combination. In practice, the
fundamental mode is of main interest) but occa-
sionally the second mode may also bc of some
importance.
Thc gcncral cxpression for thc natural frcquencies
of beams with uniform mass distribution, sueh as
pipes, is of thc following form:
a~1~~3 ~2~~I
in = = (9.71
"
where a is a coefficient which varies with
the end
conditions and mode. In order to follow thc pip-
ing practiee used in the remainder of this book, thc
numerical constant a is left with the dimension
(ft/in.)(ft/scc2 )J.j and the symbols in cq. 9.7 have
the following units2 :
W = total wcight, lb.
Wu = weight pCI' ft of pipe (including pipe contento
and insulation), Ib/ft.
E = modulus of clastieity, Ib/in 2
I = moment of inertia, in. 4
L = length of pipe, ft.
fn = natural frequcncy, cps.
Values for wU, I, and E can be found in Appendix C.
Tablc 9.1 gives values of a for the eases indicatcd.
The concept of lleffective mass" is a convenient
approaeh by which a distributcd mass is treatcd as
an equivalent concentrated mass. Thus, for a mas::;-
less eantilevcr of Icngth L (ft) with concentrated
cnd load P (Ib) the natural frcquency is givcn by
eq. 9.6. For uniform wcight distribution, the funda-
mental mode of vibration is:
0.265 fEi EI I
in = U\/~ = 0.265\/WL3
(9.6)
(see Table 9.1 and eq. 9.7)
2The constant a is nondimensional for a consistent set of
dimensions.
262 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 9.1
Frequency Coefficient a for
Suppert Mode of Vibration Pipe or Uniform Bar

Fundamental (1st) ~f.....~_=

__-_ 0.265
Cantilever
Second Mode 1.66

Fundamental (1st) 0.743

Both ends simply supported
Second Mode 2.97

Fundamental (1st) I.I6

One end simply supported, other end fixed
Second Mode 3.76

Fundamental (1st) §jl '----_/ ~ 1.69

Both ends fixed
Second Mode 4.64

Hence it appears that the effective end weight of constant k = 3Ellx3, the infinitesimal mass dm =
a uniform weight distribution is (WI Lg) dx, and the ratio

W,,,
0.13
= ( --" )2 W = 0.25W = tw (9.S)
k 3EILg 3EI (L)3
= Q~ dX)
3
0.260 dm = Wx dx L3 ;-
Consequently, the fundamental natural frequency
for a cantilever with a total weight W uniformly the infinitesimal mass at x may be considered equiv-
distributed and a concentrated load P at the end is alent to an effective infinitesimal mass at the end
(x = L), multiplied by a weight factor (xIL)3. If
- 013
in - .
~ (t W EI
+ P)L3 (9.9) the effective infinitesimal masses at x = L is then
added, the total effective mass is
= 0.13J
L 2
I
EI
P
(9.9a)
WJL(:.)3 dx = ~ W = W,,, or W,,, = tWo
gL, L 4 g g
:jw y +L
Of course, this principle of addition of effective
The factor of effectiveness, t, can also be derived masses is not exact but, as was seen, the approxi-
in a manner which may be generalized to the case of mation for uniformly distributed load is quite
nonuniformly distributcd loading. Thus, if the
reasonable.
total weight of the cantilcver is Wand L is its
On this approximate basis the procedure can also
length, then considering only the infinitesimal mass
be generalized to the case of a non-uniform mass
dm bctween x and (x + dx) (Fig. 9.4), the spring
distribution on cantilever beams. Thus for a mass
as shown in Fig. 9.5, the effective end weight would
be
W1L'+L> (X)3
TV"f = - - dx =
(L, + L,)4 -3 (L,)"'
W
L 2 L, L 4L 2 L
FIG. 9.4 Elementary muss on cantilever. (9.10)

j
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 263

w Thus, for this mode, the dynamic deflection curve

may be taken as:
y(x, t) = f(x) sin wnt
Wn being the natural frequency for the particular
mode. If x varies between x = 0 and x = L, the
potential and kinetic energies are respectively:
FIG. 9.5 Distributed mass on cantilever.

with a natural frequency, cps, Potential energy = !E sin' wnt1L I(x)[f" (x)]' dx
fn = 0.13
lEI
\fWd}
(9.12)
2
IGnetic energy = ~2 wgn cos' wntlL TV(x)[f(x)]2 dx
For a concentrated load TV at x = L" L, --> 0, and 0
eq. 9.10 reduces to (9.13)

TV,rr = TV (?y (9.11)

so that
Max. potential energy = !E 1 L
I(x)[f" (x)J' dx
Apart from unusual cases, eqs. 9.10 and 9.11 will
~ wn'lL TV(x)[f(x)j' dx
yield results sufficiently accurate for engineering
estimates. Max. kinetic energy =
2 g 0
9.3c Variable Stiffness and Variable Mass.
There exists, since Rayleigh [3], a systematic pro- from which
cedure for the approximate calculation of natural
frequencies of structures with non-uniform stiffness
=
Egl L
I(x)[f"(x)]' dx
(9.14)
1
Wn
and non-uniform mass distribution. With this L
method a reasonable form of the deflection curve TV(x)[f(x)]' dx
during oscillation is assumed and then maximum
kinetic and potential energies are calculated and By analogy with eq. 9.2, the numerator and denom-
equated. inator in eq. 9.14 represent an effective spring con-
The result is an expression for the natural (un- stant and an effective mass (or load) respectively.
damped) frequency. If, by chance, the exact form
of the vibratory deflection curve for a particular
mode has been assumed the resulting expression for
the natural frequency for that particular mode will ---,
be exact. In general, at least for the fundamental
mode, any reasonable approximation to the actual
deflection curve will yield results good enough for FIG. 9.7 Cantilever.
practical purposes. A reasonable deflection curve
is one which satisfies at least the major boundary For the fundamental mode, the approximate form
conditions of the structure (e.g., end conditions for of the deflection curve for a cantilever, Fig. 9.7, is
beams).
f(x) = 28 sin' 1TX (9.15)
4L
where 8 = maximum deflection (at end).
This satisfies the conditions for zero deflection and
zero slope at x = 0 and a condition for zero moment
FIG. 9.6 Mass distribution. at x = L. It does not satisfy an end shear condition.
Likewise, for simply supported beams and fixed-
Thus, suppose a reasonable form of a deflection
end beams the deflection curves may be taken re-
curve for a particular mode for a beam with various
spectively as
end conditions is f(x), the weight distribution is
TV(x) (Fig. 9.6), and the stiffness is expressed by a f(x) = /j sin "{ and f(x) = /j sin' "{
variable moment of inertia I(x), x being measured
from a certain origin. where /j = maKimum deflection (at the center).
264 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
For a cantilever, it was seen that the uniform load
may be taken as equivalent to i concentrated end Cantilever fn = 0.13
~ (!-W EI
+ I'lL"
load. Likewise, on the basis of the assumed deflec-
tion curves:
For a simply supported beam, by analogy with =0.13RSi'I
L' 1 I'
eq. 9.14 the effective center load (equivalent to uni- -w
4 u
+-L
form load), after cancelling the constant 0, is
(9.9; 9.90 I

W,,, lVJ:L sm. 2 1rX 1

-dx =.W (9.16)
~ (! W EI
= -
L L
0
Simply supported beamfn = 0.525 + P)L 3
For a fixed-end beam, the equivalent ccnter load is
0.525 BI
W'''=r;
lVJ:L sm.
0
4 7TX
r;dx=a W
3
(9.17)
= L2 1
-W y +-I'
2 L
(9.1S)
For beams, the stiffness is usually constant along
the span and the form of the mass distribution is
frequently as follows: Fixed end beam
I RI
f" = 1.03 '\j (ilW + P)L3
uniform load + end load for cantilevers
and = 1.03JPi'I
uniform load + center load for simply supported 2
L 3
·w.. +-I'L
or fixed end beam. 8"
(9.19)
Thus, let:
fn = natural frequency of pipe (1st mode), cps. 9.3d Combined Bending-Torsion. Consider
W = total weight of pipe, lb. the cantilever in Fig. 9.8 and assume its mass can
W u = weight of pipe per ft of length (including con-
be neglected. Then, the static dcflec:tion at point 0
tents and insulation), Ib/ft. for a wcight Pis:
I' = end load for cantilever or center load for simply
supported or fixed-end pipe (beam), lb. L a3
0= [ 4 s L b3
- + 4S-
EI a
L L
+ 144~ P (9.201
Eh OJ a
'J
L = length of pipe, ft.
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material, Ib/in.'
where La and Lb = the two arms of thc configura-
I = moment of inertia of pipe section, in. 4
tions, ft.
Values of wy , E and I for pipe can be found in E = common modulus of elasticity,
Appendix C. Then, for beams with loading condi- Ib/in 2
G = torsional shearing modulus,
tions as stated above, the following formulas may be
used for the first modc of vibration: Ih/in 2
I a and h = respective moments, of inertia of
the section, in. 4
J a = polar moment of inertia about
". the center of gravity of the circu-
lar section a or the "equivalent"
value for a noncircular section.
m. 4
o= deflection, ft.
The effective spring constant, Ibl ft, for point 0 is

Eh/4SLb"
k = (9.21)

FIG. 9.8 Configuration in bending torsion. 1+ (~) (~J + 3 ~~: (~:)

 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 265

and the natural frequency is then

E1o/PLb'
fa = 0.13 - (9.22) o
1+ ~ (La)' + 3 E10 (La) l,
I a Lb GJ a L b
l,
If the mass of the piping (beam) cannot be neg-
lected, and denoting by Wva and Wvb the weight per FIG. 9.11 Two members: - angle 0 between legs.
linear foot ([b/ft) of length J"a and Lb respectively,
E1o/W,flLb' idcalized as in Fig. 9.10. Analogous to eqs. 9.22
fa = 0.13 and 9.23 the following expressions can be written:
10 (La)'
1+- - +3 E10-(La)
-
I L GJ L
a b a b
2E1o
Eh
fa = 0.13
,(La), P
"41L'va "4 + ZWyb + "4
1 10 (La)' +3E1o
1+--- - -(La)
-
0.13 32I L 2GJ L
a b a b
= --2 (9.23)
Lb 10 (La)' E10-(La)
1+
I L
--+3 GJ Lb
- 2E1o
a b a
P 3 (La)
W'fl=tlV~+!Wb+P 0.13 L b + 8Wva L b + Wvb
= --2 (9.24)
where lV a and lVb are the weights of legs La and Lb. Lb 1 10 (La)' 3E1o
1+--
32Ia Lb
- + -(La)
-
2GJ a L b
Equation 9.23 is necessarily an approximation,
and in particular the effect of lVb is a somewhat Here again in is in cps; h, la' and J a have units
crude approximation. A closer approximation can of in.'; E and G, Ib/in.'; La and Lb' ft; IVa and
be obtained by energy methods (see Rayleigh's IV b, lb; Wva and Wvb lb/ft; and load P lb.
method described above). However, in most prac- 9.3e Approxinlate Natural Frequencies of
tical cases, additional refinements are not warranted. Pipe Bends with Two Members (Vibration Per-
The foregoing results may be applied, in an ap- pendicular to Plane of Bend). Consider a pipe
proximate manner, to estimate the fundamental bend as shown in Fig. 9.11, having both lcgs the
natural frequency of a particular pipe bend shown same in diameter, thickness, and material. The mass
in Fig. 9.9. For purposes of cstimating the natural distribution is considered to be due only to the
frequency of vibration (in a mode perpendicular to weight of the pipes.
the plane of the paper), the configuration may be For the usual pipe materials, the ratio of bending
rigidity to torsional rigidity, EI/GJ = 1.3 = I.
With this approximation, the general expression for
the fundamental natural frequency of vibration per-
pendicular to the pipe bend will be of the form
lEI
f=a'l/WL 3 (9.25)

wherejisincpsIEisinlb/in.2,lisinin.\ lV = total
}<'IG. g.9 Schematic of pipe bend. weight of bend in Ib, L = L, + L 2 = total length
of bend in ft l and a is a numerical factor depending
p upon the ratio L,jL 2 and the angle o.
Consider t\'..·o extreme cases:
o
a. L 2 = 0, L, = L
In this case the bend reduces to a fixcd-end beam
and a = 1.69 constant for all angles.
b. L, = L2 = !L
FIG. 9.10 ldclllizcd configuration for Fig. 9.9. In this case (L, = L 2 ), if 0 = 0, the bend reduces
266 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Obviously curves of " vs. 0 for all other length
ratios L,/L" must be situated between the two
extreme cases (a) and (b) discussed above and
shown in Fig. 9.13. Even though it is not exactly
l:t=L/2
correct, a simple interpolation between the two
extreme cases for any given length ratio is good
enough for engineering estimates. Thus the two
FlO. 9.12 Two-member bend 0 = 1r/2.
extreme cases plus simple interpolation define the
values of " for any length ratio and any angle 0 to
to two parallel cantilevers and " = 1.06. In the
within reasonable approximation.
other extreme, 0 = ", the bend reduces again to a
fixed-end beam and" = 1.69. Consider now the f (C.p.I.) = ex J £1
WI'
case,O = ,,/2 (Fig. 9.12). It can be shown that the
deflection y, (in ft) at the point 0 due to a unit load
at that point, in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of the bend, is given by
e
Yo =
48/El I,

I/L;' + I/L~~
II = l(l,=O)
1- .. 1- • 1.69 1------'--'-'--'-------:"
1+ (El/GJ)(L2I Ltl 1+ (El /GJ)(L,/L 2 )
(9.26)
1.60
For El/GJ = 1 as assumed and L,/L 2 = 1, the
result reduces to 1.,(0
5 L3 15 L 3
y = - - X 144 = - - (9.27)
, 384 El 8 El 1.20

The effective end weight for a cantilever due to

uniformly distributed mass is approximately .Ii of 1.06 L_--~
the total weight of the cantilever. For a fixed-end +---~~-~--_--~-o
o
beam the effective weight at the center due to uni- "
formly distributed load is % of the total weight of FIG. 9.13 Approximate natural frequencies of pipe bend
the beam. with two legs (vibration l~crpendicuJn.r to plane of bend).
Clearly the coefficient of effectiveness for the 90'
9.3! Plates and Radial Mode in Pipe. The
bend of equal pipe lengths is situated between .Ii
spring constant (for deflection caused by a concen-
and %. If then the effective weight is taken as
trated load at center) of a simply supported circular
lV'fl = %; total weight of bend, the result can not
plate is
be greatly in error. With this value of effective
Et 3
weight at the junction point and the expression for k = 261-, (9.28)
Yo given above, it is found that 0: = 1.2. Thus for r
the bend of equal lengths: where k = spring constant, Ib/ft.
r = radius of plate, ft.
o a "2 t = thickness of plate, ft.
" F: = modulus of elasticity, Ib/in.'
1.2 1.69 and lJ = Poisson's ratio, assumed to be equal to
1.06
" 0.3.
If a curve of " vs. 0 is drawn through these three For a concentrated load P (lb) at the center of
points it appears as shown in Fig. 9.13. the plate, large with respect to the plate weight, the
In the other extreme case (L 2 = 0; L, = I), natural frequency in cps is then
" = 1.69 = Constant for all 0, as already remarked
3
above. This "curve," i.e., the horizontal line In =..!:- 261Et g = 14.6! rEt (9.29)
" = 1.69, is also shown in Fig. 9.13. 2" Pr' r "\J P
 VIBRATION: PHEVENTION AND CONTHOL
The effective conccntrated wcight (at center) of a
total uniformly distributed load lV (lb) on a simply
supported circular plate may be taken as
Weer = tw (g. 30)
Using the above units, the natural frequency of a
circular plate clamped at the edge and acted on by
a concentrated load P at the center is (assuming
J' = 0.3)
t/Et
fn = 23.3; '\Ii> (9.31 )
For a uniformly distributed load lV on a clamped
circular plate, the effective concentrated load (at
center) may be taken as:
lVelf = !lV (9.32)
A high-frequency periodic pressure variation in a
pipe might induce a structural vibration in a radial
mode, which will result in alternate hoop tension
and compression. The fundamental natural fre-
quency of a pipe, with a free length equal to, say,
at least 5 diameters, in a radial mode is [4]:
fn = 6~5 ~ (9.33)
where D = mean diameter of pipe, in., E is inlb/in?,
and p = density of material, Ib/in 3 However, for
typical cases the frequency fn (cps), as given by
eq. 9.33, is so high that resonance of this type is
hardly ever likely to occur.
Ovalling M odc. Another mode of vibration (ob-
served on large stacks at certain wind speeds) is
what is often referred to as availing. In this mode
of vibration the circular cross section assumes an
elliptical shape with the major and minor axes alter-
nating in perpendicular directions once per cycle.
For steel pipe, the natural frequency (cps) cor-
responding to this mode may be estimated from the
expression
where D = diameter, in.
l = thickness, in.
Apart from large vessels or stacks, the natural fre-
quency of ordinary pipe in an ovalling mode is high.
9.4 Structural Resonance and IHagnification
Factors
Since resonance is the most important phenom-
enon in vibration, a few simple derivations of funda-
mentals will be given, although for an exhaustive
267
discussion the reader is referred to standard refer-
ences on the subject.
The motion of a spring-mass combination when
excited with a periodically varying force (P sin wt)
is governed by the differential equation:
mx+kx = Fsinwt
(9.34)
x being the displacement of the mass or deflection
in spring, relative to the system configuration for
P = o. Although no damping is assumed so far, a
small amount of damping may always be supposed
to exist. Because of this effect the initial transients
will eventually he damped out, so that the remaining
Hsteady state" solution is of the form x = R sin wt.
Substituting this solution into eq. 9.34 gives
(-mw 2 + k)R = P, or
since W n = vk/m or
R 1
P/k
Now, P/k represents the sialic deflection of the
spring under the force P, while R is the maximum
dynamic deflection under the periodic force P sin wt.
That is P/k = X,t, R = Xci,n. The absolute value
of the ratio of maximum dynamic deflection (maxi-
mum amplitude) to static deflection is defined ap-
propriately as the magnification factor, thus:
M.F. = I Xci,n
X"
I (9.35)
Of J from the previous results,
M.F. = 11- (w~/wn2) I (9.36)
A plot of M.F. vs. the ratio of forcing frequeney w
to undamped natural frequency W n (i.e. w/w 11 ) is
sometimes referred to as a resonance curve (for zero
damping). This curve is shown in Fig. 9.14, labeled
, =o. For this extreme case (Le. uo damping), the
magnification factor becomes infinite when the forc-
ing frequency w coincides with the undamped nat-
ural frequency wn •
In the presence of a finite amount of viscous
damping, the differential equation takes the form
mx + ex + kx = F sin wt, c being a coefficient of
viscous damping. It is simpler to consider the
(ultimately equivalent) differential equation
mx + ex + lex = Fc iINt
(9.37)
 268 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
A' + (cAlm) + wn ' = 0, wn' = k/m, m"" 0, from
which

M.f.

Critical damping occurs when the expression under

,=0
6.0 the radical is zero, That is:
Cc = 2mw n (9,39)
5.0 By the use of eqs. 9.38 and 9.39, eq, 9,37, after
dividing by k, may be written in the form:

'.0
r=t x + -2, i; + x
-') =
(F)
-
. elW! = OIlLe t ""
.
Wn~ W n k
The steady state solution for x is of the form:
3.0
x = Re iw /
R being in general a complex quantity, the absolute
. 2.0 valne (modulus) of which represents maximum dis-
placement (spring deflection), i.e. IRI = adyn. From
the differential equation:
1.0
R 1

0
X" =
1 + 2,-, - w. (w)'
-
Wn Wn
0 1.0 2.0 w
W;;
FIG. 9.14 Resonance (frequency response) curves. so that the magnification factor is:

where M.F.

eiwt = CGS wi + i sin wi and i= v=l 1

(9,40)
The effective damping depends not only upon the
viscous friction coefficient but also upon the mass
and spring constant. The overall effect is expressed
in terms of a viscous damping coefficient or damping
Plots of M.F. vs w/w n for several values of , > are
shown in Fig. 9.14, in addition to the "pure" reso-
°
ratio: nance curve for, = 0,
(9.38)
The maxima of the lvl,F. are given by:
where Cc is defined as critical damping, pertaining to 1
the particular system. 1 :0; (l'vLF.) max = . / ' (9.4l)
The critical damping of an effective spring-mass-
2,vl-,'
dashpot system is defined as follows: If less damping and the maxima occur at:
is present the system will damp out in an oscillatory
j
W
manner when disturbed by a passing transient; for VI - 2,' (9,42)
damping greater than critical the system will damp
out in a nonoscillatory manner, as illustrated in , ,
Fig. 9.15.
C>Ce
The critical damping for a given system is im-
mediately determined from the differential equation
as follows:
For free vibration the differential equation is: +-+--+-''-Tim. +---...::::::==-_nme
mx + eX + kx = 0. This differential equation is
satisfied by the expression x = Ae" provided that
A is a root of the quadratic mI.' CA + +
k = 0, or FIG. 9.15 Oscilla.tory and nonoscillatory damped motion.
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 269
M.F.
Equation 9.41 holds only over the range
System with
(9.43a) relatively
high noluro! S)"lem with relatively
frequency Sow nclurel frequency
relative 10 (I
rololivo 10 the K1me
The corresponding range of frequency ratios is 9ivon forcing forcing frequency
frequency W 1

o -<~ <1
w -
(9.43b)
n

1 O+--+--~-+-----_
For t >~,
V2
(M.F.) max
W
= 1 at- = 0
W"
o .,, .,,
Thus, the maximum magnification factors in the FIG. 9.17 M.F. US a function of w/w no
presence of damping occur at frequencies somewhat
below the natural frequeney. It is to be notcd that
Generally little inherent damping exists in struc-
magnification disappears (i.e. M.F. max :1> 1) at a
tures. Structural damping (due essentially to
damping ratio t = 1/ v'z which is less than critical, hysteresis effects in metals) varies with the mode of
since at critical damping, t = 1. vibration, but for fundamental modes (for cantilevers
From Fig. 9.14 it is also observed that the maxima say) the damping is of the order of a few per cent
of the M.F. fall off sharply with an increase of the at the most, i.e., t = 0.01-D.03. Thus in the absence
damping ratio t from zero. This is seen more clearly of any other damping, such low values of t yield
from a plot of thc maxima of M.F. vs. t, as sh"wn in very high magnifieation factors in the neighborhood
Fig. 9.16. The usual effectiveness of hydraulic of resonance. Hence, thc resonance curvc (t = 0)
shock absorbers or any other equivalent form of should be used for estimating resonance magnifica-
viscous damping is based upon this phenomenon. tion factors (M.F.) in structures. In practical
estimates a probable maximum M.F. of 50 is some-
times used.
M.F. While compromises may be necessary, it is de-
mo,
sirable, if possible, to design a system so that the
7.0 frequencies of possible external excitation fall
outside the frequency band cqual to say one-half the
Eqvotiom natural frequency on either side of resonance, as
1
6.0 {M.F.)mox= .~ shown in Fig. 9.17. In other words, eithcr the
2tv'-t' systcm is designed so that the frequency range w of
h>t>O the expected extcrnal excitation satisfies the in-
'.0 equality w/w n > ~., or elsc the system is designed
so that w/w" <!. In the first case the system is of
relatively low natural frequency (i.e. relative to thc
..0 frequency of the disturbing force), while in the
second case the system is of relatively high natural
frequency.
J.O The first alternative is usually the more economical
but there are limitations. If this alternative is
chosen, the system will always pass through a
1.0 resonance condition during starting or stopping.
However, for continuous operation of relatively long
duration this limitation is perhaps not of consider-
1.0 able importance. A more serious limitation may
consist in a conflict with strength or deflection
requirements. For ordinarily, in piping, the natural
O+------+-~------~- frequencies can be reduccd essentially only by an
o l"
n' 1.0 2.0
increase in free length. If structural and relatcd
FIG. 9.16 !\faxima of magnification factor VB. damping ratio. requiremcnts do not permit the choice of the first
270 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
alternative, then the system must be designed on
the basis of the second altcrnative, that is by
increasing the natural frequencies .:ufficiently. Again
this can be achieved in piping essentially only through
a redtWtion in free length by the introduction of
additional supports, rigid or clastic. If neither
alternative is possible, artificial damping must be
introduced, in the forni of bracing devices which
dissipate energy through friction, (hydraulic shock
absorbers, etc.).
The results given above are based upon the use of
the spring-mass-dashpot system as a model. This
model, being a system of one degree of freedom,
necessarily exhibits only one resonance peale
A piping system or even a simply supported beam is,
in reality, a system possessing an infinite number of
degrees of freedom and such a system will exhibit,
theoretically at least, an infinite number of reso-
nance peaks. However, in general the first (funda-
mental) mode with the lowest natural frequency is
the most important one in any system, and the
resonance behavior in the neighborhood of the
first peak in any system is essentially the same as
that for the simple spring-mass model.
ge5 Damping of Structural Vibrations
9.5a Hydraulic Snubbers. 3 In vibration surveys
the amplitude and frequency of vibration is de-
termined at a point (or various points) of a vibrating
structure. If the amplitude of vibration is excessive
and if this amplitude can be reduced only by the
installation of a hydraulic snubber, it is of importance
to estimate the maximum force the snubber must
transmit and the degree of damping required to
reduce the amplitude of vibration to a tolerable
magnitude.
In this discussion it is assumed that the vibration
is of the forced type and the damping characteristic
of the snubber is of the purely viscous type. It is
known or be estimated or measured:
1. The amplitude of vibration,
ROJ ft
2. The frequency of vibration,
l
necessary then that the following quantities be
from vibration
survey
w, Tad/sec
3. Natural frequency of Vibrat-j
ing structure, Wn from calculations
4. Spring constant of vibrating or experiment
structure, k, Ib/ft
(at point where amplitude is measured)
!The terms "hydraulic snubber" and Hhydraulic shock
absorber" are both used herein tQ denote the kind of damping
device described in Chapter 8.
If
R = amplitude of vibration with damping, ft,
\ = viscous damping coefficient (nondimensional),
F s = maximum force to be transmitted by snubber,
lb,
Then, we have, from the relations given in the
text,
1
R/R o = -;:::======= (9.44)
"\j
'I +[ 2\ (w/w n )
1- (w/w n )2
J2
or
\ = ~ 11 - (w/w n )21 ...; (R o/R)2 _ 1 (9.45)
2 w/w n
F s = kRo ll - (w/w n )21"';1 - (R/R o)' (9.46)
Thus, k, Ro, w, and W n being known, by hypothesis,
the maximum sllubber force F s can be determined
from eq. 9.46 for any given amplitude ratio R/R o of
damped to undamped vibration. The required
damping coefficient \ for a desired amplitude ratio
is given by eq. 9.45, or if \ is known, the amplitude
ratio is determined by eq. 9.44.
If \ is not known, eq. 9.45 suggests an experi-
mental method whereby this quantity can be
determined. Consider a simple system whose
natural frequency W n is known , subject it to a
forced vibration of frequency w/w n and measure the
amplitude R o; then connect a hydraulic snubber to
the point where the amplitudc is measured; the
system is now subjected to forced vibration under
the same conditions as before and measurements
are obtained for the reduced amplitude R. The
damping coefficient \ of the snubber can then be
determined from eq. 9.45.
A study of eqs. 9.44, 9.45, and 9.46 shows that
viscous damping is really effective only in tbe neigh-
borhood of resonance (w/w n = 1). This can also be
shown from Fig. 9.14; equation 9.44 represents the
reduction of the M.F. obtained by reading along a
vertical in Fig. 9.14 from the no damping (\ = 0)
curve to that for a given \. Outside the vicinity of
resonance (say when w/w n ::; ~- or w/w n ~ !)I high
damping coefficients are required to reduce the
amplitude to a reasonable degree, Le. very large
maximum snubbcr forces may be needed. This point
will be further illustrated numerically in Section 9.9.
From the above expressions is also obtained:
Fs = kR 11 - (w/w n )21 (9.47)
o
"\j
'1+ [1 - (w/wn)2J
2\w/w n •
2
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 271
Unbolollcod Man m
Suppose now that n identical snubbers are connected MouM
at the same point. This is equivalent to an increase
of 1 by the factor n, which changes the expression f-t====",===;t/ Rolor

forFsto:
F ~ kR 11 - (w/wn)'1 (9.48)
s o
'1+ [1 -
"\I
(w/wn)'J'
2nl w/w n FIG. 9.18 Rotating machinery on elastic foundation.
It is seen that the total maximum snubber force
increases considerably less than proportionally with is the rotational speed, then the centrifugal force
the number of snubber units. Indeed as n ---> oc, the F* (lb) due to the unbalanced rotor mass m
max. total snubber force tends to a finite limit value (Ib sec'/ft) at radius T (ft) is:
given by: F* = mrw 2 (9.53)
(9.49) Let k (lb/ft) be the overall spring constant of the
system. Then the static deflection of the spring
A.n infinitely stiff shock absorber (I ~ 00) is a rigid under force F* is
connection; hence, eq. 9.49 represents the force (9.54)
transmitted to the ground when the point in question
is rigidly connected. The above is true from a Since the undamped natural frequency Wn (rad/sec)
dynamic point of view. However, shock absorbers of the mass mo (lb sec'/ft) is
of sufficiently large 1 may still be used to allow Wn = Vk/mo
flexibility of piping equilibrium positions in view of
thermal expansion as well as serve to counteract we have
resonant vibration amplitudes. (9.55)
From the preceding equations the following, per- and
haps more useful, relations ean also be obtained: (9.56)

If R n amplitude for n shock absorbers

= When the rotational speed is equal to the undamped
(R t amplitude for 1 shock absorber)
= natural frequency, the static deflection and the force
(Ro = amplitude without shock absorbers) F* will be independent of the natural frequency
Fn = total max. force transmitted by n shock (9.57)
0*" = (m/mo)T
absorbers
(F 1 = total max. force transmitted by 1 shock In the absence of damping, the maximum dynamic
absorber) deflection is

Then: (9.58)

~: = [1 - (1 - :') GJf' (9.50) and the maximum dynamic force in the spring is

~ [1 _ (1 _ .!..) (Rl)'J-11
2 mOWn 20s t
Rn = (9.51) Fmax = komnx = mOWn omnx = 11 _ (w/w n )21 (9.59)
Rt n n' Ro
So that Substituting the expression for 0" from eq. 9.56
Fn Rn into eq. 9.58 and cq. 9.59 gives:
-=n- (9.52)
FI R1 ?n (w/w n)'
omax = ?no Til _ (w/wn)'1 (9.60)
Thus if RdRo :<:; i say, then Fn = = F t from eq.
9.50 and R n = Rdn by eq. 9.52.
(9.61 )
9.5h Elastic Foundations for Rotating Ma- F m" = [I _ (w/wn)'1
chincry. The installation of rotating machinery on
elastic foundations is a fairly standard means for or, in view of equations 9.55 and 9.57
preventing vibration. The basic features of such an Om,,/o", = 11 - (wn/w)'I-t (9.62)
installation may be illustrated on the basis of the
simple spring-mass model, Fig. 9.18. If w(rad/sec) Fm,,/F' = 11 - (w/wn)'I-t (9.63)
272 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
A plot of Fm.x/F* and om.x/o*" VB. (w/w n ) is shown I ,
in Fig. 9.19. The solid curves represent Fmax/F* I I
while the dashed curves represe~t omax/o*".
,.
FmQII;
I
I
I
I
From the above figure it is observed that if min- I I
3.0
I
imizing the deflection is of primary interest, then I I'
, I
(w/w n ) ought to be as small as possible in which
casc Fmax tcnds to F*. But if thc reduction to a
2.0
,
I

I
I

minimum of the maximum force transmitted to the

foundation through the spring is of primary con-
sideration, then (w/w n ) should be as high as pos-
,,
1.0 I
sible in which case Omo.x tends toward 0* st. The I
I
term elastic is appropriatc, of course, only to the I
I
second case. It is also seen from eq. 9.63 or Fig. 9.19 / -~--=:-:----------cw~
that F m . . ::s; F* (centrifugal force) corresponding to o ¥'--;-,
if
,. 1.0 {2 2.0 3.0 -w,
a magnification factor less than unity, only when
w/wn ~ ,12. The above results are based upon the
spring-mass system with no damping present. If
the system is such that thc rotating spccd and nat-
ural frequencies are near to each other and for vari- F_

ous reasons the ratio w/w n cannot be changed, or if F'

a range of rotational speeds must be provided for, ,=0

then viseous damping must be introdueed by means
of dashpots (hydraulic shock absorbers, etc.), as
shown by the dotted outline in Fig. 9.18.
In this case the force transmitted to the founda-
tion is the sum of the forces in the springs and in
thc dashpots and the following results can be 1.0 1""""----1-'''1.;;::-----''--
verified:

F mBx
(9.64) o 0:----;,';;.o:-ffr.\2~------"'::-
[1 - (:JJ + (2 :J
F* =
1 ""
FIG. 9.20 Fma.x/F· VS. w/w n for damped vibration.

~::: 1[1 - (:JJ + (21~)'r;,

= (9.65)

the damping ratio 1 having bccn dcfincd previously

(see Scction 9.4).
Families of curves of Fmnx/F* and omnx/o*at VB.
w/w n with 1 as parameter are shown in Figs. 9.20
,=0
and 9.21 respectively. It is seen from Fig. 9.20 that
for w/w n < vi!, the maximum force transmitted to
the foundation is greater than the centrifugal force
mrw' (i.e. the magnifieation is greater than unity)
and it is in this range only that damping is beneficial.
It is also seen from Fig. 9.21 that in so far as de-
flection in the springs is concerned, damping is 1.0

always beneficial.
The ahove results, even though based on a one
degrec spring-mass-dashpot system, may be applied o ....,"---_~-----L---
t= co __
to morc complex systems provided the effective in- o 1.0
crtia (including possibly a distributed mass in the
"springs"), and the effective spring constant, can FIG. 9.21 OmfJr./O· VB. wJw n for damped vibration.

------_. ,
 VIBRATION: I'HEVENTION AND CONTHOL 273
be properly estimated. Finally, the above results For air, if T is the absolute temperature in degrees
illustrate also the essentials of the behavior of shock R, the speed of sound is approximately
absorbers, at least of the viscous type.
C = 1120V7'/518 = 49.3VT (9.66)
9.6 Acoustic Natural Frequency Calculations The natural frequencies for a tube with one end
Rigorous detennination of aconstic natural fre- closed and one end open form an odd harmonic
quencies of a piping system is usually difficult. seale (even harmonics arc absent):
However, approximate estimates can be made on C 3C 5C
the basis of results applying to a few simple con- In = 4£; 4£; 4£; etc.... (9.07 )
figurations.
The piping engineer may find it difficult to inter- For a tube H open" at both ends, the natural peri-
pret and to apply some of the material in the classical ods are the same as for a tube HclosedJl at both cnds.
texts on acoustic vibrations. Furthermore, there As was pointed out above, it is not always ell-tiy to
does not appear to be an engineering textbook decide whether a physically open end may be con-
which would give an up-ta-date summary of flow sidered open in acoustic considerations. In view of
vibration analysis and applications as well as a bib- this, the value of the length £ in the above equations
liography equivalent to the treatment of mechanical may differ somewhat from the actual physical
vibrations by Den Hartog II] and Timoshenko [2J. length.
The following sections will present a number of
derivations of flow vibration relations and a dis-
cussion of the general analytical approach to be A=Nock Area
pursued by the piping engineer in dealing with --------'-'-,
acoustic oscillations. Section 9.9 gives an example
illustrating the possible application of derived for-
mulas. Subjects adequately treated in the literature FIG. n.22 Resonator.
(e.g. water hammer) will be covered very briefly.
Several references dealing with specific acoustic vi- Another frequently encountered acoustic element
bration problems of possible interest to the piping is the Helmholz resonator. A resonator is essentially
engineer are included in the list of references at the a chamber with a "neck," the chamber volume being
end of this chapter. large as compared to the neck (Fig. 9.22). A
9.6a The Organ Pipe and Resonators. The resonator is considered as a simple spring-mass
organ pipe is a tube with a large length/diameter system. It is supposed that the air in the neck
ratio, so that the motion of the fluid (say air) inside vibrates as a solid mass while the air in the chamber
the tube is essentially one-dimensional. The major is alternately compressed and rarefied. Based on
acoustic unknowns are the end conditions. Usually, these assumptions, the fundamental natural period
two extreme end conditions are considered, closed is found to be (ef. Rayleigh [3J, vol. ii, eh. xvi):
and open ends. At a closed end the pressure varia-
Period (sec) =
27rJvL
c"'llil
tion is a maximum and such a point is referred to as
a node. At open ends the velocity is a maximum (9.68)
and such points are denoted as loops. The fact that C (A
a pipe end is geometrically open does not mean that
or Frequency (cps) In = 27r "'llVi
there is always a loop at that end. The designations
where C = speed of sound in fluid, ft/see.
closed and open are, in general, strictly applicable in
V = volumc of chamber, ft3 .
an acoustical sense only.
£ = length of neck, ft.
The longitudinal natural frequencies, for a tube
A = cross-sectional area of neck, fe.
with both ends closed, form a harmonic scale:
2£ 12£ 12£ Equation 9.68 holds for a "long" neck Helmholz
Period (sec) C' 2 C; 3" C etc.... resonator, so long as:
£» ~ V 7rA (9.68a)
C 2C 3C
Frequency (cps) = 2£' 2£' 2£ etc.... A more general result given by Rayleigh [3J is:
where C
£
=
=
velocity of sound in the fluid, ft/see.
length of the tube, ft. In = ~ ~~ (9.691
274 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

where length Xis greater (by at least a faetor of 2 or 3) than

A a representative dimension of the chamber (say the
II =. (9.69a) greatest linear dimension). Othenvise the results
£+ ~V;X given in eqs. 9.68 to 9.74 are in error.
has been designated by Rayleigh as an "aeoustie 9.6b Special Cases of Multiple Resonator
conductivity." Formulas. A piping system with enlargements
Thus, (pulsation dampeners, vessels, ete.) eonstitutes a
i _~ I A (9.70)
multiple resonator system. General expressions for
the natural frequeneies of multiple resonator systems
• - 2'11'\j 1'(£ + ~V'll'A) are given in Appendix B.1 4 Simple types of multiple
If £» ~V;X then the result reduces to that given resonators will now be eonsidered. On the basis
of the results pertaining to simple and multiple
by eq. 9.68. On the other hand, if £« ~V;X then
resonators it is possible to estimate, at least approxi-
in = ~J~v'\lI~
211' 11'
(9.71)
mately, the pertinent acoustic frequencies of the
resonator type of a relative complex piping system
with enlargements. This will be illustrated numeri-
This is the case of a "cavity resonator." cally in Section 9.9.
For a cireular opening of diameter d Consider then the multi-resonator of Fig. 9.23
A = 'II'd'/4 where the J./s arc the "acoustic conductivities":
the cavity resonator equation becomes
=
in=~~
Jl2 J

(9.72) £2 + ~v;Az
A3
The last result holds provided, t« d/4, where t is 113 = --=~=
the eavity wall thiekness. Finally, for a spherical
£3 + ~V'II'A3
cavity resonator, the result reduces to: while the Us, A's and V's are the neck lengths, neck
areas, and chamber volumes respectively.
in = £. ~
2'11'D'\l;. 'j)
= 0.22 Q ~
D'\l'j)
(9.73) The above system possesses two degrees of freedom
and can resonate in two distinct modes. The corre-
d and D being the diameters of the cavity opening sponding frequencies arc given by:

in = ~ I~ [Ill + 112 + llZ + 113 ±

211' \j 2 VI V,
J(1l1 VI+ 112 _ 112 + 1l3)' +
V,
41l, 'l
VI V,J
(B.8)

and spherical chamher respectively, provided of
course, d/ D «1. In general, in a Helmholz resonator,
a representative dimension of the neck is supposed
to be much smaller than a representative dimension
of the chamber or cavity An important quantity
in connection with the above results is the II wave
length"
X= C = 2'11'.JY(;
in
All results given above hold so long as the wave
The Il'S being in ft, the V's in ft 3 , C in ft/sec and
in in cps. This is the result as given in Appendix B
in a slightly different form.
The smaller frequency or fundamental is given by
the (-) sign under the radical, the larger frequency
or harmonic corresponding to the (+) sign.
A few special cases may be of particular interest:
a. Suppose 1" = 0 (say A, = 0). The multiple
(9.74) resonator consists now of two completely separateci
Il resonators an'l the result must reduce to the simple
4S ee also [24}.

Chamber

I
Chamber

No<k Nod< Nock

A, V, A, v, A,

1-'1' L1
I P". L,

FH.... 9.23 Two-chamber resonator system with both ends open.

 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 275
resonator expressions. Indeed from eq. B.8: The meaning of this result is that if the resonator is
C r;; iJ r;:; filled with fluid, a disturbance is then introduced
through an opening in a chamber, and the opening
J. = 211' '\IV; ; h = 211' '\IV;, (9.75)
is then closed, the fluid will vibrate in the closed
b. Suppose 1', = 1'2 = 1'3 = 1'; V, = V 2 = V. Then resonator with a frequency given by eq. 9.78.
from eq. E.8: e. Suppose A, = 0, so that 1', = 0, while L 2 is
large so that 1', »1'2. Assume also that V 2 » V,
J. = ~ '\Iv
211'
G, (9.76) . (Fig. 9.26). From eq. E.8 the following approxi-
mate result is found:
hence, I, = ~ r;;,
'\IV;
211'
(9.79)
h=~ r;:;
It is seen that the relation between harmonic and 211' '\IV;,
fundamental resonator frequencies is not the same
for multiple resonators as in organ pipes. But the fundamental is h, i.e.
h«I,

1', 1',
v, v,
A, L,
Fro. 9.24 Two-cho.mber resonawr system
with one end closed.
FIG. 9.26 Acoustic coupling of resonator system
c. Suppose 1'3 = 0(A 3 = 0); 1', = 1'2 = 1'; V, = with vcry long neck.
V 2 = V (i.e. one end is closed as shown in Fig. 9.24).
Then from eq, E.8 This result is of practieal interest, for it may be

I = ~ J(3 ± 2 V5) 1:V

211'
or
applied to a piping system with a number of'rela-
tively small enlargements ending with a long pipe
terminating in a large vessel. The result derivcd

I, = C
0.62- ~I'- here shows that the lowest resonator frequency of
the system may be found by considering merely the
211' V
(9.77) long pipe and large vessel as a simple /lIang neck"

12 ~ 162-
. 211"
c~-V'' resonator and, for the purpose of calculation of this
lowest frequeney, disregarding the rest of the sys-
tem. Likewise the higher resonator frequencies may
whence h- = 2.6 be calculated disregarding the long pipe and large
I, vessel. In other words, the system is essentially
d. Suppose A, = A 3 = 0, whereby 1', = 1'3 = 0; uncoupled into systems of low and systems of high
as in Fig. 9.25. Then from eq. B.8
1'2 = 1',
resonator frequencies. If the resulting low frequency
is low enough as compared to the higher frequencies
c~ of the system, this procedure is justified. A further
(9.78)
1= 211" '\IV; + V; approximation in the same direction is as follows:
The system is decoupled into simple systems of one
degree of freedom each and the uncouplcd frcquen-
cies are thus ealeulated. In general, the frequeneies
I'
of the coupled system separate the frequencies of the
v, v, uncoupled system and vice versa. In this way, it is
possible to establish the approximate vicinity of
intermediate frequencies and upper or lower bounds
of an extreme frequency by simple calculation.
Applications to estimating resonator frequencies of
FIG. 9.25 Closed two-chamber resonator system. a piping system are given in Section 9.9.
276 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
It is assumed in linear acoustic theory that the
volume=V diameter to length ratio of any segment is small.
The following result can be verified from classical

Fro. 9.27
nn
Chamber with multiple necks.
acoustic theory:
Let n segments meet at a joint; the area, length
and phase angle of the ith segment shall be ai, LSi,
and 13, and let f be one of the acoustic natural fre-
f. Finally, consider the case of a chamber with quencies of the overall piping system which may
several neck inlets (Fig. 9.27). Let the number of consist of (say) s joints. Then at the joint in ques-
Hnecks" be n with conductivities J.Ll J.L2, .•• Jln·
l tion the following relation holds:
Then, it can be shown that
.------- I: ± ai tan (,,:2 foL Ls,L + l3i) 0 (9.81 )
f "21l""\f + ~2 +V ... + ~"
I~l
=
=!2 (9.80) '~l
Such relations hold for each joint. L is any refer-
provided the necks are not spaced too closely. ence length, but preferably a length giving a reason-
In general, then, a complex piping system may be able value of fo (such as an over-all length of the
considered as consisting primarily of a combination main pipe branch) as a first estimate of the system
of organ pipes and simple resonators. No explicit frequency.
formulas for the natural periods of a complex system The (+) sign is to be used for the segments with
can be given here. For a detailed study the reader flow tOlVards the joint. The (- ) sign is to be used
is referred to Rayleigh [3J and l'vlorse [5J. If the for segments with flow from the joint.
system can be considered as consisting solely of The following additional end conditions are also
organ pipes, then the method given in Subsection 9.6c to be satisfied:
and Appendix B can be used to determine natural
periods, while for resonators the formulas given At intake points
above may be used. Sample calculations of pulsa- For node 13 = 0
tions from the discharge of a gas compressor cyl- For loop 13 = ,,/2
inder are given in Section 9.9. A coincidence of this
pulsation frequency with a natural acoustic fre- At discharge points
quency of the piping, organ pipe or resonator type, For node 13 = (,,/2)[2m - (fIfo)],
should be avoided. (9.82)
m = 1 for fundamental.
9.6c Piping Systems with Branches and En- m = 2 for 1st harmonic, etc.
largements. The following tenninology will be
used in dealing with calculation of acoustic fre- For loop 13 = (,,/2)[m - (fIfo)],
quencies of branched piping systems (see Fig. 9.28): m = 1 for fundamental.
A branch of a piping system is a continuous pipe, m = 3 for 1st harmonic.
straight or curved with constant or variable area. m = 5 for 2nd harmonic, etc.
The steady-state flow rate in a branch is constant.
A joint is a point where several branches meet or

:-~0
a point where the pipe area of a branch changes
abruptly. Joint '~, Joint
A segment is a part of a branch with constant cross
section. ~' 1 Bronth

Let C = speed of sound in the gas, ft/sec. Joint

fo = CI4L = fundamentalacousticfrequency,
cps, of a simple organ pipe of
length L with a node at one end o;,,/:

t
and loop at the other end.
L s = length of pipe measured from the begin- Joint ,% 2 Bron<hoi
Joint
ning of each separate branch, ft.
a = area of a segment meeting at a joint, ft 2 . t::=v=
S"moo' ,
,
13 = phase angle corresponding to segment,
radians. FIG. 9.28 Branched piping terminology.
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Relations 9.81 for each joint plus relations 9.82
are sufficient to determine all ,,'s as well as I, the
fundamental or higher acoustic'irequency of the
system, which is of greatest interest.
In order to apply the above theoretical results to
any piping system, consider the system as eonsisting
of one main branch of length L with one intake and
one discharge point and additional seC<Jndary
branches each with one intake. Then calculate the
frequency 10 for the main branch. The general sys-
tem thus eonsists of a number of intakc points but
only one discharge point.
The use of these relations will be illustrated in
Section 9.9 numerically. A graphical method which
is the counterpart of the foregoing analytical method
is given by Warming [14]. For a branched system
the analytical method appears to be less time con-
suming. A brief hydrodynamic derivation of the
above results is given in Appendix B.2.
The equations for the acoustic natural frequencies
of piping systems, considered as consisting of organ
pipe elements, are in general somewhat cumbersome
except for fairly simple systems. A system with
several branches and enlargements requires the solu-
tion of a simultaneous system of transcendental
equations and this can be quite time consuming. In
such cases it might be more practical to calculate
not the actual natural frequencies but their approxi-
mations by virtue of simplifications. No general
rules can be given, since each system might lend
itself to different simplifications, but the point may
perhaps be illustrated by the following example.
Consider a piping system as shown in Fig. 9.29.
Calculation of the acoustic natural frequencies of
this system considered as composed of organ pipe
elements will involve the solution of a set of simul-
taneous transcendental equations of high order and
would be lengthy. However, the first approxima-
tion of the acoustic frequencies of the system (at
least of the lowest one) may be gained by calculating
natural frequencies according to the following sim-
plificd proccdure:
a. Calculate natural frequencies of branches ADE,
ADB, ADC, BDE, BVC, CDE, cach considered as
a single branch with variable areas.
b. Calculate the same but on the basis of constant
ureas.
The results of (a) and (b) should yield an insight
into the relative effect of area variation without in-
volving excessive calculations.
o. Calculate the acoustic frequencies of the sys-
tem as 11 whole but on the basis of no area variation.
The calculation is simple since only onc joint is in-
277
~I
A
• -----.J
---, E
C :;J
FIG. 9.29 Example of branched piping system.
volved. A comparison of the results of (0) with
those of (b) ought to indicate the relative effect of
branches. The over-all results of (a), (b), and (0)
thus yield an understanding of the effect of both
area variation and branches.
Steps (b) and (0) could also be repeated with
constant area but with increased length of enlarge-
ments (i.e. length proportional to area). Calcula-
tions involved in steps (b) and (0) are very simple,
while the calculations in step (a) are only slightly
more complex. Yet, with some experience, these
relatively simple calculations should establish with
reasonable accuracy the vicinity of acoustic fre-
qucncies of the system.
Volumes with irregular area are handled by con-
sidering an average effective area and a length equal
to the volume divided by this average area. Let
the effective length thus obtained be L,. If the non-
dimensional expression: wL~/C where w is an un-
known frequency (radjsee), and C is the speed of
sound (ftjsee), with L, in ft, is small as eompared
to unity, then a simplification may be introduced
by writing tan wL,jC = wL,jC. If the general
formulas given in Subsection 9.60 of this ehapter are
applied to the piping configurations shown in ref-
erence [23] and the above approximation is intro-
duced, then the results reduce to those given in that
reference. However, the frequencies thus ealculated
must then satisfy the inequality wL,jC « 1.
9.7 Acoustic Resonance and Magnification
Factors
In structural resonance, the structure responds
with large-amplitude oscillations when excited peri-
odically with a frequency in the immediate neigh-
borhood of a struetural natural frequency. In
acoustic resonance the analogous result is the re-
sponse of the system in the form of pressure surges
of large amplitude, when exeited by periodic pres-
sure variations of relatively small amplitude but with
a frequency in the neighborhood of some acoustie
natural frequency, partieularly the fundamental
One.
For a prototype organ pipe model, the magnifica-
278 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
maximum dynamic to static displacement is, in the
M.f. absence of damping, given by:
1
M.F. = (9.84)

3.0
1- (:J
A plot of the two magnification factors, as given by
eqs. 9.83 and 9.84, vs. w/w n is shown in Fig. 9.30.
(f ~")I
.,, ISo<
Inasmuch as Sec I (~ :J Irepresents the magni-
fication factor of a system with an infinite number
2.0 of degrees of freedom, it exhibits an infinite number
of peaks. However, for the somewhat arbitrary
range, say 0 ::; w/w n < -~ including the neighbor-
.,, hood of the first peak, it is seen that the magnifi-
cation factor of the spring-mass system is still
representative.
1.0 In view of the fact that damping in aeoustic sys-
tems is generally quite small, the frequency range.
t::; w/w n ·::; t should, if possible at all, be avoided.
,, That is, if the frequencies of expected external
excitation are known, an attempt should be made
to design the system with a fundamental natural
frequency so that the ratio (or ratios) w/w n does not
0
.,, 1.0 .,, 2.0 '"
"" fall in the range indicated above.
FlO. 9.30 Comparison of mechanical and acoustic
In reality, it is frequently not easy to achieve such
magnification factors. an objective. For while a few major sources of
excitation, discussed elsewhere in this chapter, and
tion factor, in the absence of any damping, is of the their corresponding frequencies can he estimated in
form: advance, there may exist many other sources of
pressure disturbances which cannot be known in
M.F. = I Sec (~:J I (cf. Rayleigh [3], vol. ii) advance at the design stage. In addition, since the
natural frequencies can be changed only by a chang"
(9.83)
in geometric configuration, a design with a proper
w, W n being the exciting and natural frequencies selection of desirable acoustic and structural fre-
respectively. quencies cannot usually be achieved. Other means
The magnification factor in this case represents of reduction of resonance peaks must usually be
the ratio of the amplitude of pressure response at resorted to, the most important one being the g"-"
some point in the acoustic system to the amplitude pulsation dampener to be described in the subse-
of pressure excitation. The qualification "at some quent section.
point" is rather important, for there arc locations A few words may be added here about damping
(loops) in an acoustic system where things are rela- in acoustic systems. First of all there is al way::-
tively quiet (pressurewise) even at a resonance con- damping due to viscosity and heat conduction. But,
dition. At other points however (nodes) there is in addition, there exists another damping phenome-
high pressure amplitude magnification. The deter- non in acoustic systems, and this damping is due to
mination of the nodes and loops in a complex piping the fact that the vihrating fluid in the pipe or res-
system, while possible in principle from the general onator, when at least one end is open, communicates
results given in Appendix B, requires rather lengthy with the outside, a certain amount of energy being
analysis. In general, damping in acoustic systems, lost thereby to the resonating system. The follow-
arising from viscous drag forces and heat conduc- ing results are due to I-Ielmholz but have been modi-
tion, is rather small. fied here and transformed into familiar engineering
It will be recalled that in the spring-mass system terms (damping ratio n:
the magnification faetor representing the ratio of In simple linear mechanical or electrical systems
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
the magnification factor, in the presence of viscous
damping is:
M.F. = 1 -
(9.85)
~[1 - (:JT + (21:J
where 1 = viscous damping coefficient.
W n = natural frequency.
W = forcing frequcncy.
Now, in a resonator, in the absence of viscous damp-
ing, the magnification factor due to the second source
of damping as cxplained above, is also given by
eq. 9.85. However, the damping coefficient is now
a function of the ratio of forcing to natural acoustic
frequency.
(9.86)
with
f=L~=i~=H (9.87)
As will be shown numerically (in Scction 9.9), the
r
numerical value of is, in general, quite small, so
that the effect of this damping shows up only at the
resonance peak and also for large values of w/wn •
In view of the existence of viscous damping and
since for large values of w/w n the magnification fac-
tor is small even without any damping, this second
damping effect is, for the purposes considered in
this chapter, perhaps of purely theoretical interest.
9.8 Flow Pulsation Smoothing
This section deals with the important problem of
smoothing gas pulsations in piping, particularly
those due to the action of reciprocating compressors.
Equations and criteria useful for approximate de-
sign estimates are developed and the comparative
merits of expansion chambers with and without ori-
fice pressure drop, tuned resonators, as well as the
commercially available more complex pulsation
dampener configurations, are discussed. A brief
summary of the subject of water hammer will be
found at the end of this section.
9.8a Tuned Resonators. In principle, it is pos-
sible to smooth gas flow pulsations via tuned res-
onators. As will be shown in Appendix B.3 and
numerically illustrated in Section 9.9, tuned resona-
tors do not appear practical for the purposes of
smoothing of gas flow pulsations associated with low
speed reciprocating compressors. In these cases,
snubbing devices or "bottles" with orifices appear
to be more effective. These results are borne out
279
by experience, since it is t.he latter smoothing de-
vices, rather than tuned resonators, which are most
frequently employed for smoothing of low rpm recip-
rocating compressor flow pulsations.
However, theory also indicates that in the case of
high frequency excitation, tuned resonators can be
quite effective [15], particularly in conjunction with
orifices. It is because of this result that a very
elementary theory of the tuned resonator is included
in Appendix B.
9.8b Surge Tanks. The surge tank or "bottle"
is used to reduce pressure pulsations and fluid oscil-
lations. Surge tank information relating to reduc-
tion of hydraulic hammers in liquid systems is ade-
quately summarized by Rouse [16J and Reynolds
[17]. In gas systems, surge tanks are often used to
smooth flow oscillations [18, 19J. Briefly, smoothing
of flow pulsations via the surge tank is achieved by
means of volume capacity (energy storage) and some
moderate pressure drop between tank and piping
system, corresponding to moderate energy difiSipa-
tion. As will be shown later, in any given case the
smaller the pressure drop the larger the volume
(capacity) requirement in order to achieve a certain
degree of smoothing.
In view of the existence of capacity and some
degree of dissipation the "bottle" acts as a hydraulic
filter. The electrical analogy is a simple R-C circuit
filter with dissipation via electrical resistance and
capacity via a condenser. Inasmuch as dissipation
in gas flow is really not a linear phenomenon the
analogy is only approximate.
In order to gain an insight into the working of a
hydraulic filter for use in smoothing piping gas flow
oscillations, an elementary analysis for a basic filter
element is given in Appendix B. It is assumed that
the amplitude of pulsations in the incol11ing flow
(from the compressor into the surge tank) is SIll.l.ll.
The pressure-flow relations are linearized relative to
a mean flow rate and the resulting relations then be-
come representative of a simple linear filter, as rep-
resented by a first order differential equation.
While the theory is tim" reprcsentative of a very
idealized state of affairs, it nevertheless yields an
insight into the essentials of the behavior of hy-
draulic filters which in turn are ultimately the pro-
l
totypes of surge tanks 01' "bottles" and, despite
their greater complexity, also of snubbing deviee:-;
or silencers of various types.
This elementary theory also yields some u:-ieful
approximate design results. These result:') UI"P
shown in Fig. 9.31 in the form of a family of eul'\'(',
showing attenuation factors vs. volume capacity
280
In from Comp'n1or Effect;.. o O,ilic.
VV\ -s~,~,,~.
_ T~'~"Jl===
J '_ ~
0,,,.
Piping S)'Jlem
A.F. '" Attenvglion Focto<
200
150
100
/ implies the existence of an effective orifice between
SO
~
1,0
10 20 30
°v/v·= Rgtio of Icnk ..olumo Ic vclumo of £low,
lonk oi, don$ily. per llroko per pillon
A.f. = [nflow Vo,iotion reloli..e 10 meon Row role
Outflow Variation relali..o to moon Row rolo
FIG. 9,31 Attenuation factor va. volume ratio with actual
% pre.<;sure drop as parameter.
with pressure drop from surge tank to piping system
as a parameter. Speeifieally, the attenuation factor
is the absolute value of the ratio of flow rate pulsa-
tions, relative to the average flow rate, of the flow
into the tank to the flow rate pulsations, relative to
the average flow rate, o"t of the tank into the piping
system. Thus, an attenuation factor of 100 means
that the amplitude of pulsations has been reduced
by the surge tank to 1% of the initial value. The
abscissa of Fig. 9.31 is the ratio of volumc of tank
to flow volume, relative to average tank density,
per stroke per piston of a reciprocating compressor
discharging into the surge tank. Finally, the param-
eter of the family of curves is the actual pressure
drop between tank and piping system expressed as
a percentage of the average tank pressure.
Thus, the curves indicate the capacity require-
ment of the surge tank for a given compressor in
order the achieve a desired degree of smoothing
(attenuation factor) with a given amount of pressure
loss. It is emphasized again that these results,
ba~ed as they are upon a very idealized situation,
are only of an approximate nature. In view of the
great.er complexity of the flow patterns in com-
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
merdal devices (see Subsection 9.8d), rigorous
analysis of these pulsation dampcners has not been
attempted. Nevertheless, the rcsults of the simple
Poramolor hydraulic filter analysis may be of some value in
Ac!ucl p'on""e indicating, at least roughly, volume requirements,
lon, lonk 10
piping 'yl.lem, based upon pressure drop estimates.
in X of mfl:!n The mathematical derivation of the rcsults is
Icnk prollu'o
given in Appcndix E, but physically the filter oper-
ates about as follows. Due to the relatively large
20' volume capacity, even large flow rate pulsations
cause only small changes in density and pressure in
the tank. This will be so provided there exists some
resistance to the flow from the tank into the piping
system, so that the effect of an increase (or decrease)
,0> in the flow rate is first felt throughout the tank. The
existence of such resistance to the flow from the tank
tank and piping and therefore, also the existence of
" a pressure drop.
Thus, the greater thc capacity, the greater the
reduction in pressure variation in the tank due to
flow pulsation and the greater the resistance, the
tx.ad on mfl:!n
greater the number of individual pulses which are
thus averaged out and the variation from an average
reduced in magnitude. The result is a smoother
outflow from the tank into the piping system. The
curves in Fig. 9.31 illustrate these results in quanti-
tative form.
The design curves given in Fig. 9.31 may also be
applied to filters in the suction line of a compressor
in a multistage compressor system, the output of
one stage being the input to the next stage. In this
case 1'* refers to the volume flow rate per stroke per
piston of the prcceding stage.
9.8c Gas Pulsation Dampener Principles.
The discharge of a reciprocating compressor is peri-
odic but intermittent rather than continuous. The
piping system into which the compressor discharges
is thus subjccted to a pcriodic, although not a simple
periodic, pressure excitation of an almost impulsive
nature. Now, it can be shown by a simple Fourier
analysis that a periodic impulsive excitation con-
tains all higher harmonics and consequently the
prohabili ty is rather high that at lcast one of the
acoustic modes of the more or less complex piping
system will be excited resulting in adverse effects.
1'he question is, how many harmonics are of
importance? The essential factor that enters into
consideration is the reduction in amplitude of the
harmonics relative to the fundamental. In struc-
tural resonance the higher modes are always accom-
panied hy grcater damping so that the fundamental
and perhaps the 1st harmonic only are of impor-
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
tance. In acoustic resonance there is, in principle,
also an increase in damping (due to communication
with outside air, as shown by Heiinholz) in connec-
tion ,,~th the higher harmonics. However, quanti-
tatively the effect is much smaller as compared to
the case of structural damping. In the case of recip-
rocating compressors, some investigators advocate
that harmonics up to the 4th order should be con-
sidered.
These effects can be reduced to a large extent by
the introduction of devices known as pulsation
dampeners or snubbing devices, mainly at the point
of compressor discharge. As the term snubbing
device implies, smoothing of the pressure variations
is achieved ultimately by energy dissipation. How-
ever, the mechanism of energy dissipation is of a
special nature, soon to be described. In addition,
the dampener is provided with sufficient volume
capacity for the storage of energy [20J. A schematic
of a typical snubbing device is shown in Fig. 9.32.
The smoothing action of the pulsation dampener
appears to be as follows. At the instant of discharge
from the reciprocating compressor, a high velocity
slug of gas moves suddenly into the cntrance tube
at A, followed by slower moving gases. The path
of least resistance is through openings C and, indeed,
the slower moving gases do move through this path.
However, the high velocity slug of air strikes the
wall (by virtue of its own inertia) at B and a high
pressure zone is here established. This high pres-
sure forces some of the gas through the perforations,
and, in the process, energy is dissipated. In this
way some of the energy contained in the high velocity
slug is dissipated and the mechanism of dissipation
is thus seen to be a selective one, since the low velocity
gases moving through the openings C do not lose
energy. IVloreover, this is precisely what is wanted
since most of the undesirable acoustic effects appear
to be due to the high velocity moving gas slugs.
This principle of selectivity constitutes perhaps the
most important feature of the pulsation dampener.
The screen effect of the perforated tubes consti-
tutes another important feature of the apparatus.
For it appears that by propel' proportioning of per-
forated areas relative to the surface area and over-all
dimensions, effective smoothing call be achieved
with relatively moderate pressure drops. In general,
completely effective smoothing cannot be achieved
by a single snubbing stage, hence additional per-
forated tubes are addcd, as shown.
Silencers arc constructed very much along the
same lines except that in some tubes slots are used
instead of circular pcrforations while in other types
28l
FIG. 9.32 Typical snubbing device.
no attempt is made to introduce a screen effect. In
other words, in silencers the energy dissipation is
also selective but in some types this dissipation
occurs via pressure drops through orifice action in
the side tubes rather than by means of a screen
effect. It is thought that better smoothing with
over-all lower pressure drops can be obtained when
the screen effect is used.
As already remarked, enough volume is provided
in the pulsation dampeners to providc some effective
capacity. The combination of dissipation and
capacity produces a filter effect (R-C circuit in elee-
trical systems). However, in view of the additional
selectivity and screen effects and multiplicity of
arrangements, a quantitative analysis of pulsation
dampeners is difficult. An approximate theory of
simple hydraulic filters is given in Appendix B.4, in
relation to surge tanks ("bottles"). Some of the
results may perhaps be applicablc also to more
complex pulsation dampeners, at le.ast in rough
approximation.
9.8d Acoustic Expansion Tank. It will be noted
that the preceding material in this section empha-
sized the alleviation of low frequency flow vibrations
by providing capacity and a definite pressure drop
in the piping system. It remains now to briefly
mention acoustic expansion tanks whose design is
based strictly on the phenomenon of wave reflection
and which become effective in a certain neighborhood
of their own natural acoustic frequencies, considered
as organ pipes [15J.
Elucidation of the phenomenon of wave reflection
and interference, while not difficult, requires never-
thelcss a study of thc wave equation and the propel'
boundary conditions. This is somewhat bcyond thc
scope of this chapter and accordingly only the result
of the simplest type of such a dampencr, as dcrived
by Davis, et al [15], is given here. In the reference,
results are derived for a great number of combina-
tions of such expansion chambers with and without
resonator effccts. The simplcst typc of installat.ion
282 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

acting on the basis of wave reflection are totally

Q A Q impractical as udampeners" for low speed re-
ciprocating compressors.
9.8e Comparison of Gas Pulsation Smoothing
Devices. It is now intcnded to clarify the relative
FIG. 9.33 Resonator chamber nomenclature. merits of the tuned resonators, hydraulic filters
(as well as more complcx snubbing devices) and
of such an expansion chamber is the same as the acoustic expansion tanks dealt with in the preceding
hydraulic filter previously dealt with (but without subsections.
an orifice) as shown in Fig. 9.33. The hydraulic filter acts via dissipation and
If the area of piping is a, the area of chamber A, storagc of encrgy. Storage is a function of tank
its length L and the speed of sound of the fluid is C, volume while dissipation depends upon the piping
then the attenuation factor due to wave reflection is: systcm pressure drop. The latter may be in con-
centrated form via an actual orifice or in the form of
A.F. = ~1 + G(~ - ~) sin e~L)J a gradual pressure dissipation due to friction in the
pipe. Insofar as purely sinusoidal excitation is
(cf. [15]) (9.88) concerned, or the fundamental corresponding to a
periodic (but not necessarily purcly sinusoidal)
where f is the frequency of excitation (cps). excitation, it appears that the action of the hydraulic
It is scen that the maximum effect is attained at filter is independent of the frequency of excitation,
2rrfL provided, however, that this frequency is not in the
rr nC
- - =n-
C 2
or f=--
4L
(n = 1,3, 5, ... ) immediate neighborhood of an acoustic naturai
frequency of the piping system either of the organ
i.e., when the exciting frequency coincides with the pipe or of the resonator type. On the other hand,
natural acoustic frequency of the chamber, con- if the exciting frcquency is in the neighborhood of an
sidered as an organ pipe open at one and closcd at acoustie frequency of the piping system, then the
the other end. On the other hand, at frequencies of action of the filter becomes more complex and thc
excitation corresponding to organ pipe types with results given in this section are probably not valid,
both ends considered acoustically 'tclosed/' or at least in error. Parenthetically, it may be
remarked that thc exciting frcquency appears
n c ultimately in the form of flow rate.
f=--
2L
(n = 1, 2, 3, '1, ... )
The action of a hydraulic filter was studicd by
Chilton and Handley [18J, essentially along the
the expansion chamber is totally ineffective. same lines as in this chapter, except for the following:
The maximum attenuation factor is from eq. (9.88) a. In [18J, the periodic but nonharmonic excitation

A.F. max = ~1 + [~(~ - ~) J (9.89)

is first developed into fundamental and harmonics
and the various harmonics are examined separately.
In this chapter only the fundamental or purely
For large attenuation factors, Ala must be large, sinusoidal excitation is considered..
so that approximately b. The over-all pressure drop of the entire line
downstream of the main storage volume (bottlc) is
A considered as if it were an effectively concentrated
A.F. or - ~ 2 (A.F.)
a pressure drop through an orifice. Remarkably
enough, if the test results given in [18] are con-
Hence, for an attenuation factor of say 20, or sidered as representative, then it appears that this
reduction of pulsations to 5% of initial valuc, assumption is justified. In this section, on the
Ala = 40. Thus, for a pipe ID of 3 in., the diameter other hand, it was assumed that the pressure drop
of the expansion chamber must be: V40 X 3 ~ 22 is due to an actual physical orifice existing at the
in. or approximately 2 ft. Moreover, for 250 com- end of the bottle. Reference is also made to an
pressor rpm or approximately 4 cps, thc lcngth L of actual installation of this type [21] discussed in
the cxpansion chamber must bc (assuming speed of Subsection 9.9j. If, in eq. BA8, Appendix B,
sound at 1120 ft/scc) L = t LV..Jl. ~ 70 ft. It is 100% pressure drop across the orifice is assumed,
obvious from this example that expansion chambers equivalent to the assumption in [18], then one arrives
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
at the same results as those given in [18, 22] for a
.Iline tank," an installation corresponding to the one
studied in this chapter.
Despite the test results, it is thought that the
specification of an actual orifice with a small but
concentrated pressure drop, while perhaps conserva-
tive, is still a desirable feature in a hydraulic filter.
In connection with gas pulsation filtering the
question is: When is filtering really necessary?
Inasmuch as pulsating flow from reciprocating com-
pressors always induces periodic forces and there-
fore vibration of pipe bends, filtering is always
beneficial. Insofar as resonance effects arc con-
cerned the following general statement may be
made. Unless the lowest acoustic frequency, in
either organ pipe or resonator configuration, is
higher than about 3 to 4 times the highest com-
pressor rpm (twice as much for double action), some
resonance effects may be expected. Inasmuch as
the above requirement can hardly be met in typical
installations, it follows that practically, filtering
will be required on all reciprocating compressor
installations.
It should be pointed out that design curves of
Fig. 9.31 hold only for filtering of gas flow pulsa-
tions. For liquids (or any other nearly incom-
pressible fluid) the filter is far less effective.
The other type of device studied in this section
is the tuned resonator. As shown in Appendix B,
this "dampener" acts in a manner diametrically
opposite to that of the hydraulic filter. Where the
hydraulic filter is effective for all frequencies of
excitation, except those in the neighborhood of an
acoustic natural frequency of the system, the tuned
resonator becomes effective precisely in the imme-
diate neighborhood of only one frequency, namely,
the resonator frequency, and is ineffective for all
other frequencies of excitation. It is, however, also
shown that. the band of frequencies for which the
tuned resonator is effective can be widened some-
what if an orifice is installed, as shown in Fig. 13.2
(Appendix B), resulting in a concentrated pressure
drop.
In Davis' investigation [15] of tuned resonators,
results given are equivalent to the assumption that
the area of the Horifice" (used in Appendix 13, Fig.
B.2) is equal to the area of the pipe, the ratio of
pressure drop through such an "orifice" to exist.ing
average pressure being thus necessarily small. It
can be shown that with this assumption, eq. B.23
for Indnl illustrated in Fig. B.3 (Appendix B)
reduces essentially to the results of [15] for the simple
t,uned resonator.
283
Thus, as in the case of the hydraulic filter, the
results given in this chapter seem in a sense more
general than the results given in [15] and [18], and
also more conservative because of specification
of concentrated pressure drops. As has been dis-
cussed, most snubbing devices may be considered as
"hydraulic filters," but with the additional feature
of "selectivity." That is, part of the energy carried
by the high velocity slug is dissipated, the slower
moving gases passing through essentially without
dissipation.
The last type of "dampener" discussed in this
section, called an "expansion tank" in [15], acts
on the basis of the phenomenon of wave reflection.
This dampener becomes effective in the neighbor-
hood of its own natural acoustic frequencies, con-
sidered as an organ pipe. As shown these acoustic
expansion tanks are not practical for smoothing of
low frequency gas pulsations.
In conclusion then, it would appear that the
piping designer interested in preventing serious
pressure surges in lines should proceed as follows:
a. Estimate acoustic resonant frequencies of
organ pipe and resonator type by the aid of formulas
given in this chapter, or in other references.
b. Insure that the natural frequency of the piping
system is sufficiently removed from any known
forcing frequencies.
c. Insert pulsation dampeners or simple tanks at
appropriate places, preferably very close to the
inlet and discharge from reciprocating compressors;
volume and pressure drop requirements may be at
least approximately (and conservatively) estimated
from the results given in this section.
d. For high frequency gas pulsations, tuned reso-
nators or acoustic expansion chambers may be used
singly or in many different combinations. This
section presentl? a few of the most useful formulas;
the interested reader is referred to [15], for experi-
mental data and analytical investigation of a large
number of this type of silencers."
II
9.8! Hydraulic Hammer. A complete treatment
of hydraulic hammer in a piping system consisting
of several branches with orifices and perhaps by-
pass valves, although not difficult, is rather lengthy
and cannot be given in this chapter. In view,
however, of the considerable importance of hydraulic
hammer in any piping system with liquid flow, in
which occasionally there may occur fairly rapid
closures of valves with a consequent possible high
pressure build-up, it is thought worth while to
discuss here at least a few fundamentals concerning
this phenomenon.
284 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
2pL,U 2pLU 2pLU .
Lip = (Lip) max = - - = - - = --- = pL.C
t tn 2L/C
(9.91 )
This is the maximum excess pressure which can
FIG. 9.34 Hydraulic system susceptible to hammer. occur in a liquid of density p, specd of sound C, flow-
ing with velocity U, during hydraulic hammer.
This maximum excess pressure is seen to be inde-
Consider the system of Fig. 9.34 wherein there
pendent botb of the closure time t(::; tn) and the
is a flow of a liquid in a pipe with eonstant velocity
length L. Figure 9.35 indicates the relationship
U. Suppose that a valve situated at a distance L
between excess pressure and closure time on a nOI1-
from the reservoir is closed in a time t. It is desired
dimensional basis. Thus, for water, p = 2 slugs/ell
to determine the excess pressure build-up in the pipe.
ft, C = 4700 ft/see, so that the maximum execs,
Let the maximum excess pressure be Lip. TIlls
pressure (psi), even for instantaneous valve closure,
maximum will obviously develop when the valve
IS
is completely closed, Le., after a time t from the
2 X 4700
start of closure. On the other hand, at the begin- Lipm.. = U = 65U (9.92)
144
ning (i.e., at time t = 0), the excess pressure was
zero. On the basis of a linear build-up of excess where U = flow velocity, ft/sec.
pressure, the E.verage excess pressure is 6.p/2; this
average pressure acting on an area A at the gate In complex piping systems with branches, orifices,
exerts a force ~LipA. The momentum loss of a etc., the situation during hydraulic hammer is, of
column of liquid of length L, cross-sectional area A, course, complex. But eqs. 9.90 and 9.91 yield III
and flow velocity U when stoppcd at the gate is most eases at least upper limits to the vailles of
equal to pALU, p being the mass density. By possible excess pressure build-up.
Newton's law then, If it is found that the possible pressure build-up
during valve closure is excessive and cannot be
pALU
=-- tolerated, various measures may be instituted to
t reduce the water hammer effect. The simplest of
or these is obviously to increase the time of valve
2pLU closure, if that is possible. The required minimum
Lip = - - (9.90)
t time of closure in order to prevent a build-up of
excess pressure beyond a given magnitude can be,
This is the expression for the excess pressure due to at least approximately, estimated from eq. 9.90 or
valve closure. If p is in slugs/It', L in ft, U in ft/sec, from the curve of Fig. 9.35.
and t in sec, then Lip is in Ib/ft'. The above simple If, for various reasons, the time of valve closure
derivation is not rigorous, but has the advantage of cannot be increased, then other means to prevent
simplicity. excess pressure build-up can be instituted, such as
Now, tbe result given by cq. !l.90 holds so long "accumulator" tanks in liquid supply systems.
as the time of valve closure t is greater than the relief valves in pO\ver systems, and the like. How-
natural period of the system, i.e. t 2: t n = 2L/C, C
being the speed of sound in the liquid. This is true ~
pUC
because the derivation is based upon an assumption
tbat the time of closure t is large enough so that a l.O-j----,
signal starting at time t = 0 at the gate could travel
to the reservoir, deliver the ((message" and then
return to the gate with a "reply." Only thus could
.5
the entire pipe length of liquid participate in the
compression effect. The minimum time in which
tbis ean happen is: t n = 2L/C. If then the time of
closure is less than t'll i.e. t :::; 2LjC, then only a
reduced column length L, of magnitude L, = L(t/t n )
O+----~---,--;:---;- ..,
o 2 3 '" 2l/C
can participate in the compression effect in the time FIG. 9.35 Non-dimensional excess pressure va. non-dimeJl~
t. So that for t ::; tn sional closiuA" lime.
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 285

ever, a discussion of the various means developed

through the years for the minimization of hydraulic lOft.
10fl.
hammer effects is beyond the scope of this chapter o •••
and reference is made to [16] and [17]. 3 •.
9.8g Magnitude and Direction of Forces on
Piping Bends. At a pipe bend, forces are acting ,
during flow as a result of change in direction of the
stream which is equivalent to a change in momentum. •••
G

~u

U~V
\ H 2 ft. Compr~r

FIG. 9.37 Sample compressor piping configuration.

General estimates:
FIG. 9.36 Forces at pipe bend.
Structural moment of inertia of 3" Schedule 80
The magnitude and direction of these forces arc as pipe I = 3.88 in'
indicated in Fig. 9.36 and in the relation: EI = 3.88 X 29 X 10' = 113 X 10' lb in.'
F = 2QU cosO (9.93) Weight of pipe = 10025Ib/ft.
where Q = mass flow rate, slugs/sec. Speed of sound in gas C = V1'RT.
U = velocity of fluid, ft/sec. R = ::U~n::i.:.v.::er:.:s::a::.1""g>:a~s-=c:.:o::.n::s::.:ta:::I::.:)t
F = force on bend, lb. MoW.
In the case of pulsating flow, e.g. from a recipro- For air at T = 60 F, l' = 1.4, MoW. = 29,
cating compressor, the mass flow rate Q is a periodic C = 1120 ft/sec.
time function leading to a cyclic bend force F. The i--c-::-:-:--~

~
1.27 29 680
resultant effect is then a periodic excitation, with For gas C = 1120 - - X - X -
1.4 10 520
magnification in the case of structural resonance
with the pulsation. = 2075 ft/sec.

9.9 Illustration of Vibration Analysis of a 9.9b Estimates of Structural Natural Fre-

Simple Piping System quencies of Piping System
9.9a General Data and Estimates. The piping Pipe C-D W = 10 X 10.25 = 102.5 lb.
configuration in Fig. 9.37 was selected for the I. = 10 ft.
purpose of illustrating a possible practical applica-
1. Fixed Ends
tion of the material contained in the preceding
From Table 901
sections:
Fundamental bending frequency
Compressor Characteristics:
Single stage, double acting, steam driven.
I113 X 10'
In = 1.69 '\1102.5 X (10)3 = 56.3 cps
Weight = 15,000 lb.
Inlet pressure = 415 to 665 psia. 20 For simply supported ends (C and D)
Discharge pressure = 1100 psia.
0.743
Discharge temperature = 220 F. In = - -
1.69
X 56.3 = 24.7 cps
Gas molecular weight 10.
Adiabatic constant, l' = 1.27 Bend D-E-F (90°)
Inlet temperature = 100 F.
I. = 13ft· I.1 = 10 = 0.77
Speed and flow rate schedule: 'I. 13

Table 902 ]V = 13 X 10.25 = 133 lbs

% load From Fig. 9.13 we have (by linear interpolation)
100% 75% 50%
~ 133 X (13)
113 X 10·
Speed, rpm 250 156 101 In = 1.47 3 = 30.0 cps
Piston Displ., drn 40 25 1601
286 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The fundamental frequencies of Bend DIlG (or
ABC) are then obviously above 30 cps.
9.9c Estimate of Lower Bounds of Structural
Natural Frequencies. It appears from the fore-
going that the natural frequencies of the pipes or
bends, shown in Fig. 9.37, when considered restrained
by the supports, are considerably higher than the
250 cpm which corresponds to the maximum rpm of
the compressor. Therefore, resonance effects due
to the unbalance of compressor rotating masses are
not to be expectcd in this pipe system. A compressor
with a reasonably short connecting rod will also
have a fairly sizable excitation at twice its rpm
(the "secondary unbalance force"). In the example
treated, this will occur at 500 cpm. When this
secondary excitation gets into resonance it can cause
trouble, which has been observed repeatedly in
service. Nonetheless, if all joints are rigid, as
assumed, even the secondary unbalance force will
not cause resonance in the structure of Fig. 9.37.
However, it may be worth. while to estimate lower
bounds of frequcncies due to, say, possible flcxibility
of restraints. To this end consider restraint C
rcmoved first. Since point B is only 2 ft from point
A, point B may be considered as fixed (for the sake
of simplicity). The natural frequency of BCD is
obtained by considcring it as a 90° bend fixed at
Band D. Then by extrapolation from Fig. 9.13
with L , /L = 10/18,
I 113 X lOG . forcing to natural frequency (of the machine on its
fn = 1.27"\j 18 X 10.25 X (18)3 = 13.0 cps
If the flexibility of AB (in bcnding and torsion) is
also considcrcd the natural frequency would be
lower. But it appears that even if restraint C is
removed, a resonance effect at 250 cpm is unlikely.
For the most conservative estimate of 2. lower
bound of frequency, consider now that restraints
C D, and F are removed. Also assume conserva-
1
tively that} of the weight of pipe CD in addition
to the weight of DlEF is supported at point D. This
total wcight is:
W = (10 + 3 + 5) X 10.25 = 184.51b
Assume first that point li is fixed. Then liD acts as
a cantilever with a uniform mass distribution
(10.25 Ib/ft) and concentrated weight of 184.5 Ib
at the free end. By the use of eq. 9.9 in the text
I 113XIO·
fn = 0.13 "\j1}(8 X 10.25) + 184.5][(8)3J
= 4.3 cps = 258 cpm
If the flexibility of pipe Gli (in bending and torsion)
is also taken into account then by eq. 9.23
W'lf = } X 2 X 10.25 +} X 10.25 X 8
+ 184.5 = 230.6 Ib
and
113 X lOG
230.6 X (8)3
fn = 0.13 2" 2 = 3 cps = 180 cpm
1+-+3·-
8 8
In using eq. 9.23 the ratio lEI/GJ is assumed unity
for a pipe. This approximation is good enough for
the present estimates.
It appears then that a fundamental structural
natural frequency of the piping system in the rpm
range of the compressors (and therefore, a resonant
effect), is possible only if restraints C, D, and Fare
all flexible. If at least one of these is a proper
restraint, a resonance effect due to compressor rpm
is unlikely.
9.9d Effeet of Elasticity of Machine Founda-
tion. The lowest rpm of the machines is 101 rpm or
1.68 cps (Table 9.2 in Subsection 9.9a). From
eq. 9.63 or Fig. 9.19 of the text it is seen that if the
periodic force on the foundation, due to the centrif-
ugal force of an unbalanced mass, is to be reduced
to say "g" of the magnitude of the centrifugal force
itself, then, with no damping present, the ratio of
foundation) should be 3 to 1. It is also seen from
eq. 9.64 or Fig. 9.20 that, for this frequency ratio,
damping will increase rather than decrease the force
on the foundation.
For the above frequency ratio, the frequency of
the machine and (elastic) foundation is:fn = 1.68/3
= 0.5G cps. From eq. 9.5 in the text, the static
deflection of the elastic foundation is
(I 1
Ollt = - - " """"2 = 2.6 fL.
(2".)- fn
Such a ('soft" foundation might well be entirely
impractical. In that case, since the neighborhood
of a frequency ratio of unity must be avoided becausE'
of resonance (unless artificial damping is intro-
duced), the frequency ratio must be made less than
unity. If the amplitude of oscillation of the machine
itself is also reduced to say! of the ('static" ampli-
tude caused by the centrifugal force then the fre-
quency ratio should be l
Since the maximum rpm of the machine is 250
rpm or 4.17 cps, the natural frequency of the
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
machine and foundation should be equal to or
grcater than fn = 3 X 4.17 = 12.5 cps. From eq.
9.5, this corresponds to asiatic deflcction of
0" = (2~)2 f~2 = 0.0052 ft = -Ar in.
The force acting on the foundation in this case is.
very nearly equal to the centrifugal force of the
unbalanced mass, as seen from eq. 9.63 or Fig. 9.19,
and this force can be reduced only by a reduction
of the unbalance.
This example shows that at low rpm, elastic foun-
dations do not appear practical. Therefore the
designer should proceed in the opposite direction.
That is, the foundation should be made as rigid as
possible (the natural frequency of machine and
foundation being 3 to 1 or greater) while mass un-
balance of moving parts should be reduced as much
as possible.
9.ge Estimate of Hydraulic Snubber Force
and Damping Requirement for Reduction of
Amplitude of Vibration. The spring constant
of a fixed-end beam for deflection at center is
k = 8 El13 L 3 (lb/ft). Consider pipe CD shown
in Fig. 9.37. For C and D considered as fixed ends,
k = (8 X 113 X 106 )/3(10)3 = 301,500 lb/ft. The
natural frequency for this pipe was estimated to be
56.3 cps. Vibration of this pipe due to compressor
pulsation will occur at 250 cpm or 4.17 cps.
The damping coefficient requircd to reduce the
amplitude of vibration to, say, 25% of the ampli-
tude in the absence of damping is by eq. 9.45, Sub-
section 9.5a,
I = ~ [I - (4tl{56.3)2] V(4)2 - 1 = 26.0
56.3
This is an extremely large value of I and is probably
out of the practical range. The example merely
shows that viscous damping is really effective only
in the neighborhood of resonance. Indeed, from
eq. 9.46 of the same section the maximum force
transmitted by the dampener is found to be
F s = kR oll - (4.17/56.3)2]Vl - (t)2 = kR o =
300,000R o (lb), where R o is the maximum ampli-
tude of vibration (in feet) without damping. Thus,
the snubber force is practically equal to the force
required to produce in the structure a deflection
equal to the maximum amplitude RD.
In the other extreme, when thc ratio of forcing
to natural frequency (wlw n ) is large, it is seen from
eq. 9.46 that the maximum force to be transmitted
287
by the snubber is considerably greater than the
static force required to produce a deflection R o,
since for RIR o :s; ~, wlw n ;::: 3, say, the force in the
snubber is approximately Fs = kR o(wlw n )2. Let
now the maximum value of I be limited to Im.x = 1.
Then for this maximum value the amplitude ratio
(with damping versus without damping) is, from
eq. 9.44,
R 1
~' J{~(=)'r"~
Thus the amplitude reduction is only a little more
than 1% and therefore hardly of any consequence.
9.91 Resonance Effect due to Wind Velocity.
In accordance with eq. 9.1 of the text, the frequency
f (cps) of vibration induced by wind velocity
U (ft/sec) is
U U
f = 0.18 -D = 0.18 - I2 = 0.617U
o 3.5 1
or U = _f_ = 1.62N
0.617
A reasonable assumption regarding the range of the
probable fundamental frequency of the above piping
system, based on previous estimates, would be:
Lowest nat. freq. = 12 cps
Highest nat. freq. = 53 cps
The corresponding range of wind velocity is, from
the last relation,
Min U = 1.62 X 12 = 19.4 ftlsec = 13.2 mileslhr
Max U = 1.62 X 53 = 86 ftlsec = 58.5 milcslhr
Inasmuch as at least part of the range of wind
velocities of 13-58 miles per hour is quite prevalent,
a resonance vibration of the piping system, if in the
open, under steady wind conditions, appears rather
likely. Whcther this condition is serious depends on
the magnitude of stresses which, in turn, are a func-
tion of forces present during resonance. These forces
can be computed on the hasis of full dynamic air
pressure acting on the projected area of the cylinder
with a reasonable magnificat on factor (say 50)
applicable for piping resonance.
9.9g Estimate of Acoustic Natural Frequen-
cics. The speed of sound for the gas was estimated
above as approximately 2075 ft/sec. Considcr first
piping system ABCDEF, omitting for the time being
288 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the influence of branch DHG. The length of the It is seen at a glance that IIiIo = 1 cannot bc
fanner system is 33 feet. In accordance with the satisficd by thc last relation, so that due to branch
formulas given in Section 9.6 anj Appendix B, the GHD the frequency is indced changed. By trial and
lowest frequency is obtained by assuming A to be crror it is found that 1,/10 ~ 0.9 is a root of that
an acoustically closed end and F an acoustically open relation to within a good approximation, so that
end. The fundamental aeoustie period is then
h ~ 0.9 X 15.7 = 14.1 cps
. 4L 4X33
PcrlOd = - = - - - = 0.0635 see. It is seen that thc fundamental acoustic frequency
C 2075
bascd on all branches is less than the frequency
and thc fundamental frequcney is which results when branch DHG is omitted.
1 9.9h Estimate of Acoustic Frequency of the
10 = 0.0635 ~ 15.7 cps System Corresponding to its First Harmonic
(2nd Mode). It may be of interest somctimes to
Due to the existence of branch DHG, the actual estimate the acoustic natural frcquency of the first
fundamental acoustic frequcney is different. The harmonic corresponding to the second acoustic mode.
effect of the second branch will now be cstimated In accordance with the results given in Subsection
from relations given in Subsection 9.6c assuming 9.6c
that end G is acoustically closed, as was assumed
for end A. The branches are ABCD, GHD, and
DEF. Since the areas of all branches are the same, tan C; - 1.3 ~; 10) = tan C30; 10) + tan G; 10)
the general relation given in the above subsection
reduces in this case, for joint D, to: By trial and error it is found that a root of this tran-
scendental equation is Idio = 2.16, so that!, = 2.16
(1r
I 2 0 ) +tan - --+,s
tan - --+,s
210 33 210 33
(1r
I 1 0 ) =tan (1011"
--+,s
3310
I ) X 15.7 ~ 34 cps. The ratio of thc first harmonic to
the fundamental acousticfrequency isidil = 34/14.1
= 2.4. In a single branch with constant cross
Branch ABCD Branch GHD Branch DEF sections the ratio would be 3 : 1. In general, it
In view of the assumption that ends A and G are appcars then that the effect of branch GHD is to
acoustically closed, and since the pipe areas arc reduce the fundamental and higher acoustic fre-
constant, quenCIes.
9.9i Estimates of Some Possible Resonator
,s (Branch ABCD) = 0, ,s (BranehGHD) ~ 0
Frequencies. Consider the system in Fig. 9.37
So that the relation is: with some modifications, as shown in Fig. 9.38. All
piping, except where indicated, is of 3! in. OD
tan (1011" -!i+,sI)~tan(101I" -!i)+tan(511"-!i) (9.94) (3 in. IPS) pipe. Pressures, temperatures, etc. arc
3310 3310 3310
as given in Subsection 9.9a. All equations used are
(DBF)
givcn in Section 9.8 or Appendix B.
Since the area in branch DEF is constant, {(phase"
10~ dio.
,s1 is constant for the entire branch. On the other
hand, end P was assumed acoustically "opcn/'
whence

R,
fJ
= 1l:2 L) m~ 1 3 5· ..
(m - 10' I ,

Hence, from the relation above, and for the funda-

mental mode (m = 1)

1011"
tan [ - - II
+-
3310 2
11"(1--
10
h)J =tan (1011"
--
3310
II) +tan (511"
--
3310
II)
lorgo
Vouol Pultolion
Damponer
l' dio.

This is a transcendental equation for the ratio IIiIo

where 10 = 15.7 cps as calculated above for a simple
line ABCDBF with A acoustically closed and F FlO. 9,38 Inclusion of pulsation dampeners in
acoustically open. compressor piping system.
, VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL 289
10'
1. Consider a pulsation dampener as a Ilcavity"
resonator (one cavity):
'.,

l' = ": X 12 X 2 = 1.57 ft 3 ; 5'

4
L = 0; Pulsation PuliOlion 2'

N~P'""
A = -,.- X (3.5)2
-
4
= 0.07 ft 2 .
12 ' lP~'k 3'

~ = 2
fA = 2 '1/4
'1/-; fD2 = D = 3.5
12 = 0.29 ft;
FIG. 9.39 Pulsation dampener system parallel configuration.

Volume=2X 1.57+ (5+ 1O+5)XO.07=4.5 ft 3

G = 2075 ft/see' I' (per neck) = 0.022 ft. Therefore
Hence, for one cavity: f = 2075 ~2X.022 =32 cps
2,.- 4.5
f = 2075 ~0.29
- - - - = 142 cps
2,.- 1.57 20'5
A = -'-=65 ft>30 ft
32 -
.-1. second cavity will not change this result materi-
ally. We have also Hence, the above calculations will not be greatly
in error. r is very small.
~ = G/f = 2075/142 = 14.6 ft» 2 ft 4. On the other hand consider the system above
(typical ehamher dimension), as shown with flow in one direction (Fig. 9.40).
thus satisfying a condition for using the ahove
equations.
The damping coefficient due to communication
1',
with outside fluid is:
I = ~I'/A = ~ X 0.29/14.6 = om. 1/0,=1).3=#1 V,=V,=V
For lower frequencies, r is even smaller, as will be FIG. 9.40 Pulsation damrener system in-line configun~tion.

::icen.
2. Consider now a snubber with a 3 ft long neck Then it is found from the equations given in Sub-
(distance from compressor). Then section 9.61> that:

L = 3 ft;
A
!I=2~~; f 2 =!2
2,.-
~I' + 21'2
V
~ = . A = 0.Q7 ft 2;
L+~v;;:A' a. I' '" 0
Then
0.Q7
and I' = . /
3 = ~ v 0.07,.-
= 0.022 ft. a r;
fm'n = 2,.- 'l/v = 2,.-
2075 ~0.022 .
1.57 = 40 cps as In case 2.
f = 2075 10.022 = 40 cps b. Suppose, however, that the end entrances are
2,.- '1/ 1.57 closed, then I' = 0 and
2075 G /21'2
~ = - = 52 ft» 3 ft.
40 fm'n = 2,.- 'l/v
1 0.022 0.07 f
1=---=2XlO-' 1'2 = = 0.0034 t
2 52 . 20 + ~VO.Q7,.-
It is seen that in this case (' is quite small and the 2075 ~2 X 0.0034 2
influence of this damping is, in general, of no con- and f = - - = 7 cps;
2,.- 1.57
sequence.
3. Consider BG])H as a chamber with two en- 2075
trances (Fig. 9.39):
A= 27» 24 It; I is small.
290 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
12' Consider a "bottle" 12 in. in diameter and 2 ft long.
Chamber
lO"dio. The volume is

S'
Nod<
diG,
.-
3; 3,-,-
dig.
S'
Nod< 4
"
V = - X 12 X 2 = 1.57 cu ft

On the basis of uniform gas density, the ratio of

FIG. 9.41 Header pipe. "bottle" volume to volume flow rate per stroke per
piston is:
5. It may be of interest to consider a header pipe
as shown in Fig. 9.41.
!.. = 1.57 = 33.4
V' 0.047
I' = 0.07 = 0.0085 ft Figure 9.30 in the text or eq. B.48 (Appendix B)
8 + !VO.o7" shows that for an attenuation factor of 20, the pres-
sure drop required between the tank and the piping
V = :': (10)2 X 12 = 6.5 ft' system is 2!% of mean tank pressure, or 0.025 X 1100
4 12
= 27.5 psi.
f = 2075 /2 X 0.0085 = 17 cps For the same attenuation factor (95% reduction
2" '\j 6.5 of pulsation amplitude), and a 4 ft long "bottle" of
12-in. diameter the pressure drop required is only
2075 1.2% of mean tank pressure or about 13 psi out of
A= - = 122 ft » 30 ft
17 llOO.
Check with Some Test Data. The data given below
r= 3.5 X 10-5
are taken from a British report [22].
It appears from all of the above results that the The following results appear to be applicable:
only possible source of resonance (resonator type) of
Effective % pressure drop = 3%
4 cps, or 8 cps due to compressor higher harmonic
Effective volume ratio V/V' = 4
pulsation (500 rpm), may pcrhaps occur in the sys-
tem representing the long end pipe terminating in a Reduction factor of amplitude of pipe vibra-
large vessel. Such a system will possess a low res- tion after installation, as measured, was
onator frequency and, in accordance with the re- 2! to 3.
marks in Section 9.6, can be calculated on the basis
Now from eq. B.48 we have
of a simple long-necked resonator, quite apart from
the rest of the system. Attenuation Factor = A.F. =
9.9j Estimate of Volume and Pressure Drop
/ ( 0.03)2 _ 3
Requirement of Hydraulic Filters (Bottles) in '\j 1 + 27r X 0.75 _ 0.485 -
the COIn pressor Discharge Lines. It is thought
that an attenuation factor of 20, corresponding to a If it is assumed, as is indeed reasonable and as is
reduction of 5% to compressor pulsations from an pointed out in the above report, that the amplitude
average fiow rate, is a minimum requirement. of piping vibration is directly proportional to the
As shown in Table 9.2, the maximum flow rate at amplitude of pulsation (forces acting on bends
intake per compressor is 40 cfm at 250 rpm. Now, primarily), then it appears that the result given by
the average density ratio on discharge side vs. intake eq. B.48 (Appendix B) agrees with the measured
is approximately result.
Pdi~r.h:l.rc:c 1100 100 + 460 1.7
In view of the fact that a uniform average gas
Pintnkc = 415 + 665 X 220 + 460 density is implied it is thought that these results are
conservative. Pulsation dampeners, with their
2
feature of selectivity, ought to yield better smoothing
Therefore, maximum discharge = 40/1. 7 = 23.5 efm. with the same volume capacity and pressure drop
Hence, for a double-acting single piston compressor (see Subsection 9.8b).
the discharge volume flow rate per stroke per piston 9.91< Tuned Hesonator Geometry. Consider a
is approximately resonator volume equal to snubber volume of 1.57
23.5 f cu ft. Suppose it is desired to tune to W n = 250/60
V' = = 0.047 cu t
cps = 26 rad/sec. Consider a single cavity, with
2 X 250

______________iiiIl
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
"acoustic conductivity" 1'. Then, with C = 2075
ft/sec (speed of sound in fluid), 26 = 2075VI'/1.57.
Or. I' = 1.57(26/2075)2 = 2.5 X'10---< ft.
a. Assume at first a very thin walled cavity,
L «~v;;:A. Then
I' = 2 ~~ = 2.5 X 10---<;
or A = 5 X 10--8 ft 2 = 7 X 10-6 in 2
For circular opening
'lrD 2
.- = 7 X 10-6 • D = 0.003 in.
4 '
b. Assume now a wall thickness of abont 0.3 in.,
then, as will appear, L» ~V'irA, and I' ~ A/(0.3/12)
= 2.5 X 10-4 ft = 3 X 10-3 in.; A = 0.75 X 10---<
in?; and for circular area, D = 0.01 in. For distrib-
uted cavities, the cavity area and diameter will be
still smaller.
rt is seen from the calculations that the design of
tuned resonators for low frequencies is not practical
because very small cavities are required. This
difficulty can only be overcome by increasing either
the resonator volume or the neck length. This
means an increase in dimensions. In addition, long
narrow necks tend to get clogged up, requiring
troublesome maintenance. On the other hand, if the
desired tuning frequency were higher, say by a
factor of 10, then the required cavity sizes wonld
become reasonable and, in conjunction with a rea-
sonable orifice pressure drop, a tuned resonator
might be superior to an ordinary filter. Indeed, if
it is required to tune for only a narrow band of
forcing frequencies the tuned resonator is superior to
a filter ("bottle" with orifice), as soon as the fre-
quency is high enough, making the resonator design
practical [15J. For wider frequency band tuning
requirements, additional calculations of pressure
drop requirements shonld bc made for a given
specific case to determine whether a simple tuned
resonator is superior to a filter. These calculations
can be made using formulas given in Subsection g.8a.
rt should be noted that wider bands of attenuation
at relatively high frequeneies (say above 10 eps) can
be obtained by combining tuned resonators and
expansion chambers.
9.10 Piping Vibration "Trouble Shooting"
9.lOa Background. The foregoing sections of
this chapter presented fundamental considerations
of piping vibration, general means for its correction
or control, and reference formulas for assistance in
291
vibration calculations. With the large number of
piping systems commonly encountered OIl process,
power, and other plants, the recognized gcnerallaek
of simple methods for natural frequency prediction of
the usually complex configurations, and the inability
to assess self-induced cxcitations, it is not presently
within the economics of plant design to perform
frequency analyses and regulate designs so as to
avoid vibration difficulties except for the most
critical applications. Accordingly, much vibration
engineering is performed in the correction of diffi-
culties encountered in initial operation. This section
will attempt to assist the engineer confronted with
this situation.
Some basic design precautions, however, will
reduce the extent of field correction. Within eco-
nomic limits, avoidance of suspected exciting in-
fluences is obviously desirable. Pulsation damp-
eners installed at the discharge of reciprocating
compressors as well as at the intakc of high pressure
or otherwise critical units serve to reduce the magni-
tude of pressure and flow oscillations within ae-
eeptablc values. Surging on discharge lines from
reciprocating pumps can similarly be reduced by the
installation of surge chambers which can be sized
using readily available formulas [22J. Certain fluid
flow conditions are known to excite vibration oc-
casionally, and should be avoided; for example, a
piping arrangement where flows enter a common
line from diametrically oppositc directions. In
reciprocating machinery it is desirable to avoid
single cylinder machines with significant unbalanced
inertia effects, which can be accentuated by in-
sufficient foundation mass and spread, particnlarly
on poor soil. Transmittal at-mechanical movements
from machinery through piping is minimized if the
system is provided with an initial flexible run and
then anchored, preferably by direct attachment to
an available massive foundation to avoid shaking
intervening structures or buildings, particularly the
compressor house; supports should be located so that
overhang or cantilevered portions are avoided, since
such portions may magnify amplitudes.
The safety and economic potentials of vibrations
should be recognized by the average designer.
Cyclic repetitions of sufficient number for a pro-
portionate stress range can result in non ductile
fractures at stress levels well below yield point as
dictated by the magnitude at local stress raisers
rather than by the primary stress level. Fractures
can be accelcrated by propagation of defects, par-
ticularly at welds or in castings. Damage can
result from rubbing wear, loosening of fastenings,
292 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
disintegration of insulation, grouting, foundations,
etc. In addition, the noise and uncertainty as to
structural integrity of noticeably vibrating equip-
ment may have adverse morale effect on operating
and maintenance personneL
The three basic characteristics of individual
vibrations have direct structural significance: (1)
frequency dictates the number of cycles and hcnce
fatigue lifc; (2) amplitude indicatcs both the maxi-
mum stress attained and the stress range, the former
a measure of hazard of yielding or direct stress
fracture and the latter of fatigue life in eombination
with the total eyeles; (3) acceleration is a mcasure
of the dynamic force producing the oscillatory
movement and which must be opposed in order to
reduce amplitude. Sincc appraisal of the hazard
involved and need for or manr.er of correction must
be related to these vibration characteristics, satis-
factory comprehension of their significance is es-
sential. Early attention during initial operation may
avoid subsequent damage of considerable magnitude.
9.lOb Vibration Measurement. Specialized
equipment for indicating or recording vibration
characteristics is available in great variety to match
the many different conditions under which measure-
ments are made. Some instruments are compact,
light in weight, and readily portable, others are
suited only to laboratory or to permanent instal-
lations. IVIechanical, electrical, or inertia actuations
are madc, Some 'with direct sensing, others using
various types of pickups such as mechanical and
electrical strain gages, Bourdon tubes, diaphragms,
or inertia devices such as accelerometers, magnetic
and induction coils, etc.
Although detailed descriptions of vibration equip-
ment are beyond the scope of this chapter, it may be
helpful to classify the general types of equipment
and their indicated usefulness.
A. Mechanical V ibrometers. Most instruments
are of the recording type, and applicable to low or
moderate frequencies with the amplitude magnified
for improved measurement. Compact and rugged
types which are suitable for wide usage are available
at reasonaQIe prices. Included in this classification
are conventional recording instruments for pressure,
flow, etc.
B. Reed Vibrometers. This is a most useful and
economic type which is widely employed on rotating
machinery, and generally applicable to frequencies
over lOcps. The range is wide and accuracy entirely
satisfactory for structural purposes. They are
generally used for frequency determination, but can
also be used for approximate amplitude evaluation.
C. Electric and Eleetronic Meters. This classifi-
cation covers a wide variety of electrical, electronic,
magnetic, and induction devices used singly or in
combination for standardized or special instru-
ments to indicate or record vibration characteristics.
Some types are highly specialized, such as sound
meters, consisting of a microphone pickup, amplifier,
and a decibel reading indicator, which is useful for
analyzing flow noise and attendant vibration and
also for general sonic frequency measurement.
Most of the available units are based on resonance
principles, with adjustment of the natural frequency
of the instrument to coincide with that of the system
under study.
D. Stroboscopic Deuices. These instruments are
useful in studying large amplitude vibration. Illu-
mination of parts by timed flashes of light of short
duration creates the illusion of stopping or slowing
the movement depending on the relation between
the flash frequency and the frequency of vibration.
By slowing down the vibration until it can be
followed by the eye, simultaneous observation of
several points is possible.
In the absence of specialized equipment, a general
idea of vibration characteristics can be obtained
under favorable conditions. Visual observation of
pointer movements on an indicating gage against
timing with a stop watch ean be applied towards
estimating the amplitude and frequency of oscil-
lations of pressure, flow, liquid level, etc.; where
available motion pictures can be employed, the film
speed or a clock included in the picture providing
timing, and the successive photographs the range
and number of surges. For high frequencies, indirect
means can sometimes be employed, i.e. obtaining
fluid oscillations as a measurement of the forced
vibrations of the containing pipe, vessel, or structure.
For structural oscillations, visual observation and
moving pictures again provide a satisfactory ap-
proach for low frequencies; this can be accomplished
by following the structure movement directly, by
usinga dial gage actuated by a cord, or by using a tran-
sit, telescope, or telephoto lens. A simple recording
device for moderate frequency vibrations is the use of
a conventional recorder at its maximum chart speed;
the mechanism actuating the pen is disconnected
from the sensing element and made to respond to a
cord opposing its return spring; the cord is attached
to the structure under study and the resulting record
shows the amplitude to full or amplified scale.
Higher frequencies can be approximated by varying
the cord length of a pendulum attached to the
 VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
structure under observation until resonance is
approachcd, then calculating the corresponding
natural frequency for this dimension; a light wire
cantilever can be similarly used (simulating a reed
vibrometer), varying the free length until resonance
is at a maximum; amplitude can be roughly approx-
imated in the same manner as for reed vibrometers.
Recording at night the motion of a light attached to
a mechanical strain gage, or similar multiplier, on
a film in a still camera, slowly rotated through a
timed interval, will provide an approximate trace
from which frequency can be obtained and ampli-
tude assessed.
9.10c "Trouble Shooting" Procednre. When
confronted with a specific case of piping vibration, a
first step is to assess the need for immediate action.
In some cases the situation is sufficiently serious to
cause a shutdown for correction or measures to
limit the amplitude of vibration. On the other hand,
it is frequently possible and entirely adequate to
reduce amplitudes of pipe or strueture vibration by
providing temporary braces, supports, cables or
rod ties, guides, or similar restraints, so long as care
is taken to avoid possible thermal expansion diffi-
eulties on shutdown or during temporary oper-
ational upsets. Subsequently the temporary re-
straint is replaced by a permanent installation
designed to avoid resonance and yet to be compatible
with the requirements of the piping system for
expansion movements. In borderline cases, where
there is doubt about the seriousness of vibration,
an approximate idea of the actual maximum ampli-
tude should be obtained for comparison with the
corresponding stress obtained from simplified beam
ealculations. Where the full range of stress (based
on double amplitude) exceeds 2 X yield point of the
material in the most highly stressed local area,
imminent danger of failure exists, while lower
stresses may be compared with the SIN (stress vs.
number of cycles) curve for that material as an
indication of probable life in the absence of harmful
defects. It is emphasized that fatigue failure is
related to peak stress, so that nozzles, flanges, etc.
where local stresses above the average level exist are
focal points for possible failure.
More permanent corrective measures usually
require assessment of the vibration characteristics,
prefcrably by vibrometer reeords, otherwise by the
most effective substitute approach which can bc
devised. Interpretation of this information must
take into account extraneous effects and operating
variables. Unless structural and acoustic natural
frcqucncies of the system are available from the
293
original design, rough calculations should be made to
assist in appraisal of the data. A comparision of the
field readings and calculated natural frequencies
should yield a rough indication as to whether the
vibration is of a forced or self-excited origin, and if
of the former type, whether resonance is indicated.
Where the trace exhibits a single period corre-
sponding to the structural or acoustic frequency of
the system under examination, it can be assessed as
a forccd vibration approaching resonance if the
pulsations are of appreciable magnitude. If the
oscillation does not coincide with a natural period
of the system, it can be of either a forced or self-
excited origin, with the former generally more likely.
Further assessment of its nature can be accomplished
by altering the variables of either the system or the
operation, such as temporary supports or restraints,
changes in flow vclocity by throttling, or variations
in machine speed. With this increased data the
exciting influence may be recognized. It must bc
appreciated that self-excited vibration is nonlinear
and therefore a most difficult vibration phenomenon
to analyze. Proof of its presence must usually rest
on elimination of all possible external sources of
disturbance, and corrective measures similarly must
usually depend on experiment with and changing of
simplified components and influence.
With thc frcquency and nature of vibration
determined, the next step is a search for a possible
source, so as to eliminate it if practicable. As ex-
amples, the speed of a rotating machine may be
changed, taking into account the resulting effect on
flow, or unbalance of the machine corrected; similarly
the speed of reciprocating equipment may bc
changed, which would also alter flow pulsations.
Specialized equipment such as flow dampeners and
surge tanks are effective in eliminating periodic
surges in flow from reciprocating compressors,
pumps, engines, etc.
Corrective measures also include means for
limiting amplitude or acceleration and concurrent
stress, such as stops, guides, damping devices, the
design of which is, in general, covered in Ch.apter 8.
Finally, it must be pointed out that interpre-
tation of vibration data is a difficult task. Reeords
obtained in thc field will frequently show a diversity
of small and completely random oscillations (noise)
superimposed on systematic oscillations of larger
magnitude, often masking the effcct of the systematic
excitation. The difficulty is particularly evident in
the case of acoustic oscillations in view of the exist-
ence of many acoustic modes and misleading effects
due to the acoustic characteristics of the instrument
294 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
and connecting tubing. As a rule, however, vi-
brations of the noise type are so small as to be non-
dangerous. Usually only the well developed sinus-
oidal vibrations are so large that they have to be
reduced in amplitude for safe operation.
References
1. J. P. Den Hartog, Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill
Book CO' 1 New York, 1940.
2. S. Timoshenko, Vibration Problems in Engineering, D.
Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1937.
3. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Vol. II II, Dover Publi-
cations, 1945.
4. A. E. H. Love, The Afathematiazl Theory of Elaslif:ily,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1927.
5. P. M. Morse, Vibration and Sound, 1-IcGraw Hill Book
Co., New York, 1936.
t). H. F. Olsen, Dynamical Analogies, D. Van Nostrand Com-
pany, New York, 1943.
7. J. J. Stoker, Non-linear Fibrations, Inwrscience Pub-
lishers, New York, 1950.
8. S. Timoshenko (revised by J. P. Den Hartog), "Vibra-
tion,fl in L. S. Marks, cd., Mechanical Enginur's Hand-
book, pp. 486-504, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1951.
9. R. O. Fehr, HVibration and Noise Control," in C. Car-
michael, cd., Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Handbook,
Design and Production Volmne, John Wiley & Sons, New
York,1950.
10. C. E. Crede, t'ibration and Shock Isolation, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1951.
] 1. H. S. Ryder and E. K. Gatcombe, "Designing Vibration
Absorbers," Machine Design, V. 21, No. 11, pp. 142-145
(1949).
12. S. Goldstein, Modern DelTclopment:> in Fluid Dynamics,
Vol. II, Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1938.
13. G. W. Housner, IlBending Vibrations of a Pipeline Con-
taining Flo\ying Fluid," J. Appl. MecJwnics, Vol. 19,
PI'. 205-208 (June 1952).
14. T. Warming, "Polar Diagrams for Tuning of Exhaust
Pipes," 'Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, No. I, pp. 31-33 (1946).
15. D. D. Davis, Jr., et aL, "Theoretical and Measured
Attenuation of r..,lufficrs ... ," NACA T.N. 2893, Feb.
1953.
16. H. Rouse, cd., Engineering Hydraulics, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, H)50.
17. T. W. Reynolds, "Water Hammer in Pipe Lines," Heating
and" Ventilating, Vol. 49. No.7, pp. 83-90 (1952).
18. E. G. Chilton and L. R. Handley, "Pulsations in Gas
Compressor Systems," Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, No.6,
1'1'.931-941 (1952).
19. C. N. Taylor, l/How to Stop Troublesome Pulsations
Without Excessive Pressure Drop," Oil Gas J., Vol. 52,
No. 44, PI'. 101-102, 105, 112; Vol. 52, No. 45, PI'. 113-
114,117,150 (1954).
20. M. L. Arnold, llExperiences in Dampening Pulsations in
Compressor Piping Systems," Oil Gas J., Vol. 50, No. 23,
PI'. 109-110, 141-142 (Oct. 1951).
21. Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Ltd., Engineering Develop-
ment Department, Abad.'1.n, Iran, <lClark Compressor
Piping Vibration. Effect of Fitting Pulsation Damping
Orifices," Engineering Report No. 415, January 27,1947.
22. E. G. Chilton and C. R Handley, "Pulsation Absorbers
for Reciprocating Pumps," ASME Paper 53-A-81,
August, 1953.
23. K. Groth, "Untersuchung liber Schwingungen in der
Druckleitung von Kolbenverdichtern," Z., VD1, Band
19, Forschungshefi 440, pp. 5-22 (1953).
2,1. V. F. Albert and G. S. McGinnis, "1-1ultiple Helmholz
Resonators," J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., July, 1952. "
________4

History and Derivation
of Piping Flexibility Analysis
T HIS appendix is principally of gencral back-
ground interest in the study of piping flexi-
bility analysis. It consists of (1) a brief his-
torical review, (2) a rather complete bibliography
of published matter on the subjcct, and (3) the
derivation of the various formulas entering into the
calculations. It contains material which was with-
held from Chapter 5 in order to enhance that chap-
ter's usefulness to the calculator as a working
reference.
A.I History of Piping Flexibility and Stress
Analysis
Three decades ago the treatmcnt of thc expansion
problem was crude and patterned largely either on
the analysis of elementary structural frames, or on
manufacturers' data for simple expansion configura-
tions (such as the lyre bend) for which experimental
confirmation was limited to isolatcd tcst data. These
load deflection values were never fully reconcilcd
with analyses, largely because the peculiarities of
curved pipe were not understood.
At the present time a somewhat overwhelming
variety of so-called "methods" of analysis confronts
the piping engineer. Closer inspection, however,
will reveal that in many cases the differences are
largely superficial and concern dctails such as the
order of succession of operations or the manner of
recording the calculations. In order to arrive at
results of comparable accuracy and reliability, the
required quantity of work inevitably remains much
the same.
In the following brief rcview of the extensive lit-
erature on piping flexibility and attendant stress
calculations, it has been considered more useful to
trace the developmcnt of the various basic ap-
295
APPENDIX
proaches, rather than to adhere closely to a chrono-
logical exposition. Duplication has been avoided
with Chapter 3 to which the rcader is referred for a
historical presentation of the contributions to an
understanding of thc increased flexibility and at-
tendant stress distribution in curved pipes.
If the preliminary and inadequate developments
are passed over, Wahl [7] and Hovgaard [8] may be
considered as the pioneers in providing usable solu-
tions for single-plane configurations including pipe
bends. Shipman [9], by pre-integration of the shape
coefficients and organization of the details and sign
conventions, established the first general solution of
the single-plane problem requiring only simple math-
ematics and suitable for routine design application;
this was the most significant single contribution
made to the field of analysis. The analytical ap-
proach was further advanced by Tingey [25] who
introduced the virtual center of gravity or elastic
center, and a step further by Spielvogel and Kameros
[30, 32] who employed conjugate axes; in both ap-
proaches simplification of the displacement equa-
tions accrues from placing the origin of the coordinate
system at the virtual center of gravity of the pipe-
line which, for single plane configurations, coincides
with the elastic center, so that all moments due to
loads and reactions vanish. The resulting simplifi-
cation of the simultaneous equations is offset by the
effort involved in establishing the coordinates of the
elastic center.
Extensions of the analytical approach to space
pipe lines were first published by Hovgaard [33] and
by Karelitz and Marchant [37]; the former gives a
general solution, while the latter deals with a selected
piping system by following Wahl's individual treat-
ment of each pipe section, as combined by supcr-
296 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
position and juxtaposition, and utilizes a tabular
form and sign conventions to avoid sign errors. In
a later paper [39], Hovgaard restated the foregoing
multiplane bend solution to include the so-called
secondary effects. The Engineering Department of
the Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) presented, as an
inter-company report in 1932, the first extension of
preintegration to the space problem, in which the
shape coefficients for the additional planes were
derived from those of the basic plane by cyclic per-
mutation of the coordinates' axes. Itself an out-
growth of Shipman's one-plane development, this
contribution was carried forward by The M. W.
Kellogg Company and eventually led to the publi-
cation in 1941 of the first edition of Design of Piping
Systems [49J. This volume contained the first com-
prehensive treatment of the thermal expansion prob-
lem, offering the designer a means of solving virtually
any configuratioll, however complex, with any man-
ner of concentrated loading or restraint, the rapidly
mounting time required for the more complex solu-
tions being the sole limitation.
Shortly thereafter, the first edition of S. W. Spiel-
vogel's book [55] appeared, emphasizing the use of
the elastic center as a procedure easily followed by
the occasional user especially for single-plane appli-
cations; for multiplane systems, the secondary effects
are neglected, and the general procedure and estab-
lishment of the elastic centers are much more
complex.
The convenience of employing matrix notation
and the operations of matrix algebra as applied to
expansion problems were pointed out by Hoath
[72, 73J and Brock [96], while Johnson [991 described
application of the Kellogg General Analytical
Method to programmed calculations by automatic
punched card machines.
Other analytical developments which may be
mentioned are the dynamical analogy of Poritsky
and Snively [44], and the column analogy of Wolo-
sewick [691; De Hart [61, 69, 75, 87] introduced
analysis by relaxation or IImoment distribution l' as
it is more familiarly known to structural engineers.
In addition to the purely analytical approaches,
a grapho-analytical method was presented by
Crocker and McCutchan [13, 65]. This involves a
successive-step solution which is readily visualized
and accordingly recommends itself to the occasional
user for relatively simple problems, although care
in guarding against sign errors is necessary.
Of the completely graphical approaches, Mitchell's
[11] is limited to lines of constant moment of inertia
with two fixed ends; square corners are substituted
for curved members, and the assumption regardin~
the position of the axis as parallel to a line passing
through the end fixations is untenable in the abscnce
of a complete symmetry, and may lead to consider-
able error. Cocks [161 provided an excellent graphi-
cal treatment of bends in space, using the simplify-
ing assumption of a shear modulus equal to one-half
of the modulus of elasticity in tension, by which til('
torsional rigidity is made equal to the rigidity in
flexure. This assumption is valid only for the
fictive limit of Poisson's ratio = 0; thcrefore tor-
sional deflections are underestimated accordingly.
and over-all stiffness exaggerated. Bridge [69], utiliz-
ing Cocks' modulus assumption , introduced all
improvement of Mitchell's method through a modi-
fication in the empirical positioning of the thrust axb-;.
The use of presolved equations for the general
one-plane configuration into which dimensionally
dependent factors are introduced as obtained from
specific charts or tables for each arrangement is co\'-
ered by Wert and Smith together with other col-
laborators [24, 31, 43], Markl [88], and Spieh·ogel
[90, 91, 92]. Such chart solutions present the most
direct means for solving the selected configuration:;
but their use is limited to piping systems of fe,,·
variables in their layout geometry and hence are in-
applicable to most runs of pipe as laid out in practice.
This approach has also been used to solve space
problems, although its usefulness is further limited
by an increased complexity in this application.
Over a period of seven years a series of articles,
sponsored by S. Crocker and A. McCutchan [69],
presented summaries of current piping flexibility
analysis methods; each contributing author was to
present a digest of a specific approach and calcula-
tions for each of two given problems as a basis of
comparison. Lack of space did not permit suffi-
ciently adequate treatment for these articles to be
useful as a comprehensive reference compilation;
however, as a convenient summary they do provide
valuable assistance in the difficult evaluation and
recognition of an approach suitable for possible
,standardization and Code adoption.
The foregoing is limited to technical contributions
in thc English language, and a..s such covers U.S.
and British sourccs; articles have also appeared in
other language journals, which may present parallel
or possibly prior contributions. In view of the
rapid advances in piping engineering in the U.S. it is
unlikely that important non-English contributions
would be overlooked, so that a digest and chronicle
of worldwide efforts in the field is not considered
necessary. It would be remiss however not to men-
atM
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
tion the contribution of Henri Carlier [21, 26, 27, 28,
02,69] for a broad and thorough analytical approach.
The history of piping flexibility analysis. as
sketched above is admittedly lacking in complete-
ness. The supporting bibliography which follows,
however, is believed to be the most comprehensive
yet prepared and should prove useful where greater
detail is desired.
.-\..2 Bibliography on Piping Flexibility and
Stress Analysis *
1. R. C. Taggert, I<Expansion of Pipes/' Trans. ASCE,
paper 1167, December, 1910.
2. C. E. Stromeyer, "Elasticity and Endurance of Steam
Pipes," Engineering, June 19, 1914, p. 857.
3. Mechanical Expert's Dept. of Crane Co., "Pipe Bends,
Their Growing Use and Efficiency," The Valve World,
October, 1915.
4. H. Carlier, L'aptitude elastique des tuyauteriesa vapeur au
point de vue dilatation, 1920, 1923, 1925, 1927.
5. S. Crocker and S. S. Sanford, "The Elasticity of Pipe
Bends,"' Alec". Eng., Vol. 45, p. 159 (1923).
6. P. M. Gallo, flExpansion Steam Bends," Blast Furnace
& Steel Plant, Vol. 13, No.5, pp. 218-220j Vol. 13, No.6,
pp. 261-262, 265; Vol. 13, No.7, pp. 300-302 (1925).
7. A. M. Wahl, UStresses and Reactions in Expansion Pipe
Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 50, No. 15, pp. 241-255
(1928).
8. 'V. Hovgaard, uDeformation of Plain Pipe Bends, JI
J. ~MaUl. and Phys., ltf.I.T., Vol. 7, No.3, pp. 198-238
(1928).
H. \Y. H. Shipman, "Design of Steam Piping to Care for
Expansion," Trans. ASME, Vol. 51, FSP-51-52, p. 415
(1929).
to. A. M. 'Vahl, J. 'V. Bowley, and G. Back, flStresses- in
Turbine Pipe Bends," Mech. Eng., Vol. 51, pp. 823-828
(1929).
11. C. T. Mitchell, uA Graphic Method for Determining
Expansion Stresses in Pipe Lines," Trans. ASME,
FSP-52-25, Vol. 52, pp. 167-176 (1930).
12. A. McCutchan, "The Design of Piping to Secure Flexi-
bility," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 2, No.9,
pp. 738-742 (1930).
13. S. Crocker and A. McCutchan, "Elastic Properties of
Straight Pipe and Bends," in Piping Handbook (J. H.
Walker and S. Crocker), 1st Ed. (1930" pp. 499, 570.
14. R. Livingston, "Bending Stresses in Ste.a.m Pipes,"
World Power, Vol. 16, No.9, pp. 226, 228-230 (1931).
15. A. McCutchan, "Designing High Temperature Steam
Piping-Part I, Flexibility of 1000cF Line," !leating,
Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 3, No. 10, pp. 825-831; Vol. 3,
No. 11, pp. 918-923 (1931).
16. E. 13. Cocks, "The Graphical Determination of Expan~
sion Thrusts and Stresses in Steam Lines," Inst. of Civil
Eng. (London), No. 133 (1932).
17. H. earlier, "Contribution 1\ 1'6tudede l'aptitudeclastique
des tuyauteries de vapeur au point de vue dilatation,"
Chaleur & ind., Annee 13, No.3, pp. 235-242 (1932).
18. E. T. Cope and E. A. Wert, "How to Obtain Flexibility
*See also references (lJ to [33] for Chapter 3. covering the closely
related subject of the flexibility of curved pipe.
297
in Pipe Lines," POlL'er, Vol. 75, No. 12, pp. 434-488
(1932).
19. A. Thuloup, HSur Ia deformation at les tensions internes
des'tuyaux a ligne moyenne plane," Bull. Assoc. lech.
maritime el aeronuutique, No. 36, pp. 443-464 (1932).
20. R. H. Tingey, "Stresses in Pipes Due to Thermal Ex-
pansion," Mar. Eng. and Shipping Age, Vol. 37, No. 10,
pp.442-443 (1932).
21. H. Carlicr, "Contribution il. 1'6tude des deformations
6lastiques des tuyauteries 11 vapeur sous l'influence de
In dilation," Chaleur & ind., Annee 13, No. 11, pp. 617-
626 (1932).
22. S. Kameros, "Graphic Solution of Some Common Pipe
Bends," !lrolinu, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 5, No.7,
pp.342-347 (1933).
23. E. A. Wert, S. Smith, and E. T. Cope, "Detroit Edison
Engineers Present Graphs for Design of Piping for
Flexibility," Hroting, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 5,
No.8, pp. 405-408 (1933).
24. E. A. Wert, S. Smith, and E. T. Cope, A Manual for the
Design of Piping for Flexibility by the Use of Graphs,
The Detroit Edison Co., Detroit, Mich., 1934.
25. R. H. Tingey, UMethod of Calculating Thermal Expan-
sion Stresses in Piping," Mar. Eng. and Shipping Age,
Vol. 39, No.4, pp. 136-140 (1934).
26. H. Carlier, liLa tuyaulerie de vapeur-son aptilude Clas-
t'£que d absorber les effels de la dilatation," Belgium, 1935.
27. H. Carlier, flContribution a l'etude de l'aptitude elnstique
des tuyauteries de vapeur au point de vue dilatation,"
Chaleu, & ind., Annee 16, No.7, pp. 321-329 (1935).
28. H. Carlier, flContribution il. I'Ctude de l'aptitude 6las-
tique des tuyauteries de vapeur au point de vue dilata-
tion," Chaleur & ind., Annee 16, No.8, pp. 395-401
(1935).
29. F. L. Snyder, "Design of Modern Industrial Piping
systcms-Flexibilitj' of Piping," Healing, Piping and
Ai, Cond., Vol. 7, No.4, pp. 181-186 (1935).
30. S. W. Spielvogel and S. Kameros, HApplication of the
Elastic-Point Theory to Piping Stress Calculations,"
1',ons. ASME, Vol. 57, No.4, FSP-57-10, pp. 165-168
(1935).
31. E. A. 'Vert and S. Smith, Pittsburgh Piping Design
Manual, Pittsburgh Piping & Equipment Co., Sep-
tember, 1935.
32. S. \V. Spielvogel and S. Knmeros, uA Simplified Method
for Solving Piping Problems," Healing, Piping and Air
Cond., Vol. 7, No.9, pp. 425-428; Vol. 7, No. 10, pp.
474-478 (1935).
33. W. Hovganrd, IIStresses in Three-Dimensional Pipe
Benti<;," Trans. ASJfE, Vol. 57, FSP-57-12, pp. 401-476
(1935).
34. E. Schwenk, "Fcst.igkeit,<;berechnung von Hochdruck-
dampfleitungen," Arch. lVarmewirtsch., Vol. 7, No. 10,
pp. 273-278 (1936).
35. E. A. Wert and S. Smith, "Field Testa Check Analysis
of Stresses and Change of Shape in Expansion Bend,"
Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 8, No. 12, pp. 661-
664,671 (1936).
36. W. Budd and D. Cooper, HLoad-defiection Tests of
Several One-plane Expansion Bends," undergraduate
thesis, Department of Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering, M.LT., 1936.
37. G.13. Karelitz and J. H. Marchant, "End Reactions and
298 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Stresses in Three-Dimensional Pipe Lines," J. Appl.
Mechanics, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. A68-A74 (1937).
38. H. E. Mayrose, "Data Sheets for Design of Piping,"
J. Appl. Mcchani<:s, Vol. 4, No. 2:;'p. 49-51 (1937).
39. W. Hovgaard, "Further Studies of Three-Dimensional
Pipe Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 59, No.8, pp. 647-650
(1937).
40. A. M. Thycr, "Design of Piping for High Temperatures
and Pressures," J. ]mt. Engrs. Australia, Vol. 10, No.6,
pp. 203-215 (1938).
41. F. Pciter and M. J. Fish, lIA Method for Determination
of Reactions and Stresses in Expansion Pipe Bends,"
Combustion, Vol. 10, No.6, pp. 26-31 (1938).
42. O. J. Baggerud and IC W. Jernstrom, "Graphic Analysis
of Pipe Stresses," presented at 1939 meeting of the Soc.
of Naval Architects and !\.farine Engineers.
43. E. A. Wert and S. Smith, Design of Piping for Flexibility
with Flex-Anal Charts, Blaw Knox Co., Power Piping
Division, Pittsburgh, 1940.
44. H. Porits1.-y and H. D. Snively, lIStresses and Deflec-
tions of Three-Dimensional Pipe Bends," J. Appl.
Mechanta1, Vol. 7, No. I, pp. A68-A74 (1940).
45. K. Muto and T. Tunoda, "Thermal Stress of Steam
Pipes," Japanese Gov. Rys. Bull., No. 28, September,
1940.
46. K. Mute and T. Tunoda, "Thermal Stress of Three
Dimensional Steam Pipes," Japanese Gov. Rys. Bull.
No. 28, October, 1940.
47. D. R. Zeno and S. D. Vinieratos, Piping Flexibility and
Strasa, Cornell Maritime Press, New York, 1941.
48. R. G. Lovell, "Refinery Piping, Providing for Expansion
in Hot Lines," Petroleum Engr., Vol. 12, pp. 27-2S, 30
(1941).
49. The M. W. Kellogg Co. (by D. B. Rossheim, A. H. C.
Markl, H. V. Wallstrom, E. Slezak), Design of Piping
Systems, 1st Edition, 1941 (out of print; superseded by
2nd edition, 1956).
50. S. W. Spielvogel, "Stress Calculation for High Temper-
ature Piping/' Power, Vol. 85, No. I, pp. 6S-{39; Vol. 85,
No.2, pp. 67-69 (1941).
51. Mason S. Noyes, wfhermal Expansion Stresses in Pip-
ing," J. Am. Soc. Naval Engrs., Vol. 53, No.2, pp. 275-
374 (1941).
52. W. Eo Bleick, <lA Simplification in the !\Ieyer-Hovgaard
System of Pipe Stress Forms," J. Am. Soc. Naval Engrs.,
Vol. 53, No.4, pp. 775-794 (1941).
53. A. S. McCormick, lIExpansion of Formulas for Calcu-
lating Loads, Rotation and Deflection of Quarter Bends
and Tangents of Pipes," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 9,
No. I, pp. A38-A42 (1942).
54. H. Miller, "An Analyticnl Method for Determining the
Flexibility of Piping Having Two or !\Iore Anchorages,"
J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 9, No.4, pp. A165-A170 (1942).
55. S. W. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Cak:ulations Simplified,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1943.
56. A. McCutchan, llDesign of Steam Trnnsmission PiI>-
iug." Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 15, No. S,
pp. 401-404; Vol. 15, No.9, pp. 450-455 (1943).
57. A. S. McCormick, "Expansion of Formulas for Calcu-
lating Loads, Rotation nnd Deflection of Quarter Bcnds
and Tangents of Pipes," Design Data Book S, ASMB,
p. 6·!, 19-14.
58. H. E. Mayrose, "Data Sheets for Design of Piping,"
Design Data Book 1. .118MB. p. 33~ 1944.
59. B. Lochak, uSimplified and Exact Method of An:...lyata
of Reactions Developed by Expansion in a Three-
Anchor Piping System," Trans. ASME, Vol. 66, No.4,
pp. 311-318 (1944).
60. S. AusLin, "A General Analysis of High Temperature
Piping," J. Am. Soc. Naval Engrs., Vol. 56, No.4, pp.
468-502 (1944).
61. R. C. DeHart, uMoment-Distribution Analysis for
Three-Dimensional Pipe Structures," J.Appl. Mechanw"
Vol. 11, No.4, p. A188 (1944).
62. H. Carlier, HA propos de 1a question des dfformations
elastiques des clements de construction et des tuyauteries
en pnrticulier," Chaleur & ind., Annce 26, No.5, pp.
39-50 (1945).
63. A. Osbourne and R. M. Meyer, HApplication of Relaxa-
tion Method to Solution of Simultaneous Equations of
Type That Occur in Multi-Anchored Pipe Thermal
Stress Cnlculntions," J. Am. Soc. Nallal Engrs., Vol. 57,
No.5, pp. 147-165 (1945).
64. G. A. Paul, HAims of Pipe Stress Investigations," Power
Plant Eng., Vol. 49, No.9, pp. 103-104 (1945).
65. S. Crocker and A. McCutchan, "Elastic Properties
of Straight Pipe and Bends," Piping Handbook (8.
Crocker), 4th Ed., pp. 779-860j McGraw-Hili Book Co.,
New York, 1945,.
66. H. Carlier, HSur les deformations clastiques des tuyau-
teries de vapeur/' Chaleur & ind., Annee 27, No.4, pp.
85-88 (1946).
67. P. Bryan, HSimplifi(~d Pipe Line Computations," Petro-
leum Eng., Vol. 18, No.2, pp. 166-168; Vol. 18, No.3,
pp. 152-156 (1946).
68. J. Barthelemy and H. DeLeiris, HEtude de 1a dfforma-
tion et des tensions internes de tuyaux i\ ligne moyenne
plane, sans pression interne/' Bulletin assoc. tech. mari-
time et aeronautique, Vol. 45, p. 139 (1946); Vol. 46,
p. 411 (1947).
69. IlMethods of Making Piping Flexibility Analyses," a
series of papers published in Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, initinted by S. Crocker and A. McCutchan,
with the following sub-authors:
S. Crocker and A. !\.-IcCutchan, "Methods of !'o'bking;
Piping Flexibility Analyses," Vol. 18, No.6, pp. 69-73
(1946).
S. W. Spielvogel, "Elastic Center Method," Vol. 18,
No.7, pp. 78-81 (1946).
M. J. Fish, "Graphical Method," Vol. 18, No. ~J, pp.
83-88 (1946).
W. G. Hooper, "Tabular Integration Method," Vol. IS,
No. 11, pp. 70-76 (19·16).
R. C. DeHart, ll~\'!:Jment Distribution Method," Vol.
19, No.1, pp. 91-95 (1947).
H. V. WaUstrom, "Genernl Analytical Method," Vol. In,
No.5, pp. 69-7·! (19·17).
L. C. Andrews, "1-fode1 Test Method," Vol. 19, No.8,
pp. 73-77 (1947).
H. Carlier, IlMethods of Making Piping Flexibility
Analyses," Vol. 19, No.9, pp. 86-89 (1947).
F. E. Wolosewick, "Column Analogy Concept," Vol. 20,
No.9, pp. 78-81 (1948).
L. E. Partsch, "Straight Line Method," Vol. 22, No.7
pp. 92-95; Vol. 22, No. 10, pp. 94-97; Vol. 22, No. 11,
pp.94-97 (1950).
T. E. Bridge, lII-Iow to Design Piping with Required
Flexibility," Vol. 22, No. 10, pp. 94-U7; Vol. 22,
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
No. 11, pp. 94-97, 99; Vol. 22, No. 12, pp. 92-95
(1950); Vol. 23, No. I, pp. 136-139; Vol 23, No.2,
pp. 107-109 (1951). ~ 88.
J. E. Brock, If Matrix. Method," Vol. 24, No.7, pp. 78-81
(1952).
A. McCutchan and W. P. Gregory, Vol. 25, No.3, pp.
92-97 (1953).
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72. Lt. (E) P. T. Hoath, IlSteam Pipework Design in Ships."
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73. Lt. (E) P. T. Hoath, "Graphical Analytical Methods
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the Expansion of Piping Systems," Montana State Col-
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76. J. R. Finniecome, flThrust and Stresses in Two-Dimen-
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78. A. Gage, IIMcthode gcncrale d'ctablissement des formules
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partie: Tuyauterie sans contrainte en dehors des enc,as-
tremen~," Rev. gen. mecan., March, 1949, pp. 101-111;
lfDeuxieme partie: Tuyauterie avec contraintes extCri-
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79. Simon 'V. Lewaren, "Pipe Stress Analysis for Thermal
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80. L. B1anjean, "Etude de la sollicitation sous l'efTet de
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81. J. J. Blank, "Quick Check for Pipe Stress, Thrust,"
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82. C. H. Green, fiLet the Flexibility Prism Help You
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58-62 (December, 1(49).
83. Tube Turns, Inc. (A. R. C. Markl), "Introduction to the
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84. F. E. Wolosewick, "Expansion of L Type Bends,"
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86. R. T. Kent, Mechanical Engineers' Handbook, Vol. II,
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Dimensional Pipe Structures by Group Relaxation,"
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92. S. \V. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Calculations Simplified,
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102. J. E. Brock, "Matrix Analysis of Piping Flexibility,"
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sign," Healing, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 27, No.4,
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No.2, pp. 151-159 (1955).
A.3 Derivation of the General Analytical
Method
The following derivations are presented in support
of the formnlas comprising the General Analytical
Method of piping flexibility analysis, the application
of which was described in Chapter 5. The basie
equations are developed in sufficient breadth to
cover uniformly distributed as well as concentrated
loading but are applied at present only to static con-
ditions. Subsequent relationships are derived which
300 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
are specifically adapted to the respeetive effects of
thermal expansion, weight, or wind. Because of the
number of quantities needed td express the eon-
straint of a pipe line, and the usually even greater
number required to express its shape, the flexibility
formulas in their entirety are exceedingly cumber-
some expressions. The elements of which they are
composed, however, are essentially simple.
Attention is directed to the use of consistent di-
mensional units in all derivations, rather than the
units of practical eonvenience which are found in
foregoing text. Although not always dimensionally
identical the same nomenclature is used, however.
In the following presentation it is assumed that the
reader is familiar to some extent with the conven-
tions and procedures used in the application of the
method.
The flexibility formulas are founded on well estab-
G = modulus of elasticity in shear.
I = axial moment of inertia of the pipe cross
section.
J = polar moment of inertia.
k = flexibility factor in bending.
k, = flexibility factor in torsion.
The energy in torsion may be expressed more con-
veniently as:
V _l'1.3M,'
,- 0 2EI dl
if the ratio of the elasticity moduli is taken as
EIG = 2(v + 1) = 2.6 (using Poisson's ratio, v = 0.3,
the value commonly used for steel), and it is noted
that J I I = 2, and further it is accepted that k, = 1.
The total energy of bending and torsional deforma-
tion is

1, l'
lished principles of mechanics of materials. First
Mb2 M'," l'1.3M}
to be noted is the dependence on elastic theory de- V = k-dl+ k-dl+ --dl
rived from Hooke's law of the proportionality of o 2EI 0 2EI 0 2EI
(A.l)
stress to strain. Comments on the validity of this
approach will not be repeated here as they are given where the bending moment is expressed in compo-
elsewhere in the book. nents Alb and AI' h, respectively in and transverse
An assumption worthy of mention and also one to a reference plane containing the particular por-
commonly made in structural analysis, is that deflec- tion of the line, and the bending flexibility factor is
tions are small in proportion to the size of the con- considered to be the same for both in-plane and
figuration so that changes in position and shape of transverse bending.
a member may be ignored in their effect on flexibility The displacement under external loads of any
of the whole.' point in an elastic body is easily found from the
Another assumption that will be made temporarily strain energy by the use of the Theorem of Casti-
in order to simplify the presentation is that the gliano. This theorem states that the deflection, op,
effects of direct axial compression or extension, or of in the direction of and at the point of application of
shear deflection, are negligible in comparison with a force F p, is given by the partial derivative of the
the transverse bending and torsional effects. Later strain energy with respect to the force F p' Thus at
in the development, inclusion of all these effects will a point located by the generalized coordinate p:
be discussed.
Considering the pipe as a prismatic bar under the
0--
aV
influence of a bending moment M b which is variable p - aF p
with respect to the pipe length I the total stored
strain energy is: The rotation, Bp , is similarly related to the moment,

Vb --1' 0
kM b
2

2EI d I
Mp:
aV
Op = aMp
Under a torsional moment M, the stored energy is

v, --1' 0
k,M,'
2GJ dl
Thus the general expressions for the rot~tions and
displacements can be written:
where
B = modulus of elasticity in tension.
op =EI
1- [1'
0
aMb
kMb-Qdl+
aMp
1" 0
aM',
kMb--Qdl
aMp
lHescrvations must be made in the cnsc of local compo-
nents where effects such as cross-sectioOlll flattening of 11. +1
, 0
aM
1.3M, aM; Q dl
]
bend afC significant.
 HISTOHY AND DEHIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 301

I
Op = EI [1'o
aM b
kMb-Qdl+
aFp
l' 0
aM'b
kM'b--Qdl
aF p
With suitable values of these moments and forces,
the free end can be brought to a position of zero

1,
~
aM ] of a completely fixed end. Moments and forces thus
+ 1.3M'-F'Qdl
o a
in which EI/Q represents stiffness.
Figure A.I illustrates a pipe line in space assumed
completely fixed at one end, point 0', and free to
rotate and deflect at the other end, point A. The
origin of the standard coordinate system is located
at an arbitrary point, O. The line is considered
weightless, but one member denoted as NF is acted
upon by positive unit. loads, W:rl WIll W Z1 acting in the
three coordinate dir~ctions, the total loading being
w.L, wyL, w,L. The letters Nand F indicate
respectively the point nearest and farthest away
from the fixed end 0'.
Due to the applied loading, the pipe will deform,
°
causing rotations O~, 111 0::, and deflections Ox, aliI
0" at the free end, A. These deformations can be
altered by applying the moments M'.. M' y, M'"
and the forces F.. F y , F, at the end A, thus making
it possible to represent any degree of constraint 2
2By constraint is meant the external relation between the
deformations at the point of reactions, and the reactions
themselves.
deformation thereby conforming to the constraint
I p
determined will constitute the reactions of an
(A.2) anchor upon the pipe. Similarly any system, how-
ever complex, can be treated as a fictitious canti-
lever loaded by known loads and by unknown loads
(reactions) which result from known displacements.
Constraint may be partial or even clastic as long
as its variation can be expressed analytically.
Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on the member
NF whose length is L. The length of the portion of
the member from F to P is denoted as I and its
inclination3 at P is measured positive in the counter-
clockwise direction from the positive horizontal
axis and is denoted as,p. The coordinates of the
center of gravity of member l are x', y', Z', The
internal moments in the pipe at the point Pare
functions of the moments and forces at A and the
uniform loading from F to P. For an arbitrary
point between 0' and N the internal moments are
functions of the moments and forces at A and the
3While the member NF is shown in Fig. A.1 as an inclined
straight member, the relationships are developed so as to
apply equally well to a curved member. Hence, "', the. inclinfl.-
tion at PI is treated as a variable.

/ v1\ A'" '=7/'

l/~ p F
f, /
1/<,
1/
M~h~:/ f.
Y
y~
f. Y
Y,

Y , y'
O' 0
~- /
-/ •
'/
-" •
,/ •
"

Uniform looding Uniform looding Uniform looding

in x Oireciion in y Oireciion in :t Oireciion
Tolot lood= ....>\l TOlallood= ....yl TOlolload= .... ~l

FIG. A.I Pipe line configuration and loading.

302 DESIGN OF 1'lPING SYSTEMS
entire load on L. For a point between P and A, only
the moments and forces at A apply.
The member NF is assigned to-the z plane; hence
the bending moment M, in the plane of the member
is an M, moment. The bending moment transverse
to the member, "It!' b, and the torsional moment, jjl tJ
are expressable in terms of 111% and M 11 moments.
Thus for the point P(x, Y, z) located between Nand
F, the bending moment components and the tor-
sional moment assume the following form:

M', = [M'. - F,(xA - x) + F,(zA - z) - w,l(x' - x)] cos'"

- [M', - Fu(zA - z) + F,(YA - y) + w,ICfj' - y)] sin '" (A.3)

M, ~ [M', - Fu(zA - z) + F,(YA - y) + w,l(y' - y)] cos'"

+W~-~~-x)+~~-z)-~l~-x)]~n",

For another point (x, Y, z) between 0' and N the relations are:

M', = 1M'. - F,(xA - x) + F,(z.1 - z) + w,L(i - z) - w,L(x - x)] cos'"

- 1M', - Fu(zA - z) + F,(YA - y) - wuL(i - z) + w,L(fj - y)J sin '" (A.3)

Af, ~ 1M', - Fu(zA - z) + F,(YA - y) - wyL(i - z) + w,LCfj - y)] eos '"

+ [M'. - F,(xA - x) + F,(zA - z) + w,L(i - z) - w,L(x - x)] sin '"

The partial derivatives of these moment expressions which are required in the general rotation and dis-
placements formulas (eq. A.2) are:

aM,=O aM,
aM', aM', = + cos'"

aM,=O aM, .
aM' --, = + Sill '"
• aM"
aM,
---0
al~l' z -

aM, .
aFr = +(z..,-z) sm '"

aM' aM,
~= +(ZA -z) sin '" - - = - (ZA -z) cos '"
all 11 aF y

aM, .
aF, =+(YA-Y)COS"'-(xA-x)sm'"
 HISTORY ANIJ DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 303
From eqs. A.2 and A.3 the following equations are obtained:

EIO, =
0'
+M',l (1.3cos',p+ksin',p)Qdl

0'

1
+M'v A (1.3-k) sin,p cos,p Q dl

0' .
+F,l (z.• -z) (1.3-k) sin,p cos,p Q dl

0'

1
-F v A (zA-z)(1.3cos',p+ksin',p)Qdl

0' (A.4)
+F,l [(YA -y)(1.3 cos' ,p+k sin',p) - (XA -x)(1.3-k) sin ,p cos ,pJQ dl

0'
+w,L1, (i-z)(1.3-k)sin,pcos,pQdl

0'
-wvL
INr (i-2)(1.3 cos' ,p+k sin' ,p)Q dl

+w,L 1, 0'
W;-y)(1.3 cos' ,p+k sin' ,p)- (x-x)(1.3-k) sin,p cos ,p)]Q dl

+w, iN Wi' -y )(1.3 cos' ,p+k sin',p) - (x' -x)(1.3-k) sin,p cos ,pllQ dl

EIO v =
0'
+M',l (1.3-k) sin,pcos,pQdl

+ M' y 1 0'
(k cos' ,p+ 1.3 sin' ,p)Q dl

0'
+1-',1A (z,-z)(kcos',p+1.3sin',p)Qdl
•

0' (A.4)
1
-I-', A [(x,,-x)(kcos',p+1.3sin',p)-(YA-y)(1.3-k) sin,pcos,pJQdl

0'

1
+w,L A (i-2)(k cos' ,p+1.3 sin' ,p)Q dl

0'
-W vL1, (i-z)(1.3-k)sin,pcos,pQdl

-w,L 1, 0'
[(x-x) (k cos',p+ 1.3 sin',p) - (ii-y)(1.3-k) sin,p cos ,plQ dl

-w, iN [(x' -x)(k cos' ,p+1.3 sin' ,p)- (ii' -y)(1.3-k) sin,p cos ,plQldl
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
EfO, =
0'
+M',l kQdl.

0'

1
-F, A k(YA-y)Qdl

0'
+Fvl k(x,,-x)Q dl

-w,L L 0'
k(fj-y)Q dl
(A.4)

(0'
+WVLJN k(x-x)Q dl

-w, iN k(y' -y)QI dl

N
+w vJp( k(x' -x)QI dl

ElO,=
0'
+M', 1 A (zA-z)(1.3-k)sin.pcos.pQdl

0'
+ M' v 1 A (Z" - z)(k COS' .p+ 1.3 sin' .p)Q dl

0'

1
-M', A k(YA-y)Qdl

0'
+F,l [k(YA -Y )'+ (ZA -z)'(k cos'.p+ 1.3 sin'.p )]Q dl

0'

1
-Fv A [k(xA -X)(YA -y)+ (ZA -z)'(1.3-k) sin.p cos .p]Q dl (A.4)

0'

1
- F, A (ZA -z)[ (XA -x)(k cos' .p+ 1.3 sin' .p) - (YA -y) (1.3 - 10) sin.p cos .p]Q dl

O'
+w,L
LN
[10 (Y." -y)(y-y)+ (ZA -z)(z-z)(k cos'.p+ 1.3 sin' .p)]Q dl

o'
-wvL
LN
[k(YA -y) (x-x)+ (z.{ -z) (z-z) (1.3 - 10) sin.p cos .p]Q dl

-w,L L 0'
(z.{ -z)[ (x-x)(k cos'.p+ 1.3 sin' .p) - (Y-y)(1.3 -10) sin >i' cos >i'IQ dl

+w, iN k(YA -y)(y' -y)Ql dl

N
-wvi k(YA -y)(x'-x)Ql dl

-w, iN (ZA -z)[ (X' -x) (10 cos'.p+ 1.3 sin'.p) - (fj' -y) (1.3 -10) sin .p cos .p]Ql dl
 IIISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXmILITY ANALYSIS 30S

Elo y =
fa'
-M'%JA (ZA -z)0·3 cos' f+k sin' f)Q dl
fa'
-M'UJA (z,{-z)(1.3-k)sinfcosfQdl
0'
+M',
£
.A
k(xA -x)Q dl

-F% 1 0'
[10 (x" -X)(YA -y) +(ZA -z)'(1.3-k) sin f cos flO dl
a'
+Fu
lA
0'
[k(XA-X)'+(ZA -z)'(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f)JQ dl

-F, f (ZA -z)[ (YA -y) (1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) - (XA -x)(1.3 - 10) sin f cos flQ dl
J" (AA)
0'
-w%L
JA
f [k(x.1-xJ(ii-y)+(zA -z)(z-z)(1.3-k) sin f cos flQ dl
0'
+wuL f
IN
[k(x,{-x)(x-x)+(zA -z)(z-z)(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f)lQ dt
fa'
-w,LIN (ZA -z)[ (ii-y)(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) - (1.3 - k)(x-x) sin f cos flQ dl

_W%};N k(xA -x)(y' -y)Ql dl

+Wu};N k(xA-x)(x' -x)Ql dl

-w, fN (z" -z)[ (fi' -y) (1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) - (1.3-10) (x' -x) sin f cos flQl dl
J"
Elo. =
fa'
+M'%J [(VA -y)(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) - (XA -x)(1.3-k) sin f cos flQ dl
A

-M'u 1 0'
[(XA -x) (10 cos' f+ 1.3 sin' f) - (YA -y) (1.3 - 10) sin f cos flQ dl
a'
- F %
lA
(ZA -z)[ (x.{ -x)(k cos' f+ 1.3 sin' f) - (YA -y)(1.3 -10) sin f cos flQ dt
fa'
- FuJA (z" -Z)[(YA -y) (1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) - (XA -x)(1.3-k) sin f cos flQ dt
a'
+F,
l" [(YA -y)'(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) + (x,{ -x)'(k cos' f+ 1.3 sin' f)
-2(XA -X)(YA -y)(1.3-k) sin f cos flQ dl (A.4)
fa'
-w%LI (Z-Z)[(XA -x)(k cos' f+ 1.3 sin' f) - (YA -y)(1.3-k) sin f cos flQ dl
N
fa'
-wuLIN (z-z)[ (YA -y) (1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) - (XA - x) (1.3 - 10) sin f cos flQ dt
fa'
+w,LIN [(Y.{ -y)(y-y)(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f)+(XA -x)(x-x)(k cos' f
+ 1.3 sin' f) - (YA -y)(x-x) (1.3 -10) sin f cos f- (XA -x) (fi-y) (1.3-10) sin f cos flQ dl
+w,};N [(YA -y)(y' -y)(1.3 cos' f+k sin' f) + (XA -x) (x' -x) (10 cos' f+ 1.3 sin' f)
- (YA -y) (x' -x) (1.3-10) sin f cos f- (XA -x) (ii' -y) (1.3 - 10) sin f cos f]Ql dl
306 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
y
With reference to uniform loads:

A 100 =+ f(x'-x)ldS

)--------,
L. 1Oab= + f y(x' -x)l ds

1Oaa =- fX(x'-x)ldS 1Obb= - f y(fi' -y)1 do<

% 10u = - f (x' -x)1 du+ f (fi' -y)l dq

FIG. A.2 Configuration in the y~plane.

The integration limits are from the point of load
application (lower limit) to the fixed end, or to the
point where the loading is discontinuous. Thus, the
limits for the moments and forces applied at the free
end are from A to 0'. For the uniform load, two
sets of limits are needed, F to N, and N to 0', since
the load application begins at F, accumulates uni-
formly to N, and then acts with constant effect to 0'.
By inspection of the integrals it is seen that they
all are functions of the following basic expressions
called shape coefficients:
s = fkQdl
u = f (Ic eos2 ># + 1.3 sinz >#)Q dl
(A.5)
v ~ f(l.3COs 2
>#+ksinZ>#)Qdl
10,= + f (fi' -y)l dv- f (x' -x)1 dq
1OUD~ - fx(x' -x)1 du+ f y(x' -x)1 dq
- fY(fi'-y)ldv+ fX(fi'-y)ldq (A.5)
When the equations (formulas AA) are expressed in
terms of the shape coefficients (formulas A.5) and
the coefficients are presented in tabular form under
their respective unknowns, the results appear as
shown in Table A.1.
By referring to the origin the moments and de-
flections at the free end in accordance with the fol-
lowing transfer formulas, the simplificd form shown
in Table A.2 is obtained.

111'x 1.11x + FI/ZA - FzYA

~ f(l.3
=
q - k)sin>#cos>#Qdl
M'. = M. + F,XA - FxzA (A.G)
These expressions arc conveniently employed in de-
iiI'z = 111;: + FxYA - Ft,rXA
riving a further series of constants also termed
shape coefficients. With reference to concentrated
loads these are:

Sa = fXds UD = fXdu - fydq (A.7)

Saa=
f 2
xds U DO ~ fx 2 du - fx y dq
Note that each of the columns headed by 1OxL, w.L,
and 1O,L in Table A.I has been divided into three,
vo = fydv - fXdq (A.5) the first two columns representing the moment at
the origin due to the accumulated load, and the last
8bb = Jy? ds voo ~f y 2 dv - fX1!dq column giving that load. By this arrangement the
recurrence of the shape coefficients can easily be ob-
served in each column having moments and forces
Sob = !XYdS with the same subscripts.
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 307
y y'
The z-coordinate appearing under some of the in- y
y'
tegral signs in Table A.I is that of any point of the
a
member to the origin. As the line is assigned to the
z-plane, z is a constant equal to the distance of this Iv<;.}';;:---r- x• ~--hr--X'
plane from the origin. In Table A.2 thc constant z b
has been replaced by c, to indicate its true signifi- L _ _--''--_x '- 1-_x

cance. Tables A.I and A.2 cover only the coefficients
for members in the z-plane. The corresponding co-
efficients for members in the x-plane or the y-plane
can be similarly derived or can be readily obtained
by cyclic permutation.
In the foregoing derivation the rotations and the
deflections have been visualized as taking place at
the free end A, the end 0' being fixed. These rota-
tions and deflections may also be regarded as the
differences between deformations at the free end
and those at the fixed end and expressed as follows:
FIG. A.3 Auxiliary coordinate system uEed in
integration of shape coefficients.
tions whose constant terms are the differences of
deformations of the ends of all the piping included.
The integration of the shape coefficicnts for the
partial configurations discnssed abovc is facilitated
by establishing integration limits so as to brcak
down the configuration into its basic shapes, hence-
forth referred to as mcmbers. Practically, only two
shapes are encountered: straight runs and circular

O:;c. = 8x A - Oxo'
By = 0IlA - 0uD-

0:: = OzA - Ozo'

O*r = li*rA - Ii*ro' = lirA + y"O,A - ZAOvA - (liro' + yo·O,o· - zo·Ovo·) (A.S)
0*" = 0* vA - 0* yO' = aI/A + ZAOxA - XAOzA - (OyO' + zo,O;c.o' - xo,Ozo')

0* z = 0* zA - 0* zO' = OrA + XAOvA - yAO:;c.A - (ozo' + xo'Ovo' - YO,Oxo')

Consider next the pipe linc AB which lies in the
y-plane as shown in Fig. A.2 and which is a continu-
ation of the line 0' A of Fig. A.I. Designating the
end A fixed and the end B free, the constant terms
of the equations would be:
0*% = O*%B - 0*%.4
()lJ = ()lJB - ()lJA O*v = li*vlJ - li*vA
()z = ()zB - 8z A
For thc combined configuration 0' B, the differ-
ence in deformation between the ends 0' and B
would simply be the sum of the deformations of the
partial configurations, 0' A and AB.
Or=OrA-OrO.+OrlJ-Or.• =OxlJ-OrO', etc.
Hence, the system of equations expressing the de-
formation differences between 0' and B can be
found by adding the systems of equations for the par-
tial configurations. In a like manner it can be seen
that similar operations may be performed for par-
tial configurations in the x-plane.
Addition of the equations consists of adding the
coefficients of the respective terms as indicated in
Table A.3. The summation coefficients Au, A%lJ' etc.
thus determined arc coeffic;cnts of a system of equa-
arcs. If the integrals are evaluated for each of these
shapes taking dimensions, locations, and orientations
as variables, sets of formulas are obtained which
permit the various shape coefficients or members to
be computed by simple substitution. Shape coeffi-
cients for a group of members are simply summations
of those for the individual members.
(A.9) Since the principle of cyclic permutation permits
ready transformation of formulas from one plane
to another, the integrations for concentratcd loads'
are presented only for members in the z-plane. The
integrations are simplified by using an auxiliary co-
ordinate system Xl, y/, as shown in Fig. A.3 wl)ich
indicates the following transformations:
(A.lO) x = a + Xl
(A.H)
Y = b + y'
where a and b are the respective horizontal and ver-
tical coordinates of the midpoint of a straight mem-
ber and of the radius center of a circular member.
The distance of the plane of the member from the
origin is designated c: if the plane is a z-plane, c% if
an x-plane, and cv if a y-plane.
4Sepamle integrations arc presented for uniform loads sincc
the axis of load application changes for each cascconsidercd.
308 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table A.I. General EquatioD5

-
ttf';r: M'II Mi, F. F, F.

+ t'
A dD +t'A d'I 0 +.L 0'
(tA -z) dq -1 0'
(ZA-Z)de -1 0'
(dl',,-yt!. d~+XA dq)

+t'A d'I +1 0'

du 0 +.£ 0'
(zA-z)du -1 0'
(tA -z) dq + t'
A (dUo-x,," dU+YA dq)

0 0 +t'A d.! + t' A (dill.> -YA d.s) -

t'A (d"a -XA. dJ) 0

+ t'
A (tA -z) dq +1 0'
(ZA.-z)du +.£ 0'
(I.'k/.> -Yll d$) + t' A Idsbb- 2YA cUb -L O
[d.l'ab-YA tUn + t'A (tA -z)(du"

+YA'2 iU+(ZA _Z)2 du] -XA lkb+X,AYA lit -Xtl. dU+YA dq)
+('A -,)' dqJ

-1 0'
(z,A.-z)de -.£ 0'
(tA -z) dq -1 0'
(lUo -:lA, d.s) -1 0'
[d.s,,/I-YA. lis" +1 0'
[d.!" -2xA d.!, +.£ 0'
(tA -z)(dD"

-XA dsb+XAYA d$ +XA 2 d.s+{.~A _z)2 dv] -y.4 dV+XA dtj)

+('A -,)' d'lJ

- t'
A (dVo-YAdl! +.£ 0'
(du" -Xti. du 0 +.£ 0'
{tA -z)(du" +.£ 0'
(tA -z)(dvo +1 0'
(d"",+d,~
+"A d'I) +YA d'I) -XA dU+YA dq) -YA dV+XA dq) -2y..1. de" -2z A du"
+Ytl?dC+XA 2 du-2:z:AYA dq)

Table A.2. General Equations with }\foments

M. M'lI M, F. ",
, F, MillO- +F=>~ M: w - -F;r:wY Frul-w;L

+ 1 0'
d, + t' A dq 0 - t'
A c:dq +.£ 0'
czdv - t'
A dvo +};
0'
dq 0 -.£
0'
',d'I

+1
0
' d'I + t' A du 0 -1 0'
c,du + t'
A c:dq +.£
0'
du" + L N
O
' du 0 - f' c:du
N

0 0 + t'A
d.! +1
0'
d$b -1 0'
d$a 0 0 +IN
·0'
ds +L
0'
dsb

0
_1 ' ',d'I _1°' c:du + t'A l'kb +1
0'
(l'kbb -1 0'
(d.!ob -t'C:duo f' +L +c/du)+.£ - N c" du
0'
cMb
0'
(d.!bb

+c/ du) +c/ dq)

-

+1 c:du +t' c:dq - t' d.!.

0'
A.
A
-1
0'
(d.!ob +1
0'
(d>O' -1 c:duo +L c:dq -f'N -Iv
0' 0'
ds a
0'
(d.!ab

+r: 2 dq) -I-cldu) +c: 2

dq)

- la' duo
A +[ duo 0'
0 - t' c:duo
A. -1 "d"
0'
+1 (d". +L duo
0'
_.£ c:du" 0'
0
0'

+dv oo )
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 309

for a Pipe Line in the z-Planc

~,L wilD telL w. w, w, .. Constant

4-
f' N (z-,)dq -l
0'
(Z-Z)de -l
0'
(dvo -y dc+x dq) 0 0 + lN dU), +EltP:l

-
·...l
0'
(i-z)du

-
f' - N (z-,) dq +lO'
N (duo -x du+ii dq) 0 0 + iNdw u +E1r.P1I

-l
0'
(tUb -fi d:) f' -
N
(lisa -x ds) 0 + .£.N dl£b +IN f'
dWn 0 +Elq,l

+ L 0'
[dsbb-filhb
0'
- l [d.!"b-YJI ds" + L 0'
(ZA -z)(duo +i N (dWbb +i N (dWab + lN etA -x) dw" +Elo,r

-YA dsb+YYA. ds -x dsb+XYA ds -Xdu+fi dq) -YA dWb} -YA dw a )

+(ZA -zHz -z) dul +(ZA -zHz -z) dqJ

- f' N [/hob -ji tho + L 0'

[d$oa-XA!Un
0'
+l e t A -z)(dv() + J;.N (dltha +i N (dw aa _iN etA -x) dw" +E/o ll

-XA dsb+XAY ch -x cUa+XAX ds -fi do+Xdq) +XA dWb) +XA dw o )

+('A -,)(z -,) dql +(ZA -z)(z-z) de]

+ f' N (i -z)(du., + 1 0'

(z -'Hd,o +
lO'
N (duoo+dvoo 0 0 +i N (dw u " +Elol

-XA dU+YA dq) -YA do+X,A dq) -x duo -fi dvo -XA dUo +YA dw, -XA dw u )
-YA dCo+XAX dU+YAY dD
-YAX dq -:rAY dq)

and Forces Referred to the Origin

W. M%\D= -Fliwi M lle - +Fvwi· Fl/w-wl/L w, /If=,- +FrwY M llw "" -F:wx FrlD""U!:L w, ""Constant

f' 0'
LO 0' 0'
IN dw~
I

0 + N dD 0 + l (:dv 0 + dv +l dq -l d" + "" +E10 r

N

0 + ['
N dq 0 + f'N c:dq 0 +1:
0'
dq +1:
0'
du +L 0'
duo + iN dwu - +E101/

+ iN dU:b 0 +.f _.L0',f" .f

N
,f,
N
+ F dw o 0 0 0 0 = +£10:

+ J:.N drcu
f'
-L 0'
c:dq +f' -.L (,f", J:V
N
,f"
N
0'
+
F
dWab
0
_.L ' "dq
N
-l
,y
0'
c,d. -L N
0'
(ldlLa _.£.N CZ dw u ... +E1o" r

H,' dql
N -----
+ L dll"ba +
lO'
N clde -LO' +.L ds o
N
0'
(,f", + iN dWaa
f'
+ f'N crde +1 N
0'
"dq - l "d"
N
0'
+ L N
CZ dw,_ - +Elo" l1

+c z2 de)
-
0 -
lO'
N dC'" 0 -.L 0'
(rdro 0 _lO' dc,
N
1
+
N
0'
du, + f'N (duoo + J;N dwu~ ... +E1o" z

+dvoo)
'-------
310 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

•~•
o
o
• •
i;l ~+ t;i t;i
+ + '"+, +

..
I I I I

" I~
~
000
++

J+ o
."
+++
"
o ~ •
J'
+
J
+
J
+
I '1 I :l'o:FIJI I~
",, '1i I
~~ o 0 ~

+ +++
o • "
' + +

,,+
~ k,"
+++
• " 0
I ~ 1
o 0 ~

+ i Y i I~
• •••
.
~
++
~
::l 0 000

C""
• 8 .....
0
If
+++
~J ::;.
+++ ·".
:8 8 g
+++ J+
I
," I
!.:-
,
o
+
~O
..
+++ I ~ I
"
o
u
~
•
'1;'l;
"
+' I~
u 0

,, .,
i·..
" +
i I~
'N

:F J;' .:? oj ~ "

",
ok,
+++ • • 0 o
+' +++ 'j'

..
."
000 JJ~
+++
•,•
~o ~
•
+ I~
"
"
"· ". . J+
;;; o
:F ~ tJ" J
o
.;
~
o
+' ,
.J .2 , ~, of
+ +++ ~
+ +

~ ~!~ I ro I ~ I I{ I ~ ++ Itit t; I~ 11' f 71 f I ! I ~

0 +00 fO

~ j'~ l_o_o_+~I_!_ll_1'_+.:.....~~I_!-!-I_+_~_o_o~I_""'_:-!-I_f_·_~_:;_"-!l_i-!-I_'1;_'f_o_i_"-!I_"'_:-+I_~_o_~_t--!I_"'~:_
<3
<:l:::l", '" J J J
i I' i + + +

,,~

'l;~
..
, ~, ~,
.. ..
·+++ oE
· ..
. '", .•.
tJ" "
;:s '"
J+
'"+"
.0
,J of ~
"+
o u u
+' + " u •
+ + 'f I' i
~o

+
0
+++
• 0 •
..
+++ I ~ I
"
u
u
•" . .
l
~
•
I i
'1;'l;
If I+' u u 0

----!--I----!--I

I ~ I +++
..
+I ! I + + +
;:.
Ii I
0'
00 to ., ;::I ~o 0 ~o ~ :} .:? J
1 + i I , +

1+++ I ~ I oo~

+
~o

+ Ii I I ~ I i· I'"..i
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 311

The shape coefficient expressions for concentrated loads become:

s = JkQdl

Sa = J kQx dl = as + Sl a where s' a = J kQx ' dl

Saa = J kQx 2 dl = a 2 s + 2as' a + s' aa where s'aa = JkQ(X')2dl

Sb = J kQy dl = bs + Sib where s' b = J kQy' dl

Sbb = J kQ y 2 dl = b2s + 2bs' b + Sl bb where S'bb = J kQ(yl)2 dl

Sab = J kQxy dl = abs + as'b + bs' a + S' ab where Slab = j'kQx' y' dl

q= J (1.3 - k) sin'" cos'" Q dl

(A.12)
u = J (k cos
2
'" + 1.3 sin 2
"')Q dl

u a = J x du - J y dq = au - bq + u' a where u' 0 = J x' du - f y' dq

.J = J (1.3 cos2 '" + k sin' "')Q dl

Va = J y dv - J x dq = bv - aq + V' a where v' 0 = f y' dv - f x' dq

u" + V" = J x' du +J y2 dv - 2 J xy dq = a'u + b2v - 2abq + 2au' a + 2bv' a + u l" + v'"

where u'oo = f (X')2 du - J x'y' dq

v'" = J (y/)' dv - J x'yl dq

The angle'" in the general expressions is a variable notation for circular members is illustrated In

angle measured from the positive horizontal axis to Fig. A.4.

the tangent at any point P of the member. The
angle a, constant for any given member, is the angle
between the positive horizontal axis and the point
of tangency at F. For a straight member, '" is con-
stant and equal to a. For a circular member, if! is a+"
variable over the length of the arc. In the formulas
which follow", is replaced by a for straight members;
for circular members, it is replaced by (a + 1» and
the limits of integrals are from 0 to <I'. The angle FIG. A.4 Angle notation for cin~ul11r mcmhcrH.
312 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

y'

0
~'O' X' = (~ l) cos
- a

l/2 I PI Y'x' y' = (t - 1) sin a

9' r--;.-I
N

FIG. A.5 Integration of shape coefficients for

concentrated loading of straight memhers.

FOl' straight members as shown in Fig. A.5 , the integrations are as follows:

s ~ ,[1. kQ dl ~ kQIJ
8'. =tkQ(~ -1)cosO'dl ~0
3
s'•• ~ rl. kQ (!:2 _1)2 cos2 a dl =
Jo
kQ cos2 a L
12

s' b = ,[\Q (~ - I) sin 0' dl = 0

rl. kQ (!:2 _1)2 sin2 a dl = kQ sin2 a L12
3
8' bb =
Jo
3
s'.b = [\Q
• 0
(!: -
2
1)2 sin a cos a dl = kQ sin a cos a L
12

q = [I. (1.3 _ k) sin a cos a Q dl ~ (1.3 -

, 0
k) sin a cos a QL

11 ,[1. (k cos2 a + 1.3 sin2 O')Q dl = (k cos2 a + 1.3 sin2 O')QL

=

II', = ,[I. (~ _I) cos O'(k cos2 0'+ 1.3 sin2 O')Q dl _,[1. (~ - I) sin2 a cos 0'(1.3 - k)Q dl = 0
"',, = ,[I. (~ _Iy cos2 O'(k cos2 a + 1.3 sin2 O')Q dl _,[1. (~ - ly sin 2 a cos2 0'(1.3 - k)Q dl kQ cos2a ~; =

,. = , [I. (1.3 cos2 a + k sin 2 O')Q dl ~ (1.3 cos2 a + k sin 2 O')QL

n

,,', = ,[I. (~ __ I) sin 0'(1.3 cos2 a + k sin 2 O')Q dl _,[1. (~ - I) sin a cos2 0'(1.3 - k)Q dl = 0
"',, ~ ,[1. (~ _Iy sin2 0'(1.3 cos2 0'+ k sin2 O')Q dl _,[1- (~ - Iy sin2 a cos20'(1.3 - 2
k)Q dl = kQ sin a ~;
L'
Note: '/(,'00 + v'oo = kQ 12
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 313
For circular members shown in Fig. A.6 the variable is changed and the integrations are as follows:

l'
s = kQR d</J = kQRif!
y'

x·

s',= l' kQR 2 sin (a + </J) d</J = kQR 2 [eos a - cos (a + if!)]
y'
~::+:'H,-J.:~-x'

,,,= l'
s 0 kQR'sin 2 (a + </J) d</J = kQR' [<I>"2 - sin 2(a + if!) - sin 2aJ
4

S'b -1" = kQR 2 cos (a + </J) d</J = kQR 2 [sin a - sin (a + if!)]
X' =U sin (a + 'P)

s
, 1·
bb = 0
2
kQR' cos (a + </J) d</J = kQR'
[if!
"2 + sin 2(a + if!) - sin 2aJ
4
y'= -Rcos(a+,.,)

FlO. A.li Integration of

shupe (:ocfficicnts for

j '. kQR'sin (a + </J) cos (a'+ </J) d</J

eonccntmtcd loading of
S"b = -
kQR'
= --[cos2(a + if!) - eos2a] circuhlr memhers.
o 4

" eos2(a + if!) - cos 2",

q=
10 (1.3 - k) sin (a + </J) cos (a + </J)QR d</J = - (1.3 - k)QR 4

u= l' [k cos 2 (a + </J) + 1.3 sin 2 (a + </J)]QR d</J

if! sin 2(a + if!) - sin 2"'J aJ

= kQR [ "2 + 4 + 1.3QR [if!"2 - ::si::n-=2",(a=-....:+---,:if!!-)_--=.:si.::n-=2c:::
4

u', = 1· [k sin (a + </J) eos2 (a + </J) + 1.3 sin' ('" + </J)

+ (1.3 - k) sin (a + </J) cos2 (a + </J)]QR 2 d</J = 1.3QR 2 [eos a - cos (a + <\>)\

u'" = 1· [k sin 2 (a + </J) cos2 (a + </J) + 1.3 sin' (a + </J)

<I> sin 2(a + <\» - sin 2aJ
+ (1.3 - k) sin 2 (a + </J) cos2 (a + </J)]QR' d</J = 1.3QR' [ "2 - 4

o= l' [1.3 cos2 (a + </J) i- k sin2 (a + </J)]QR d</J

if! sin 2(a + <I» - sin 2aJ [if! sin 2(a + if!) - sin 2aJ
= 1.3QR [ "2 + 4 + kQR "2 - 4

0', = -1· [k cos (d + </J) sin 2 (a + </J) + 1.3 cos' (a + </J) + (1.3 - k) sin (a + </J) cos (a + </J)]QR r/¢
2 2

= 1.3QR 2 [sin a - sin (a + <I»]

0'" =
.Jo
r- [k cos 2 (a + </J) sin2 (a + </J) + 1.3 cos' (a + </J) + (1.3 - k) sin (a + </J) cos (a + </»]QR' d</J
2 2

= 1.3QR' [~ + ::si.::n-=2",(a=---c+--=:!-)_----=:si.::n-=2.::aJ
314 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table A.4. Shape Coefficient Expressions for Uniform Loading

Member in z-Plane Member in y-Plane Member in x-Plane

y x z

z
)-. y
)-. x
)-,
Weight (w,) x-Wind (w.) z-Wind (w.)

w, = +I ('f' - x)l ds w, = +I (i' - z)l' d., w, = +I (Y' - y)l' ds

w" = +I y (x' - x)l ds w" = +I x(i' - z)l' ds w" = + IZ(f/ - y)l' '"'

w" =- Ix (x' - x)l ds w" =- IZ(i' - z)l' ds w" =- Iy(f/ - y)l' d.

x-Wind (w.) ,-Wind (w.) Weight (w,)

w" =- I (Y' - y)l' ds w, =- I (x' - x )1' ds w, =- I(z' - z)lds

w" = +I x (ii' - y )1' ds Wbll = + !z(X' - x)l' ds w,. = + IY(i' - z)l ds

Wbb =- f y(fj' - y)l' ds Wbb =- J x(x' - x)l' ds Wbb = - !z(z' - z)lds

z-Wind (w,) Weight (w,) x-Wind (w.)

w" =- I (x' - x)l du w" =- I (i' - z)l du w" =- I (ii' - y)l du

+I (ii' - y)l dq +I (x' - x)l dq + I(i' - z)ldq

w, = + I (Y' - y)l dv w, = +I (x' - x)l dv w" = +I (i' - z)l dv

-IW-x)ldq - I (i' - z)l dq - I (Y' - y)l dq

w", =- I x(x' - x)l du w", =- IZ(i' - z)l du w", =- I Y(ii' - y)l du

+ Iy(X' - x)ldq + IX(i' - z)ldq + IZ(ii' - y)l dq

- I Y(ii' - y)l dv -Ix(x'-x)ldv - IZ(i' - z)l dv

+I xCii' - y)l dq +Iz(x' - x)ldq + IY(i' - z)ldq

 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 315
Vllrticol Axis
The following symbols are introduced for the trig-

"~--"~,
onometric functions appearing in the above shape
coefficients.
ea = cos a - cos (a + <Il)
Caa ~ 0.5<1> - 0.25[sin 2(ex + <1» - sin 2ex]
Cb = sin ex - sin (ex + <1» (A.13) Verticol Axis

Cbb = 0.5<1> + 0.25[sin 2(ex + <1» - sin 2ex]

Cab = 0.25[cos 2(ex + <1» - 2ex] COS +ex
/.;Nc-f---- Horizontal Axis
Expressed in these symbols the shape coefficients
are: 5 -ex
F
s = kQR(c aa + Cbb) q = (k - 1.3)QRca b FIG. A.7 The angle a for a straight member.
= kQR<I> " = QR(1.3caa + kCbb)
s'a = kQR'c a 'il' 0 = 1.3QR 2ca the projected length of the member. This is taken
into account in the final shape coefficients for mem-
s' aa = kQR 3cao u' QO = 1.3QR 3caa bers in planes not perpendicular to the wind and is
s' b = kQR'Cb V = QR (1.3Cbb + kcaa ) recognized in Table AA by the substitution of /' for
1 in the cases affected, where I' is the projection of I
s' bb = 3
kQR cbb v' () = 1.3QR2Cb
in the direction of the wind.
s' ab = kQR 3ca b v' 00 = 1.3QR3cbb The shape coefficients for uniform loading are de-
(A.14) pendent on the end from which the integration pro-
ceeds, thus making it necessary to establish a refer-
The integration of the shape coefficients for uni-
ence direction which is always arbitrarily chosen to
fonn loads is a somewhat more complicated process.
be from the free end to the fixed end. Direction is
The integrations to be performcd are set down in
indicated by an arrow pointing toward the end of
Table AA, having been obtained for the z-plane
the member denoted N which is nearest the fixed
direetly from Fonnulas A.5 and for the other planes
end and which point is the upper limit of integration
derived from z-plane formulas by cyclic permutation. for the member. The lower limit is the end denoted
.\ variation of this procedure is introduced regard-
F, farthest away from the fixed end.
ing the wind constants. Whereas the total weight
The angle ex for a straight member is defined as
of an element is always the product of the unit load
the angle between the horizontal axis and the mem-
and the length of the member, the total wind load ber. It is considered positive if it is generated by
is considered to be the product of the unit load and
counterclockwise rotation of the member FN about
flAs stated, the proportionate influence of bending and tor-
ilion on the va.rious constants can be seen. For computation
point N, where N denotes the end of the member
purposes, however, it is noted thnt e aa + ebb = <I> and accord- nearest the fixed end. This convention is illustrated
ingly s = kQR<I1 and u 00 + V'ol) = 1.3QRJ'1>. in Fig. A.7.
1

For weight loading of straight members in the z-plane as shown in Fig. A.8 integrations of the shape co-
efficients are as follows:
L /2 L3
Wa ~
l
kQ - cos ex dl = kQ -;- cos ex
() 2 6 x = a + -L2 cos a -lcosa
Wah = +bwa + W'ab

1"
Y= b +'2sma-
L. I sma
.
where w' ab = 0 kQ 'I'
2 sin ex cos ex (L)
'2 - 1 dl a b
,
x L I
L' x'=a+-cosa--cosa
2 2
= -kQ - sin a COSo
24
FIG. A.S Intcgration of sharc coefficients for
W aa = -aw a + W'aa weight of straight members in the z-plane.

where w'aa = -
J: I' cos2 ex -- - / d/
L kQ --
022
(L) = L'
kQ - cos2 ex
24
:n6 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

:t=
b +2"sma-
L. I Slna
.

',/,~F a
z .... a

x'
+ L'2 COS a -LCOBo:
+ L-sina I .
w~lT = b
2
- -Rlna
2
o b'
, L
z' "" a + -2 cos a
I
- - cos a
2

FIG. A.9 Integration of shape coefficients for weight of straight members in the y-plane.

For a member in the y-plane as shown in Fig. A.9:

Wu = -
l "l'2
o
- cos a(k cos 2 a + 1.3 sin' a)Q dl + l"l'-2
0
sin a(1.3 - k) sin a cos a Q dl

L3
-kQ-cosa
6

w, = + i LL'-
o 2
sin a(1.3 cos' a + k sin' a)Q dl - iLL'
0
- eos a(1.3 - k) sin a cos a Q dl
2
L3
+k Q sina
6
W uv = +aw u - bw", + w' uv

wherew ' .,=-

l
L
0 (L )12
2- 1 2 cos'a(kcos 2 a+1.3sin'a)Qdl+ lL(L
0
2
2- 1 2sinacosa(1.3-k)8inacosaQdl )1
l (L2- 1)122sin'a(1.3cos a+ksin'a)Qdl+l (L2- 1)12 sinacosa(1.3-k)8in acosaQdl
L L 2
2
- 0 0

L4
=kQ-
24

"h~
y=a+2"cosa-lcosa

• L .
z=b+'2sina-lsma
o b
y
'- .1--'--_y z' = b + -L2 sin a I .
- -2 Sill a

FIG. A.IO Integration of shape coefficients for weight of straight members in the x-plnoe.

For a member in x-plane as shown in Fig. A.IO:

L I' l)i .
-
l ()
kQ - sin a dl = -J(Q-sma
2 6

Wba = -aWb + W'ba

h ILL kQ 12 smacosa (L)
w erewbo = 2 -I dl = -kQ L'
0
24
2
• ~sinacosa

Wbb = +bWb + W' bb

wherew'bb = -lLkQ~sin2a(I: -I)dl = kQL' sin' a
o 2 2 24
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 317
Vertical Axil

K.4»:t+.J-+t--- Horiz:onlol Axil H'+f+-- Horizontal Axil

f
N
FIG. A.l1 The angle 0: for circular members
(~ounterclockwise.

FIG. A,12 The angle 0: for circular members elockwise,

For a circular member the direction may be either
counterclockwise, or clockwise as the member is
viewed in its working plane. For the counterclock-
wise direction the angle of in the integrals for the
shape coefficients is replaced by (a + ep) where a is
a constant angle, positive if measured from the neg-
ative vertical axis in the counterclockwise direction.
The angle <p is a variable, positive in the counter-
cloekwise direction. See Fig. A.ll.
For the clockwise direction the angle of in the in-
tegrals for the shape coefficients is replaced by
(a - ep) where a is defined in the same way as for
the counterclockwise direction, and <p is a variable
angle positive in the clockwise direction (Fig. A.I2).
It should be noted that in the integration of the
shape coefficients for concentrated loading the coun-
terclockwise direction is used. If the clockwise direc-
tion is uscd the numerical vr.lues for the shape
coefficients will be the same although the formulas
will differ.

, l=R", dl=Rd",
x = a +
R sin (0: + Ip)
y = b - R cos (0: + rp)

b f' x dl
_x' J-0- .- .::a_----=c::oB::("'a:...+'--'="'~)
• , = = a + R c_o_:::s
-
for> dl If'

'-- ----l'---"-_.
FIG. A.13 Counterclockwise integration of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the z-plane.

Integrations of the shape coefficients for weight loading applied to circular members are as follows, beginning
with a member in the z-plane taken in the counterclockwise direction, as shown in Fig. A.I3:

w. = 1> kQR 3 [cos a- cos (a+ep) -ep sin (a+ep)] dep= kQR 3 { Mcos (a +<I> ) + cos a]-2[sin (a +<I> ) - Bin all

Wab = +bwa +w' ab

where w'., = -1> kQR'[cos a - cos (a + ep) - ep sin (a + ep)] cos (a + ep) dep
(<I' [ I
+kQR' 12 - cos 2(a2 + <I»J + '8[sm
3'
2 ( a + <I» .
- sm 2a1 - cos a [sm
. (a + <I> ) - Bin al}

Waa = -awa + w'aa

where w'•• = -1> kQR'[cos a - cos (a + ep) - ep sin (a + ep)] sin (a + ep) dep

= kQR' j~ [<I> - sin 2(a + <I»] - 111cos 2(a + <I» - cos 2al + cos a[cos (a + <I» - cos a] I
318 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

y
I~R~ dl~lId~
x = a + R sin (0: -
\p)
y = b - R cos (0: - 1;')

f'" xdl
b Jo cos (0: -If') - cos a
Xl = -- = a + R =-'-_-'-'------'=.c
a
x fa"" dl '"
'------------'--'_x
FIG. A.14 Clockwise integration of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the z-plnne.

For z-plane members taken in the cl<Jckwise direction (Fig. A.14):

w. = 1< kQR 3 [cos (a - ¢) - cos a - ¢ sin (a - ¢)] d¢

- kQR 3 { 1>[cos (a - 1') + cos a] + 2[sin (a - <1» - sin all

Wab = +bwa + w' ab
where: W'.b = -1< kQR'[cos (a - ¢) - cos a - ¢ sin (a - ¢)] cos (a - ¢) d¢

-kQR' i~ [1 - cos 2(~ - 1»J - i[sin 2(a - <1» - sin 2al + cos a[sin (a - <1» - sin all

Wao = -awa + w' an

where: w'•• = -1" kQR'[cos (a - ¢) - cos a - ¢ sin (a - ¢)] sin (a - ¢) d¢

= kQR'1 1~ [1> + sin 2(a - <1»] - i{cos 2(a - <1» - cos 2a] + cos a[cos (a - <1» - cos all
Note: The above expressions for in the clockwise direction may be obtained by substituting
Wa, w' ab, Wi aa
- ep for +<1> in the corresponding expressions in the counterclockwise direction. This rule is valid for all shap<,
coefficients fOI" uniform loading. Hence, only the integration fOI" the counterclockwise direction will be shown
for y-plane and x-plane membel"s.
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 319

I=R~ dl=Rd~
x = b - R cos (a + cp)
z = a + R sin (a + '(J)

J0
r'
xdl
s:c.in,,-,--a_-_':c.in,,-,,<a,--+-,---,~,,)
x'=--=b+R-

x
b .r:
dl If'

• ,
.r: z dl
i' = _0_ _ = a + R cos a - cos (a + cp)
JoY dl 'P

FIG. A.15 Counterclockwise integration of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the lI-plane.

For y-plane members taken in the counlerclockwise direction (Fig. A.15):

WU = -1· QR'[cos a - eos (a + <1» - <I> sin (a + <I»][k cos' (a + <1» + 1.3 sin' (a + <1»] d<l>

+ 1· QR'[sin a - sin (a + <1» + <I> eos (a + <1»](1.3 - k) sin (a + <1» cos (a + <1» d<l>

= -QR' (Ic [~eosa - sin (a + 4» + 0.75 sin a + 0.25 sin (a + 24»J

+ 1.3 [~ cos a + <I> cos (a + 4» - sin (a + 4» + 1.25 sin a - 0.25 sin (a + 24» Jl

W, +1· QR'[sin a - sin (a + <1» + <I> cos (a + <1»][1.3 eos2 (a + <1» + k sin' (a + <I»J d<l>

-1" QR'[cos a - cos (a + <1» - <I> sin (a + <1»](1.3 - k) sin (a + <1» cos (a + <1» d<l>

= +QR' (k[~sina + cos (a + <1» - 0.75 cos a - 0.25 cos (a + 24»J + 1.3 [~sina

+ <I> sin (a + <I') + cos (a + 4» - 1.25 cos a + 0.25 cos (a + 24» Jl

W uv = +aw u - bw v + W' til!

where: Wi u, = -
1
0
" QR' sin (a
f [cos
+ <1» lk -2-a - cos (a + <1» + cos (a 2+ 2<1> )J
COS a . cos (ex + 2<1»J1
+ 1.3 [ -2- - <I> 8m (a + <1» - 2 f d<l>
+ 1· ,
0 QR cos (a + <1» flk [Sin
-2-a - sin (a + <1» + sin (a 2+ 2<1»J
+ 1.3 [Si~ a + <I> cos (a + <1» _ sin (a 2+ 2<1»JI d<l> = 1.3QR' [~' + cos 4> - 1J
320 DESIGN OF l'IPING SYSTEMS

I~R~ dl~Rd~
y = a + R sin (0: + <p)
z b - R ('Os (0: + ,.,,)
=
,
a
b
i'
o fa
=--=b+R
z dl
sm a
. .
- Sin (0: + cp)
y J:;P dl <f
L.. --!--4.-_y

!i'm. A.I6 Counterclockwise integration of shape coefficients for weight of circular mernhcn; in the x-plnne.

For x-plane members taken in the counterclockwise direction (Fig. A.16):

lOb = - J:0 kQ1l 3

[sin a - sin(a + q,) + q, cos (a + q,)J dq,
- kQ1l 3 {<I>[sin (a + <1» + sin aJ + 2[cos (a + <I» - cos aJ I
'Wba = -aWb + W'ba
where W'ba ~ +J:0 kQ1l 4 [sin a - sin (a + q,) + q, cos (a + <I»J sin(a + q,) d<l>
-kQ1l 4 i~ [1 + cos 2(; + <I»J - i[sin 2(a + <1» - sin 2aJ + sin a [cos(a + <1» - cos a l]-

10bb = +bw u + 10'bb

where w'" = +J:0 kQR' [sin a - sin(a + q,) + q, cos (a + q,)J costa + q,) dq,
= +kQR' i~ [<I> + sin 2(a + <I»J + ;\[cos 2(a + <I» - cos 2a] + sin a [sin (a + <I» - sin aJl
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 321
As mentioned previously in connection with the
formulas of Table AA, the effective wind load on a where w' bb = '1' J:L kQ (% - I) ~ sin' a dl
member is taken as the unit wind load multiplied by L4
the length of the member's projection on a plane ±kQ-sin' a
24
perpendicular to the wind direction. If the working
plane of the member is perpendicular to the wind, The upper signs apply when sin a is pOSItIve
the wind load is simply wI. The shape coefficients (0 < a < ".); the lower signs when sin a is negative
are then the same as those already found for weight (". < a < 2".).
loading, identified as W u , W v , and W uv . For mem- For straight members in the y-plane acted upon
bers in planes parallel to the wind, the wind load by wind along the z(horizontal) axis, the identical
is wI' where I' represents the projected length of formulas apply because of cyclic permutation.
the member on a plane perpendicular to the wind
direction.
, f

y 1 l/2
P
--
a
•
N
,
l I, b '

y ,
, [' = I cos a when - - < a
~
<-
~

'--- -'--J_, 2 2
3. ~
I' =+lsin a: when 0 < a < ,... = -I cos a when - < a < -
2 2
=-I sin a when 11' < ex < 2'1l"
X = a + HL - 21) cos a
x ~ b + J(i, - 2/) sin a
y = b + HD - 2l) sin a z = a + Hi, - 21) cos a
ii' = b + J(i, - /) sin a z' = a + !(L - l) cos a
FIG. A.IS Integration of shape coefficients for straight
FIG. A.17 Integration of shape coefficients for straight
members in the ywplane acted upon by x-wind.
members in the z·plane acted upon by x-wind.

For straight members in the y-plane acted upon

Formulas for calculating shape coefficients Wb,
by a wind parallel to the x(vertical) axis, shown ill
Wbb, and Wba are now derived for a straight member
Fig. A.18, it is necessary to derive the coefficients
in the z-plane, acted upon by a wind parallel to the
1lJ a , Waa, and Wab·
x (horizontal) axis as shown in Fig. A.17.
The relationships for 1', :g', and x accompanying L
I' L3
Fig. A.17 are readily derived therefrom. The two
functions expressing I' are necessary since the unit
±
1o
kQ - cos2 a dl = ±kQ - cos' a
2 6

load w is considered positive and thus the total load

Wab = +bwa + W' ao
wI' and the length I' itself must remain positive for
any value of a.
where w' ab = ± 1 0
L
(L )1"2 sin
kQ ~ - 1
2
a cos a
2
dl
Performing the integrations as indicated by the L4
formulas of Table AA, yields the following results: =t=kQ - sin a cos2 a
24
+ w'aa
'1'1 o
L I'
2
L' . 2
kQ-sin 2 adl = =F"kQ -sm a
6
W aa =

where w'.a
-awn

= '1' J:L kQ (% - I) ~ cos a dl 3

L4
= ±kQ - cos' a
where w' b. = ± J:L kQ (% - I) ~ cos a sin' a dl 24
The upper signs apply when cos a is positive
L 4 (-"./2 < a < "./2); lower signs when cos a IS
'FkQ - cos a sin' a negative ("./2 < a < 3"./2).
24
For straight members in the x-plane acted upon
by wind along the z-axis, the identical formulas apply.
322 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

]I[ ]I

FIG. A.i9 System of quadrants for circular members.

The shape coefficients of circular members are given below. The signs to be used in the expressions which
follow are dependent upon the location of the arc Rq, in a system of quadrants which is oriented from the
negative vertical axis as shown in Fig. A.19.
In deriving the shape coefficient formulas for circular members subjected to in~plane wind, the case of the
member in the z-plane acted upon by a wind parallel to the x-axis is considered first. Figure A.20 shows such
a member set up for integration in a counterclockwise direction.

.r:
R

I' ~ dI' ~ ±R [cos a - cos (a + ~)J

dI' ~ sin (a + ~)R d~
b X = a + R sin (a + <,0)
y
Y = b - R cos (a + ~)
17 ~ b - jR [cos a + cos (a + ~)l
L. -4.----l-_<

FIG. A.20 Counterclockwise integration of shape coefficients for circular members in the z-plnne acted upon by x-wind.

Wb = ±1< o
kQR" [cos a - cos(a
2
+ q,)]2 dq,

= ±kQR" [ "4oj> (2 + cos 2a) + sin 2(a8 + o-Jcos

». •
a sm(a + .') +! sm 2a
]

"kQ .j • ( ) [cos a - cos(a + q,)]2 d q,=±'kQR 4 [cos(a + oJ»6 - cos aJ"

where I
W ba = ±
l o
'Rsllla+q,
2
Wbb = +bWb + W'bb
,' [cos a - cos(a + q,)]2 d
1
j )
where w' bb = ± 0 kQR' cos(a + q, 2 q,

4 Jsin" (a + <I') - sin" a sin (a + 'I') - sin a

±kQR 1 6 - 2

+ co~a[., + sin(a + <I')cos(a + oJ» - sin(a + .,)cosal)

The upper signs apply when oj> lies in the I and/or the II quadrants; the lower signs when oj> lies in the III
and/or the IV quadrants. When <I' lies in the I and IV quadrants or the II and I II, it must be split up
into two arcs.
For the counterclockwise integration of circular members in the y-plane subjected to z-wind, the identi-
cal formulas apply.
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 323

•
I' = .r: dl' = ±R [sin (a + ",) - sin a]
dl' = cos (0: + <p)R dr,p
b X = b - R cos (0: + Ip)
z = a + R sin (0: + <p)
x
z' = a + 1R [sin (a + rp) + sin a]
L- J--L--,
FIG. A.21 Counterclockwise integration of shape coefficients for circular members in the y-plane acted upon by x-wind.

The case of the circular member in the v-plane acted upon by a wind parallel to the x-axis is now con-
sidered. Figure A.21 shows such a member set up for integration in a counterclockwise direction.

w. = 'F r> kQR3 [sin(a + 4<) - sin aj' d4<

Jo 2

= 'FkQR 3 [ '<I>4 (2 - cos 2a) -

sin 2(a
8
+ <I» + sm
.
a costa + <I» -
3'
8 sm 2a
. ]

Wah = +bwa + W' ab

where w
I
.b = ±
r
Jo .
kQ'
R cos a
(
+ 4< ) [sin(a + 4<)2 - sin aj' d kQR' [sin(a
4< = ±'.
+ <I»6 - sin al'

Woo. = -awa + Wi ao.

where
I
W •• =
r> k"R' sm. (a + 4< ) [sin(a + 4<)2 -
± J o '"
sin a]2
d4<

,loos3 (a + <I') - cos3 a costa + <I» - cos a

= ±kQR 1 6 - 2

- si; a [<I> _ sin(a + <I»cos(a + <I» + sin a costa + <I»])

The upper signs apply when <I> lies in the I and/or IV quadrant, the lower signs when <I> lies in the II and/or
III quadrants. When <I> lies in the I and II quadrants or the III and IV, it must be split up into two ares.
For the counterclockwise integration of circular members in the x-plane subjected to z-wind, the same
I formulas apply.
324 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table A.5. General Equations of Pipe Line Subject to Thermal Expansion
J.fz M, M. F. F,
+A.. ;r; +A zlI +A n +B;r: +B::v
+A., +A IIII +A,. +BI/;r; +B"
+A n +A lI % +A u +B u +B;z:v
+B;r;;r; +BI/% +Bn +C%% +CZI/
+Borll +B" +B nJ +CZII +°1111
+B z: +B llt +B zz +Cr : +C/I%
Up to this point, the development of the General
Analytieal Method has been built around the gen-
eral ease of tbe weightless pipe line subjeeted to
loading which is concentrated at a point, or uni-
formly distributed over a member. Sueh a loading
may arise from the weight of the piping eomponents.
Weight effects are not ordinarily of great significance
although they become important when dealing with
materials of low breaking strength or poor ereep re-
sistance, that is, if premature fracture or excessive
sagging is not to be tolerated. The general formulas
derived, however, are readily adapted to the evalu-
ation of the effects of thermal expansion loading
whieh are usually of primary interest.
Under thermal expansion, the strain energy is sup-
plied by the temperature change involved; there are
no applied loads, hence the load terms in the gen-
eral equations of Table A.3 become zero leaving a
system of equations which expresses the reactions
in terms of imagined displacements of one end, des-
ignated the "free" end. 6 If LJ. X1 l1 P1 and 1:1: arc the
free thermal expansions, directed from the end des-
ignated fixed toward that designated free, they will
enter the right-hand member of the equations with
a negative7 sign as indieated in Table A.5. Displace-
ments of the ends, denoted 0* z, 0*11' 0* z, which are
due to movement of connected equipment, are cn-
tered with sign unchanged, so as to indieate the
direction of the relative movement of the free end
with respect to the fixed end. The angular dis-
placements or rotations, O.r, 011, Oz, are ordinarily
assumed to be zero. For a pipe line with two fixed
ends, six equations in six unknowns remain so that
the problem can be solved by various numerical
methods.
The eomponents of rotation and deflection
(OzN, ete.) at any point N on the pipe line are ob-
6Even though in actuality both ends are completely fixed
the action of thermal expansion may be visualized most con~
veniently by imagining a fictitious ease where one end first
expands without restraint and is subsequently restored by
means of the reactions to the position dictated by end con-
atraint.
7The negative sign is needed since the restraining displace-
ment is in the opposite direction to the free thermal expansion.
F. Constant
+B n +EIO. ~ 0
+BI/% +EIO, ~ 0
+B u +EIO. = 0
+O:u +EI(o*. - lid) = +EI(o.A - 0.0' - ll.)
+C1/% +EI(o*, - 1l,A) ~ +EI(o,A - 0,0' -ll,)
+Cu +EI(o*. - 1l.A) ~ +EI(o.A - 0.0' - ll.)
tained by substitution of the moment and force
eomponents determined above, back into the same
relationships given in Table A.5 with the exception
that integration limits are from N to 0' and the
constants am expressed as in Table A.G.
Table A.6. Constant Terms for Deformation
of any Point of the Pipe Line
+EIO. N
+EIO,N
+EIO.N
+EI(o%N - J..rN + YNO:rN - ZNOuN - 0%0')
+EI(oIlN - D.uN + ZNOzN - XNO:rN - 0110')
+EI(o.N - 1l.N + XNO,N - y"IJ.N - 0.0')
Also, it can be seen that for convenience or for check-
ing purposes, the integrations may be taken from
A to N in which case the constants are as shown in
Table A.7. It will be noted that the sums of the
constants in Tables A.G and A.7 are equal to the
respective constants given in Table A.5.
The loading case of any concentraled force applied
at a point N on the pipe line of Fig. A.I can be ob-
tained from the general eqnations given in Table A.3
by considering the total load on the member NF to
remain unchanged while its length is made infinitely
small. In this ease, the shape eoefficients in the col-
umns headed by W Z1 W II , and W z vanish j the coordi-
nates X, fj, Z become XN, YN, ZN respectively; the
moments Af.rN, AflJN, !lf zN , are those at the origin
due to the applied concentrated loads P.rN, F'vN,
PzN; and the system of equations appears as sLown
in the first six rows of Table A.S. When F. N , FuN,
PzN are known loads the solution is obvious. \\Then
these forces are unknown, such as the reactions at
Table A.7. Constant Terms for Deformation
of Any Point of the I)ipe Line
with Hespect to Free End
+EI(-O.N)
+EI( -O,N)
+EI(-O.N)
+EI(o:rA - OzN - D.;r: + I:1;r:N - yN8tN + ZNOuN)
+EI(o,A - O,N - ll, + 1l,N - ZNO.N + X"IJ.N)
+EI(o.A - O.N - ll. + 1l.N - X"IJ,N + y"IJ.N)
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 325
stops, it is necessary to introduce additional equa-
tions in order to obtain a solution.
0'."' - ..,.
Referring again to Table A.8, the lower six equa-
tions, derived from Table A.6, relate the various re,-
• c

acting forces and moments to the rotations and

deflections at point N. Since there is no external N
moment at point N: FIG. A.22 Three-anchor configuration.
MzN = FzNYN - FvNZ N
In the development of Table A.8, the moments
M lI N = FzNZ N - FzNXN (A.15) M'N' M uN, M'N, were understood to result only
from forces applied at point N since it was assumed
M zN = FlIN XN - FzNYN
that at that point no external moments were applied
Furthermore, the deflections of the supports, stops, so that rotations were unrestrained. Consideration
etc. OxN, DyN, azN are expressable in terms of the of the more general casc leads to rcdcfinition of the
forces which produce them, FxN, FuN, FzN (for the moment equations (A.15) as follows:
usual rigid supports, OxN, OliN, OzN are commonly Al xN = lIf'xN + FzNYN - FJlNZN
taken equal to zero). Hence, the 12 equations of
Table A.8 contain but 12 unknowns and conse- M VN = M'"N+ F,NZN - F,NXN (A.17)
quently can be solved. M'N = M"N + FuN"'N - F,NYN
In the case of a branch line EN connected to the
But F xN = F xB , FvN = F yB , FzN = F zB , therefore
main point N as shown in Fig. A.22, the rotations,
M'N = M'B, M uN = M uB , M'N = M. B. Hence,
OxN, OyN' 8tN , as well as the deflections, OIN, OliN,
with appropriate changes to the subscripts and lim-
O,N, are affected by the flexibility of the brar,ch.
its of Table A.8 the 12 equations for the branched
Thus the rotations at point N cannot be considered
system are derived, appearing as shown in Table A.9.
unrestrained as they were in the treatment of stops.
The influence of normal forces and shears is neg-
The junction moments in the branch at point N,
ligible in most piping calculations except that on
M' xN, Ill'UNI !If' zN, expressed in terms of the terminal
rare occasions for thermal expansion effects it may
moments,S jJ{xn, !llyn! !llzB are given by:
!
warrant investigation. Hence, the development of
lil'xN = lvf xB + FyBZN - FzBYN these constants is given only for the case of concen-
trated loads (or thermal expansion).
M'uN ~ M uB + F,BXN - F,BZN (A.16)
The energy of shear is given by the following:
},[':N = M zB
SReferred to the origin.
+ FxBYN - FyBXN
U, -
-1' 0
k,'AF,z dl
2GA (A.18)

Table A.S. System of Equations for Stop at Point N

-~._ .. ~-
._.._•.. _.-
M;,; MI/ M, F, Fu F, M;,;N MI/N M&N F;,;N PI/N PzN ~
Constant
--- -- -- ---- -- ---- ---- --,_.~ _._---
+A xz +.11;';1/ +A;,;: +Bzz +B", +Bzz +A n +A", +A z: +Bn +Bzl/ +Bzz = +EI0;,;
+...1;';1/ +.11 1111 +.11 11: +B lIz +BlIl/ +8 11: +A xll +...11/11 +Av' +Bllz +B lIlI +BI/: ~ +EIOu
+...1 zz +...11/: +A zr +Bu +B:I/ +B u +A zz +.11 11 : +A zz +Bzr +B,v +B:z = +Rlo:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - _._ .• ~-~._----~.

+11 x.: +13l/z +11 u +C.zx +C'" +Czz +13I& +B llz +Bzr +Czz +CZI/ +Cu = +Rl(o·z - ~z)
+13zl/ +BJ/lI +B:I/ +Czl/ +CI/I/ +CI/: +Brl/ +131/1/ +B: 1I +C,lll +CI/1/ +Cv' ~ +EI(,'v - Av )
+Bzz +BI/& +Bzz +Czz +CI/Z +Cu +B;cz +131/: +13.:: +Czz +CI/': +Czz = +Rl(o·: - ~.:)

Limit..<; A to 0' Limits N to 0'

.. ~--

+A zz +A III +A zz +13zz +B", +B;cz +A zz +Azl/ +...1 I: +13;cz +13;c1l +13z: = +Elo;c"'"
+...1;c1/ +...11/11 +...1 11& +13 11 ;c +B w +I!" +A;';l/ +A w +...11/: +BI/;c +B IIII +131/: = +Elol/x
+A;cZ +...1 11 : +A u +Bz;c +Bzl/ +B:: +A zz +...1 11 : +A u +B:z +Bzl/ +Bzz = +EI0.:N
--- - - -- - - ---- - - -- - -
+13zz +I1 I1I +Bn +Cu +C", +Czz +Bzz +BI/;c +13:z +C;c;c +CZI/ +Czz = +El(ozN - ~zN + YNO:N - ZNOllN)
+13;c1/ +B IIII +13:1/ +CXI/ +CI/I/ +CI/Z +B zlI +B IIII +B:I/ +C", +CI/ll +C IIZ = +Rl(oIlN - ~IIN + ZN0:r,N - XNOzN)
+Bzz +BII % +Bzz +Czz +CIIZ +Czz +Bzz +B II : +13zz +CIZ +C IIZ +Cu = +E1(ozN - ~:N + XNOIIN - YNOzN)
Limits N to 0' Limits N to 0'
326 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
and the energy of normal force by and introducing the stiffness factor Q, the total en-
1k II Fn 2d.l ergy due to shear and normal forces becomes
U
n -
_
1
0 2EA
(A.I9)
U. n = 2~1 J Q(2.6F; + 2.6F'; + O.5F;)r",2 dl
where k, = flexibility factor in shear = l. (A.2I)
A = shear distribution factor which depends
on the shape of the cross section (= 2 for Applying Castigliano's theorem, the displacement
thin-walled cylinders). in the x-direction is given by
F t = shearing force. Ox =
A = cross-sectional area.
k n = flexibility factor in tension or compres- EI
I 1 0
1
Qr",
2 ( of, , of', oFn )
2.6F, of, +2.6F, of, +O.5F n of, dl
sion = l.
F 11. = normal force. (A.22)

The shear equation may be written Similar equations can be written for 0v and Ox by
substituting for oF x the partial differential of the
U =
'0 11(F + F' 2)'2
GA
• dl (A.20) applicable force.
The shear and normal forces for any point in the
where shearing force is expressed in components F, x-plane are
and F ' 3 respectively in and transverse to a reference F tI = F.. cos'" - F lJ sin",
plane containing the particular portion of the line. F'3 = Fx
H the outside, inside, and mean radii of the pipe
cross section arc designated by T OI T lI Tm respectively, F 11. = F IJ cos", + F: sin",
and the wall thickness by I, the properties of the Similarly for any point in the y-planc
section and their approximate relationship can be
expressed as follows: F s = Fxcos'" - F: sin l/t

A = 1r(ro2 -
2
T1 ) = mt
21t"T
F'B = FlJ

".
F 11. = F z cos if; + F x sin",
I = -4 (,.0 , - T") = -r 31
I " In
and for any point in the z-plane
F s = F 1, cos1f; - F.x sin1J;
F'a = F,;:
Substituting these values into eqs. A.I9 and A.20 F n = F x cos'" +F tI sin ",

Table A.9. System of Equations for a Three-Anchor Configuration

M II :t FV/I F,,/I. M::;n JIlin M"n F::;n Flln F"n Constant ~

;\'1",1 M"A F::;.-l
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - -
+A:r;t; +A::;v +..1::;: +B:r;t; +B::;v +13" +..1:u; +..1::;11 +..1::;" +B:r;t; +B"II +13" ~O
~O
+..1"11 +..1 1111 +..1 v: +13v" +B IIII +B II : +11"11 +AY/I +..11.1: +B y::; +B w +B II :
y: +A,,: +11:: ~ 0
+A::;: +A II : +A:: +13,. +13 x , +13"" +A:::: +A +B"" +13"11
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- --- --- --- - - -
+Hr::; +B y" +11:" +C:r;t; +C X1l +C"" +13"" +B y" +13 u +C"" +Cxy +Cxu = +151 (0",-1 - .6.;rA - 0.:.:0')
+BxJj +11 1111 +13" +C"y +CIIII +Cy: +11"v +13 vlI +13: v +C::;u +CIIII +C,,: = +EJ (OIlA - .6./1,-\ - ouO')
+11"" +111.1" +13" +Cx: +Cv: +C" +B u +13 y" +13" +C'.:.:: +ClI " +C:: " +EI (',A - - 0:0') "d
Limits A to 0
1
Limits N to 0'

+Bxy ~O
+Ar::; +A xu +A n +13%,% +13::;/1 +JJx: +Ar::; +..1"v +A::;: +B n +13 x"
~O
+A xll +11 l1y +..1"" +B vx +B"u +13 11: +A xy +A YIl +..11.1" +B y" +Byy +B y"
+Bz: ~O
+A"" +11"" +A"" +13:" +B:y +B"" +A"" +A y" +11:1: +13"" +13"11
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - = +EJ (o"n - .6.:>:IJ - 0,,0')
+B,,::; +11 11" +Br;z +C::;r +0"" +C"" +B"" +B"" +B"" +Cr::; +C"II +Cz"
+13::;" +B"y +B"II +C"v +CVII +C y" +B"y +BIII/ +B"I/ +C"'l1 +CYll +oy: = +BI(oIl8 - .6.1/8 - 01/0')
+B"" +B"" +B"" +C".: +01/" +Cu +B"" +B lI " +B u +Crz +C,,: +Cu = +EJ(0.:8 - .6."n - 0:0')

Limits N to Of Limits B to 0'

._-
 HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 327

The following partial derivatives for substitution z-Planc

o:r, 0v and 0= equations result:
jn the aF a aF'a fJF n
iJ iJ iJ
x-Plane
iJ
-sin,p 0 +cos,p
aF a aF' a aF;r
iJ a iJ
+cos,p 0 +sin,p
iJ
dF y
0 +1 o
ali';r iJ
0 +1 0
of;:
iJ
-sin ,p 0 +cos,p
of,, Substitution of these values into the Ox, 0u, and
0, cquations, plane by plane, produces the following
a -rcos,p 0 +sin ,p
recurring integrals
aF=
s= f2.6Qrm2dl

y·Plane
u = f Qrm2 (2.6 cos2 ,p +.5 sin2 ,p) dl
(A.23)

aF:r
iJ
+C08,p 0 +sin,p V = f Qrm 2 (2.6 sin 2 ,p +.5 cos 2 ,p) dl

iJ
0 +1 o
W = f Qrm 2 2.1 sin,p cos,p dl
of,,
The way these constants arc cntered into the simul-
iJ taneous equations is shown in Section 5.10 of
sin ,p 0 +cos,p
aFt Chapter 5.
 APPENDIX

Derivation of Acoustic Vibration Formulas

N Chapter 9, the derivations of certain expres- This result was derived on the basis of a generaliza-

I sions were omitted because of their length. As

they are not available in the literature, at least
not in the form given herein, they are included in this
tion of the method of derivation given by Rayleigh
in the "Theory of Sound," Vol. II [3J, for n = I, 2;
the n roots of the determinantal equation are all real
appendix. Numbered citations below refer to the and positive, corresponding to n physical modes.
list of references at the end of Chapter 9. For n = I V, = V, (V, = ... = V n = 00) is
found the following:
B.I Multiple Resonator of nth Order
I'n+' 1 I ~ 1'2 I ~
General expressions for the natural frequencies of -+-+---=-+0+---=0 (B.3)
multiple resonator systems can be derived and will Il n l'n Vn_ l Vn Jln IlIYt VI III

be given here for the sake of completeness (see also or

[24]). Consider Fig. B.!. V (ft), A (ft2 ), L (ft) are
chamber volume, neck area, and neck length respec- ~ = 1', + 1'2 f = <2 ~I" + 1', (BA)
V, 2.. V,
tively. In addition let:
and for 1', = 0, (2nd neck closed)
A
Acoustic conductivity = I' = -L-+-~:'::-V-..
=A= (ft);
f - <2 r;;;
- 2;r '\j~
(B.:;)

C = speed of sound in fluid (ft/sec)

For n = 2 the determinant reduces to:
Then, 1 ~ 1
- --I
C V,
f=-~ (B.l) VII"
=0 (B.G)
2..
1'3 1 1'3 ll~
where ~ is a root of the determinantal equation: Jl 1 V2 -V 1 ' -+-+---
1'2 V,
V, V, 1'2

---I
VI
•
PI
o o o o o o
1
1'2
o o o o o
1 1 1 • 1
V, -+---,
11 V J.l3
2 3 V, o o o o
1 1 1 •
o , 0 -+---, o o , 0
V, V3 V4 J.l4

1 1
,un+l
, ,.,.31'n
,un+l
--, - - -1, -+--+---
-Pn+l ,un+l TI
J.l 4 Vn JLn-l Vn Vn-l J.lnVn l-n_1 Vn P.n
(B.Z'
328

_ _ _1
 DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VIBRATION FORMULAS 329
From which:
2 _ (I"I + 1"2 + 1"2 +1"3)
~ VI V ~ 2
(B.7)
+ 1"1 . 1"3 + 1"2(1"1 + 1"3) = 0 FIG. 13.1 Multiple resonator.
V 1V 2
So that
Finally it may be added that the results also apply
f=~J1(1"1+1"2+1"2+1"3)
. 2.- 2 VI V 2
if the configuration of resonators, while in series, is
not in a straight-line direction.

±~!(1"1 +1"2 +1"2+1"3)2 1"11"3+1"2(1"1+1"3) B.2 General Characteristic Equation for a

Branched Piping System
4 VI V2 VI V2
(B.3) The hydrodynamic equations of motion for one-
For n = 3, let: dimensionalnon-steo.dy flow without friction or heat
transfer are:

I
"'1 = 1"1 +1"2 + 1"2+1"3 + 1"3+1",
VI V2 V2 (momentum)
"" = 1"1(1"2+1"3)+1"21"3 + (1"1+1"2)(1"3+1"')
ap a

I
VI V 2 VI V 3
(B.9) - + --
at ax
(pU) = 0 (continuity)
+ 1"21"3+(1"2+1"3)1"4
V 2 V3 where p, p, U are pressure, density, and velocity
j respeetively. In addition, for an isentropic process
1"11"2(1"3+1"')+1"31"'(1"1+1"2) for a gas.
1 as =
I V I V2 V3
p = Canst. p' (1' = C p/c,)

I Then
C
f=-v;j
2.-
If barred symbols represent mean values, while D.'S
represent increments, then the equations assume the

II with ~ being a root of:

'173- 0:'11]2 + 0:'2'17 - as =0 (B.lO)
form:
a(D.U) _ a(D.U)
(p + D.p) - - + (p + D.p)(U + D.U)--
at ax

I The 3 roots of the eubic equation are real and posi-

tive, corresponding to 3 physical modes.
_ a(D.p)
ax
I In partieular, if all chamber volumes, neck lengths,
and areas are equal then a(D.p) + (u + D.U) a(D.p) + (p + D.p) a(D.U) = 0

II f
C II"
= ;;:

m = 1,2,3
\iv X .
Sill
(m.-)
8 (B.ll)
at

lJ + D.p = f> +
ax

l' ~p D.p =
ax

f> + C2 D.p

I A more general result for n resonators of equal vol-

areas, and lengths is:
Uffi(>'s,
C = r-;ji =
\iT; speed of sound, eonsidered constant.

a I1". m.- Subtracting the mean values, considering the Li.'s

fm = ;;: \iv sm 2(n + 1) (B.12) infinitesimal and neglecting terms of higher order
than 1st in the infinitesimals:
m = 1,2,'" n a(D.U) _ a(D.U)
which is the same result as given in reference [24J,
p--+pU--=
at ax
-a(D.p)
-ax-
eq. 19, except that in that equation there is an error
and n should have been printed instead of m in the a(D.p) + U a(D.p) + p a(D.U) = 0
at ax ax
denominator of the argument of sin (~ ,,:)
m +12 D.p = C2 D.p
330 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Suppose now infinitesimal perturbations relative to substitution that the forms:
a quiescent state, i.e. "0 = O. Eliminating /1p via
the 3rd relation gives:
t1p = iCR cos ('E + 4» e iWI
)

a(t1U) (B.I3e)
p - - - = - a(t1p) )
sin (w; + 4» e
--
at ax t1(pU) = R iwI
(B.I3a)
a(t1U) _ ~ a (t1p)
p---=
ax C' at satisfy not only the wave equations B.I3b but also
equations B.I3a, and hence represent a solution of
From which, by further differentiation: both systems of partial differential cquations. R is
in general a ucomplex amplitude," while fJ.p is, of
course, a real quantity.
(B.I3b) Boundary Conditions at u Junction. T'he
boundary conditions at any junction are given by
continuity of both pressure and mass flow rate.
Thus at any junction of n branches or segments, for
Equations B.I3b are the familiar wave equations for pressure continuity:
pressure and velocity, governing the propagation of
small (infinitesimal) disturbances in a fluid medium . (wL s, )
,CR, cos C+4>, =iCH, cos C+4>'
(wLs,)
(0 = speed of "sonnd" = speed of propagation of
infinitesimal disturbances).
Particular solutions of the wave equation are ob-
tained by separation of variahles. Thus if:
·iCR. cos (wL
0-+4>. S• )
-
(B.I3d)
t1p = f, (x )j,(t)
Then where LSb LS ZI . . . LSn were defined previously.
While for continuity of mass flow ratc:

• ± a,R i
.L: . (wL
Sill --
Si
+ 4>,) = 0 (B.13e)
Or t=l C

-x' the a's being the areas and the (±) sign to be
taken as defined previously.
Since II is a function of x only and f2 is a function Substituting eqs. B.I3d into B.I3e yields:
only of t, i\ must be a function of neither, i.c. a
constant.
The solutions for f, and j, are then of the form: R, cos (wL
T S'
+ 4>,)i~
.
± ai tan T s-+ )
(wL 4>i = 0

I, (x) ~ B, cos Xx + B, sin Xx Or, assuming the 1st factor"" 0, thcn

j,(t) = D, cos XCt + D, sin XCt
An equivalent form of the solution is also:
•
,~ ± a, tan
(wL
C Si
+ 4>i ) ~ 0

wx Now
np = E l cos ( C + <PI ) C
iwl
; W = AC; i= v=l

Likewise, by analogous reasoning;

t1(pU) ~ E, cos (w; + 4>,) e iwI and writing fh instead of CPj:

However, Ell E'2, <P' and 4>2 are not completely inde-
•
,~ ± a, tan
(7r2foI LL s , + f3i) = 0 (B.I3!)
pendent of onc another, since the solution must also
satisfy equations B.I3a. It ean be verified by direct which is the result given in the text above.
 DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VIBRATION FORMULAS 331

End Conditions B.3 Tuned Resonator Relations

a. Intake points, x = 0 Consider the schematic below representing a pip-
ing system with a (tuned) resonator and orifice,
Node
(Fig. B,2). The entire pressure loss in the pipe may
At a node,
au =
at 0
be considered as an orifice effect. This point will be
elucidated in somewhat more detail later.
From eq. B,13e: Rewnolor V
Chamber
P+.6.P2 1 r-~..,---1.. Effoctivo Orifice
i<.>R sin .pe"'" = 0
'-+--L'
L J'-T'--'
or
Flow_ Q=Q+.6.0; At~Ql- jH.6PI I Po O+.6.Ql_
.p={3=0 \
Piping
Loop FIG. B.2 Tuned resonator.

ap =0 Let bars represent mean values while Li,'s represent

at increments. Thus let the mean values of flow rate,
Hence from eq. B.13e pressure and density be: Q, I>, p. Let the incremental
values of flow rates and pressures be: Ll.Q, Ll.Q"
-wCR cos .pei"' = 0
Ll.Q2 (as indicated on the schematic), Ll.p" and Ll.pz.
or In accordance with resonator theory a certain
amount of mass oscillates as a rigid body in the
,.-
.p={3=- neck; let the effective length of this mass column be
2 L* = L + !v,.-A where L and A are the length and
b. Discharge point, x = L cross-sectional area of the neck, and suppose that
at a given instance this mass penetrates the resonator
Node chamber a distance X, measured from an initial

'w. R.
sm (wL ). , position. The distance x is supposed to be small,
C +.p e'" = 0 of the same order as the increments. Then:
or Ll.Q2 = (p + Ll.pilAx = pAx (B.14)
From the equilibrium of the vibrating mass:
pAL'x + ALl.pz = ALl.PI (B.15)
and:
v V
Ll.Q, ~ VP2 = C 'f!2 =
2 C2 (Ll.P2) (B.IG)
m = 0, 1,2"" ;
where C2 = dpjdp = speed of sound, eonsidered
m = 0 is trivial solution (quiescent). constant.
m = I is fundamental. From B.14 and B,IG:
m = 2 is 1st harmonic, etc. (B.17)
Loop
For a small pressure drop through the orifice we have:
wL 1r 371"
cos C ~ 0; .p = {3 = 2' 2' Q + Ll.QI = kVP + Ll.PI - Po

5; ... - ~ fa ~ ~ (m - fa) = kVp - Po (1+ ~ ~) 2 P - Po

While
m = 1,3,5···
corresponding to fundamental, 1st harmonic, etc., From which
which are the results given previously in the text
(Subsection 9.6e).
332 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
So that Now let
2 t;]J V
7=---=: (B.24)
l' ]J V
where
A]J = ]J - Po
Henee -
V = -
Q= average volume flow rate
p
(B.18)
Then T is a time constant of the resonator orifice
Differentiating B.15, substituting B.17 and IU8, combination, considered merely as a filter. Since
and simplifying:
2
.,
C- = ~ -
7]
and W
2 cA
2
=--
. CA . A]J (A(,1I) , p n VL*
x + VL* x - 2 pL* Q = 0 (B.19)
eq. B.23 gives the final expression for the magnifica-
Also from eontinuity: tion factor of AQ,fQ:
AQ, AQ2 t;Q
Q+ Q =Q M.F. = I~: I= I
I
(B.25)
Or substituting from B.14: \/1 + [I _
t;Q, pA. t;Q
Q + Qx = Q (B.20) It is seen from eq. B.24 that T is proportional to the
pressure drop across the orifice and the volume of
Equations (B.19) and (B.20) are two linear differ-
the resonator. The greater the value of T the smaller
ential equations in terms of AQ,fQ and x, t;QIQ
the M.F. and the better the smoothing. However,
being given as a funetion of time. For steady state
even for a very small value of T (say a very small
harmonie oseillation let:
pressure drop across orifice), the magnification factor
,6,Ql _ R iwt still tends to zero if the resonator frequency W n is
Q - Ie , chosen so as to coincide with the forcing frequency w.
This then is the "tuning" phenomenon.
R, R il and Xo being, in general, complex. Substitut- Since an ideal case is considered) the :r..1.F. drops
ing in B.19 and B.20 gives, after some rearrangement:
to zero at the tuning frequeney. In a physical case
2 2 2t;7) this will not happen, of course, although in the neigh-
(w - Wn )xo + pL* R I = 0 (B.2!) borhood of the tuned frequeney, the M.F. will drop
sharply. The effect of the orifiee pressure drop and
. pA resonator capacity, as reflected via the time constant
R 1+,wQxo=R (B.22)
T, is to maintain a lower value of the magnification

Where w n 2 = C2 A I VL * is the square of the resonator factor in a band of frequencies around the tuneG.
natural frequency, in accordance with the results frequency; the larger T the wider the band. If there
given previously. exists no orifice) then instead of a concentrated
From B.21 and B.22: pressure drop there will be a continuous pressure
drop due to pipe friction. The smoothing will then
R, I occur in a finite length of pipe in the neighborhood
R =

[ (~)W] .
of the resonator. A curve of the magnification

I + (2 2) t
factor for the outflow pulsations t;Q,fQ vs. wlw n is
shown in Fig. B.3 for
I
W n - W

whence the magnification factor (M.F.) for t;Q,fQ

becomes
Finally, from the previous results it is found that

IR
RII = MF =
.. J [" (wn2(~)w]2
1+_w2)
I (B.23) the magnification factor for the flow into the reso-
nator

t;Q2/Q =
I t;QIQ
I IR21
R
 DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VIBRATION FORMULAS 333

-Tankp(t)

FIG. BA Schematic of Burge tank.

If smoothing is effective then the assumption that Po

is constant will be valid.
p(/) = density in tank, time variable, slugs/ft.
T = temperature of gas in tank, degrees Rankine.

I An isolhermal process is assumed so that T is con-

I o±'---':'::----:..,----:..,-_--:_--,;-
stant.
e= speed of sound, constant for an isothermal

II o 1.0 2.0 3.0

FIG. B.3 Tuned resonator magnification facwrs.

is given by:
4.0 w
W;

R=
"t =
process, ft/sec.
gas constant, ft-lb/slugs X degrees F.
ratio of specific heats.
!'" (B.2G) (B.27)

I
Z
(w/wn)'J
It is assumed that the pressure drop across the effec-
TW

I~
..
AQz/Q is found to be 90° out of phase to
and the magnification of the former is a maximum
AQdQ,
tive orifice is moderate so that, at all times, the flow
is well in the subsonic range. In this case, instead
of the theoretically exact, but cumbersome, relation
$
(= I) when the M.F. of the latter is a minimum between pressure drop and flow rate through an
iI (=0) and vice versa. A curve of IRz/RI vs. orifice in the subsonic case, an approximate but
! w/w n for T = I/w n is also shown in Fig. B.3. As simpler relation of the Bernoulli type may be written:

II appears from Fig. B.3., if T is very small then for all

forcing frequencies, except in the immediate
borhood of the tuned frequency, the pulsations pass
neigh~
Q,(t) = aVp(t)[p(t) - Pol
where a = effective orifice area, including contrac-
(B.28)

I through unattenuated with the resonator quiescent. tion coefficient X V2.

I But in the immediate neighborhood of the tuned Then, by virtue of the gas law,

II
frequency the situation is suddenly reversed, the
outflow pulsations are attenuated while the reso- P = RpT (B.29)
nator responds to the incoming pulsations. This and the definition of the speed of sound e, eq. B.27,
represents the action of a tuned resonator.
a v:;;
B.4 Simplified Surge Filter Analysis Q2(/) = C Vp(/)[p(/) - Pol (B.30)
Derivation of Results (see Fig. BA).

I
From continuity:
Let V = volume of tank, ft3 .
Q, (I) - Qz(/) = Vp(/) (B.31)
a = effective orifice area, ft 2 .
I Q, (I) = mass flow rate from compressor, time
(p = dp/dl)

variable, slugs/sec. But, on the assumption of an isothermal process:

Q2(/) = mass flow rate from tank into piping

system, time variable, slugs/sec.
p(/) = ~l(ti = ;z p(t) (B.32)

p(/) = pressure in tank, time variable, Ibs/ft2 • Substituting the last result into eq. B.31 gives:
Po = pressure in pipe, considered constant, "tV .
Ibs/ft2 •
Q, (I) - Q2(/) = e 2 p(/) (B.33)
334 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Substituting now the expression for Q2(t) from eq. of the variation in inflow (Le. into the tank), relative
13..30 into eq. 13..33 and dividing through by a factor to average values. If:
yields the following: Inflow variation with respect 6Q,
-=x
. aC C 2 to mean flow rate 12,
pet) + Vv; vp(t)[p(t) - Po] = -yV Q,(t) (13..34)
Outflow variation with respect 6Q2
-=y
Q, (t), being the output from the compressor, is a to mean flow rate 12,
known time function. Hence, eq. B.34 is a first -yV l' 1-1'olp
order differential equation for the instantaneous Time contact
tank pressure pet). This differential equation, how-
c' 12, l-"izPolp = r
ever, is non-linear. (BAD)
It is supposed now that the pulsations are moder- then eq. 13.39 assumes the form:
ate in amplitude relative to their average values.
Let the average values, being time independent, be
ry +y = x (13.041 )
represented by bars above the corresponding sym- The last first order linear non-homogeneous differ-
bols. Thus: ential equation is the familiar differential equation
of a first order filter, being the "time constant" of
pet) = p + 61'; pet) = 6p == d(6p)ldt T

Q, (t)
Q, (t) = 12, + 6Q2 = 12, + 6Q2
'I'
= 12, + 6Q, = 122 + 6 Q I.e., 7\ ~1
_
-
7\
~2
the filter, having the dimension of time.

Since, C2 = -yRT = -yp

p
On the assumption that the increments (6's) are
small, relative to the average values, the expression Then, if
Vp(t)[p(t) - Pol may be approximated by a bi-
nomial expansion to first order terms in the incre- represents the average volume flow rate, relative to
ment 61', as follows: average tank density per unit time, the expression
for T becomes:
_/ [ "izPolp 61']
vp[p - Pol = ,/p(p - Po) 1 + 11 -- 1--
Po l' l' r= -
V 1 - Polp
, (13.042)
Q*, 1 - 2Polp
(B.35)
The output from a reciproeating compressor is pulse-
Also, in terms of the average values only, eq. B.34 like and all harmonics are contained in it. However,
reduces to: if the fundamental harmonic is attenuated by the
filter, the higher harmonics can surely be disre-
(13..36) garded and it is thus sufficient to consider 6Q,fQ,
x of a purely sinusoidal form
By virtue of eqs. 13..35 and B.36, eq. 13..34 reduces,
after some simplification, to:
Then the steady state solution for y is of the form
P (6 P)
-y V +1- !zPolp 61' = 6Q, (13..37) y = Yo'"', and from the differential eq. 13.041:
C2 12, P 1 - Polp p 12,
yo(irw + 1) = Xo (13.043)
Likewise, by virtue of eq. B.35, it follows from
eq. 13.30 that: The attenuation factor is the absolute value of the
ratio xolyo. Or,
1 - Polp 6Q2
1 - !zPolp 12,
(B.38) A.F= 11+irw[= V1+(rw)2 i= v=T (13.044)

Substituting the last relation into eq. 13..37 gives: Consider a reciprocating compressor, with N = rpm
and m = number of cylinders, uniform spacing of
-yV p 1-
1'0111 (6<22) + 6Q, _ 6Q, (13..39) cylinders being assumed, then,
C2 12, 1 - "izPolp 12, 122 - <:1, For single action,
Equation 13.39 is a first order linear differential equa- N
w = 27r-m
tion expressing the variation in outflow as a function GO
 DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VIBRATION FORMULAS 335

For double action, tween tank and piping, then (for 50% pressure
recovery) :
N
W = 411'"-m (B.4S)
GO
where ji a = ji, hence,
If then, V· = volume flow of gas per single stroke
per piston, calculated relative to average tank den-
sity, it is found, by virtue of eqs. B.42 and B.4S, and
that for either case: 1 - Po/p _ 1 - (PO/P)a
(BA7)
1 - !Po/p - ~ - !(Po/P)a
TW = 211'"
1 - Po/p
1 -
V (B.4G) substituting eqs. B.4G and B.47 into eq. B.44, gives
I - 'iPo/p V·
the final expression for the attenuation factor A.F.,

31 - l(~O/:~)
Finally, Po is the pressure immediately at the
(effective) orifice. Actually, there is usually some A.F. = 11 + (21r 4-zP01Ja
"\j
VV.)' (BAS)
pressure recovery. The latter varies with orifice-ta-
pipe diameter. A pressure recovery of 50% is as- The resnlts are shown in Fig. 9.30 (Subsection 9.Sb)
sumed. If (Po/P)a is the actual pressure ratio be- for (Po/Pla = 0.99,0.95, 0.9, O.S.
 APP·ENDIX

Charts and Tables

C-l. Properties and Weights of Pipe

-
Nominal Weight Aver- I\lini- Bend Weight of
Size Cross-_ See- Radius
Designation age mum Inside r..'1omcnt Charac-
Outside Sectional tion of
and/or Wall Wall Diam- of teristic
Diam- Schedule Mewl l\lod- Gyru.- Pipe 'Vater
Thick- Thick- cter Inertia. per Unit
etcr Number ness
Area ulus tion
ness Bend
(~ Yst) Radius
inches inches inches inches square inches inrhes 4 inchcs 3 11ft inches wp Ww
D t 1m d A I Z klR r, Ib per ft Ib per ft
1005 0.049 0.043 0.307 0.055 0.0009 0.0043 18.6 0.127 0.186 0.032
%" Std. 40 4005 0.068 0.050 0.269 0.072 0.0011 0.COS2 28.7 0.122 0.2·15 0.025
00405 XS 80 80S 0.095 0.083 0.215 0.092 0.0012 0.0060 47.5 0.115 0.315 0.016

IDE 0.065 0.057 0.410 0.097 0.0028 0.0103 13.8 0.169 0.330 0.057
r.;11 Std. 40 40S 0.088 0.077 0.364 0.125 0.0033 0.0123 20.7 0.163 0.425 0.045
0.540 XS 80 80S 0.119 0.104 0.302 0.157 0.C038 0.0140 32.2 0.155 0.535 0.031

IDS 0.OG5 0.057 0.545 0.124 0.0059 0.0174 8.38 0.217 00423 0.101
%" Std. 40 40S 0.091 0.080 00493 0.167 0.0073 0.0216 12.81 0.209 0.568 0.083
0.675 XS 80 80S 0.126 0.110 00423 0.217 0.0086 0.0255 20.1 0.199 0.739 0.061

IDS 0.083 0.073 0.674 0.197 0.0143 0.0341 6.95 0.269 0.671 0.154
Y2" Std. 40 4GS 0.169 0.095 0.622 0.250 0.0171 0.0407 9.79 0.261 0.851 0.132
0.840 XS 80 80S 0.147 0.129 0.546 0.320 0.0201 0.0·178 14.7 0.250 1.09 0.161
160 0.187 0.16·1 0.466 0.384 0.0221 0.0527 21.1 0.240 1.30 0.074
XXS 0.294 0.258 0.252 0.50·1 0.0243 0.0577 47.3 0.219 1.72 0.022

5S 0.065 0.057 0.920 0.201 0.0245 0.0467 3.22 0.3·19 0.684 0.288
%" lOS 0.083 0.073 0.884 0.252 0.0297 0.0566 4.26 0.343 0.857 0.266
1.050 Std. 40 408 0.113 0.099 0.82·1 0.333 0.0370 0.0706 6.18 0.334 J.l3 0.231

XS 80 80S 0.154 0.135 0.742 0.434 0.0448 0.08,\3 9.21 0.321 1.47 0.187
160 0.218 0.191 0.614 0.570 0.0527 0.100 15.1 0.304 1.94 0.128
XXS 0.308 0.270 0.431 0.718 0.0579 0.110 26.9 0.284 2.44 0.064

510 0.065 0.057 J.l85 0.255 0.0500 0.076 2.00 0.443 0.868 00478
1" lOS 0.109 0.095 1.097 0.413 0.0757 0.115 3.60 00428 1.40 0.409
1.315 Std. 40 40S 0.133 O.W) 1.Q.19 00494 0.0874 0.133 4.57 00420 1.68 0.374

XS 80 80S 0.179 0.157 0.957 0.639 0.166 0.161 6.66 0.407 2.17 0.311
160 0.250 0.219 0.815 0.836 0.125 0.190 10.58 0.387 2.84 0.226
XXS 0.358 0.313 0.599 1.08 0.141 0.214 18.76 0.361 3.66 0.122

336
 CHARTS AND TABLES 337

C-l. Properties and Weights of Pipe - Continued

Nominal Weight Aver- Mini: Bend Weight of
Cross- Sec- Radius
Size Designation age mum Inside Moment Charac-
Soctionnl tion of
Outside and/or Wall Wall Dinm- of wristic
Metal Mod- Gym- Pipe Water
Diam- Schedule Thick- Thick- etcr Inertia per Unit
Area ulus tion
etcr Number ness ness Bend
( ~ Y,I) Radius
inches inches inches inches square inches inches 4 inches 3 11ft inches Wp Ww
D I 1m d A I Z hlR r, Ib per ft Ib per ft
5S 0.065 0.057 1.530 0.33 0.104 0.125 1.23 0.56 1.11 0.80
lOS 0.109 0.095 1.442 0.53 0.161 0.193 2.17 0.55 1.81 0.71
Std. 40 40S 0.140 0.123 1.380 0.67 0.195 0.235 2.91 D.M 2.27 0.65
1M"
1.660 XS 80 80S 0.191 0.167 1.278 0.88 0.242 0.291 4.25 0.52 3.00 0.56
160 0.250 0.219 1.160 1.11 0.284 0.3·12 6.04 0.51 3.76 0.46
XXS 0.382 0.334 0.896 1.53 0.341 0.411 11.2 0.47 5.22 0.27

5S 0.OG5 0.057 1.770 0.38 0.158 0.166 0.927 0.G5 1.27 1.07
lOS 0.109 0.095 1.682 0.61 0.247 0.260 1.63 0.63 2.09 0.96
Std. 40 408 0.145 0.127 1.610 0.80 0.310 0.326 2.26 0.62 2.72 0.88
1}2"
1.900 XS 80 80S 0.200 0.175 1.500 1.07 0.391 0.412 3.32 0.61 3.63 0.77
160 0.281 0.246 1.338 1.43 0.483 0.508 5.15 0.58 4.87 0.61
XXS 0.400 0.350 1.100 1.89 0.568 0.598 8.53 0.55 6.41 0.41
---
5S 0.065 0.057 2.245 0.47 0.315 0.265 0.585 0.82 1.60 1.72
lOS 0.109 0.095 2.157 0.78 0.499 0.420 1.02 0.80 2.64 1.58
2" Std. 40 408 0.154 0.135 2.067 1.07 0.666 0.551 1.50 0.79 3.65 1.45
2.375
XS 80 80S 0.218 0.191 1.939 1.48 0.868 0.731 2.25 0.77 5.02 1.28
160 0.343 0.300 1.689 2.19 1.16 0.979 3.99 0.73 7.45 0.97
XXS 0.436 C.382 1.503 2.66 1.31 1.10 5.57 0.70 9.03 0.77

5S 0.083 0.073 2.709 0.73 0.710 0.494 0.511 0.99 2.48 2.50
lOS 0.120 0.105 2.635 1m 0.983 0.687 0.759 0.98 3.53 2.3G
Std. 40 40S 0.203 0.178 2.469 1.70 1.53 1.05 1.37 0.95 5.79 2.08
2.!-'2"
2.875 XS 80 80S 0.276 0.242 2.323 2.25 1.93 1.34 1.95 0.92 7.66 1.84
160 0.375 0.328 2.125 2.95 2.35 1.64 2.88 0.89 10.0 1.54
XXS 0.552 0.483 1.771 4.03 2.87 2.00 4.91 0.84 13.7 1.07

5S 0.083 0.Q73 3.334 0.89 1.30 0.7-14 0.341 1.21 3.03 3.78
lOS 0.120 0.105 3.260 1.27 1.82 1M 0.50·1 1.20 4.33 3.61
Std. 40 40S 0.216 0.189 3.068 2.23 3.02 1.72 0.961 1.16 7.58 3.20
3"
3.500 XS 80 80S 0.300 0.263 2.g00 3.02 3.90 2.23 1.41 1.14 10.3 2.8\)
160 0.438 0.382 2.624 4.21 5.0-1 2.88 2.24 1.0n 14.3 2.34
XXS 0.600 0.525 2.300 5.47 5.99 3.43 3.42 1.05 18.6 \.80

5S 0.083 0.Q73 3.834 1.02 1.96 0.980 0.260 1.39 3.47 5.00
lOS 0.120 0.105 3.760 1.46 2.76 1.38 0.383 1.37 4.97 4.81
3>-2" Std. 40 408 0.226 0.198 3.548 2.68 4.79 2.39 0.762 1.34 9.11 4.28
4.000 XS 80 80S 0.318 0.278 3.364 3.68 6.28 3.14 1.13 1.31 12.5 3.85
XXS 0.636 0.557 2.728 6.72 9.85 4.93 2.70 1.21 22.9 2.53

5S 0.083 0.073 4.334 1.15 2.81 1.25 0.204 1.56 3.u2 6.40
IDS 0.120 0.105 4.260 1.65 3.96 1.76 0.300 1.55 5.61 6.17
Std. 40 40S 0.237 0.207 4.026 3.17 7.23 3.21 0.626 1.51 10.8 5.51
4" XS 80 80S 0.337 0.295 3.826 4.41 9.61 4.27 0.933 1.48 15.0 4.98
4.500
120 0.438 0.382 3.624 5.59 11.7 5.18 1.27 1.45 19.0 4.47
160 0.531 0.465 3.438 6.62 13.3 5.90 1.62 1.42 22.5 4.02
XXS 0.67·1 0.590 3.152 8.10 15.3 6.79 2.21 1.37 27.5 3.38
338 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-l. - Properties and Weights of Pipe - Continued

Nominal \Vcight Avcr- Mini- Bend Weight of
Cross- See- Radius
Size Designation age mum Inside Moment Charac-
Sectional tion of
Outside and/or Wall Wall Diam- of teristic
Metal Mod- Gyra-
Diam- Schedule Thick- Thick- eler Inertia per Unit Pipe Water
Area ulus lion
eler Number ness ness Bend
(= )/gO Radius
inches inches inches inches square inches inehes~ inches 3 11ft inches Wp lOw
D t tm d A 1 Z hlR r, lb per ft Ib per ft
5S 0.109 0.095 5.345 1.87 6.95 2.50 0.176 1.93 6.35 9.73
lOS 0.134 0.117 5.295 2.29 8.43 3.03 0.218 1.92 7.77 !1.53
Std. 40 40B 0.258 0.226 5.047 4.30 15.2 5A5 0.440 1.88 14.6 8.66
5" XS 80 80S 0.375 0.328 4.813 6.11 20.7 7A3 0.669 1.84 20.8 7.88
5.563
120 0.500 OA38 4.563 7.95 25.7 9.25 0.936 1.80 27.0 7.09
160 0.625 0.547 4.313 9.70 30.0 10.8 1.23 1.76 33.0 6.33
XXS 0.750 0.C55 4.063 11.3 33.6 12.1 1.55 1.72 38.6 5.62

5E 0.109 0.095 6.407 2.23 11.9 3.58 0.123 2.30 5.37 14.0
lOS 0.134 0.117 6.357 2.73 14A 4.35 0.153 2.30 9.29 13.7
St.<!. 40 40E 0.280 0.245 6.065 5.58 28.1 8.50 0.334 2.25 19.0 12.5
6" XS 80 80E OA32 0.378 5.761 8.40 40.5 12.2 0.541 2.20 28.6 11.3
6.62.5
120 0.562 OA92 5.501 10.7 49.6 15.0 0.735 2.15 36.4 10.3
160 0.718 0.628 5.189 13.3 59.0 17.8 0.9SS 2.10 45.3 9.16
XXS 0.864 0.756 4.897 15.6 66.3 20.0 1.25 2.06 53.2 8. J.1

5S 0.109 0.095 8A07 2.92 26.5 6.13 0.072 3.01 9.91 24.1
lOS 0.148 0.130 8.329 3.9·1 35A 8.21 0.099 3.00 13A 23.6
20 0.250 0.219 8.125 6.58 57.7 13A 0.171 2.96 22A 22.5
8" 30 0.277 0.242 8.071 7.26 63A 14.7 0.191 2.95 24.7 22.2
8.625
Std. 40 40S 0.322 0.282 7.981 8AO 72.5 16.8 0.224 2.94 28.6 21.7
60 OA06 0.355 7.813 10.5 88.8 20.6 0.289 2.91 35.6 20.8
XS 80 80E 0.500 OA38 7.625 12.8 106 24.5 0.36·1 2.88 43.4 19.8
100 0.593 0.519 7A39 15.0 121 28.1 0.441 2.85 50.9 18.8

120 0.718 0.628 7.189 17.8 141 32.6 0.551 2.81 60.6 17.6
140 0.812 0.711 7.001 19.9 154 35.6 0.639 2.78 67.8 16.7
XXS 0.875 0.766 6.875 21.3 162 37.6 0.699 2.76 72.4 16.1
160 O,B06 0.793 G.813 22.0 166 38.5 0.730 2.75 74.7 15.8

5E 0.134 0.117 IOA82 4.52 63.7 11.9 0.057 3.75 15.2 37A
IDS 0.165 0.J.14 IOA20 5A9 76.9 14.3 0.071 3.74 18.7 36.9
20 0.250 0.219 10.250 8.26 114 21.2 0.109 3.71 28.0 35.7
30 0.307 0.269 10.136 10.1 138 25.6 0.135 3.69 34.2 34.9
Std. 40 40S 0.365 0.319 10.020 11.9 161 29.9 0.163 3.G7 40.5 34.1

XS 60 80S 0.500 OA38 9.750 1G.1 212 39.4 0.228 3.63 54.7 32.3
10" 80 0.593 0.519 9.564 IS.!) 245 45.5 0.276 3.60 64.3 3\.1
10.750 0.625 0.547 9.500 19.9 256 47.6 0.293 3.59 67.5 30.7
100 0.718 0.628 9.314 22.6 286 53.2 0.3·12 3.56 76.9 29.5
0.750 0.655 9.250 23.6 296 55.1 0.360 3.55 80.1 29.1

120 0.843 0.738 9.064 26.2 324 00.3 0.412 3.52 89.2 27.9
0.875 0.700 9.000 27.1 333 02.0 OA31 3.51 92.3 27.5
140 1.000 0.875 8.750 30.6 368 68.4 0.505 3.47 104 26.0
lGO 1.125 0.984 8.500 34.0 399 74.3 0.583 3A3 116 24.6
 CHARTS AND TABLES 339

C-l. l'!operties and Weights of Pipe - Continued

~omin1l.J Weight Avcr- l\lini- Bend Weight of
Cross- Sec- Radius
Size Designation age mum Inside Moment Charac-
Sectional tion of
Outside and/or WaU Wall Diam- of
Mod-
teristic
Metal Gyra- Pipe Water
Diam- Schedule Thick- Thick- eter Inertia per Unit
Area. ulus tion
eter Number ness ness Bend
(~ YsI) Radius
inches inches inches inches square inches inchcs 4 inches 3 l/ft inches Wp W.
D I 1m d A I Z h/R P, Ib per ft Ib per ft
5S 0.165 0.14·1 12.420 6.52 129 20.3 0.050 4.45 19.6 52.5
lOS 0.180 0.158 12.300 7.11 141 22.0 0.055 4.44 24.2 52.2
20 0.250 0.219 12.250 9.82 192 30.0 0.077 4.42 33.4 51.1
30 0.330 0.289 12.000 12.9 249 39.0 0.103 4.39 43.8 49.7
Std. 408 0.375 0.328 12.000 14.6 279 43.8 0.118 4.38 49.6 49.0

40 0.406 0.355 11.938 15.7 300 47.1 0.128 4.37 53.5 48.5
12" XS 80S 0.500 0.438 11.750 19.2 362 56.7 0.160 4.33 65.4 47.0
12.750 60 0.562 0.492 11.626 21.5 401 62.8 0.182 4.31 73.2 46.0
0.625 0.547 11.500 23.8 439 68.8 0.204 4.29 80.9 45.0
80 0.687 0.601 11.376 26.0 475 74.5 0.227 4.27 88.5 44.0

0.750 0.655 11.250 28.3 511 80.2 0.250 4.25 96.2 43.0
100 0.843 0.738 11.064 31.5 562 88.1 0.285 4.22 107 41.6
0.875 0.766 11.000 32.6 579 90.8 0.298 4.21 111 41.1
120 1.000 0.875 10.750 36.9 642 101 0.348 4.17 125 39.3
140 1.125 0.983 10.500 41.1 701 110 0.400 4.13 140 37.5
160 1.312 1.149 10.126 47.1 781 123 0.481 4.07 160 34.9

10 0.250 0.219 13.500 10.8 255 36.5 0.064 4.86 36.7 62.0
20 0.312 0.273 13.375 13.4 315 45.0 0.080 4.84 45.7 60.6
Std. 30 0.375 0.328 13.250 16.1 373 53.3 0.097 4.82 54.6 59.7
40 0.438 0.382 13.125 18.7 429 61.4 0.1].1 4.80 63.4 58.6
XS 0.500 0.438 13.000 21.2 484 69.1 0.132 4.78 72.1 57.5

60 0.593 0.519 12.814 25.0 562 80.3 0.158 4.74 84.9 55.9
14" 0.625 0.547 12.750 26.3 589 84.1 0.168 4.73 89.3 55.3
14.000 80 0.750 0.656 12.500 31.2 687 98.2 0.205 4.69 106 53.1
0.875 0.766 12.250 36.1 781 112 0.244 4.65 123 51.1
100 0.937 0.820 12.125 38.4 825 118 0.264 4.63 131 50.0

120 1.093 0.956 11.814 44.3 930 133 0.315 4.58 151 47.5
140 1.250 1.094 11.500 50.1 1030 147 0.369 4.53 170 45.0
160 1.406 1.230 11.188 55.6 1120 160 0.426 4.48 189 42.6

10 0.250 0.219 15.500 12.4 384 48.0 0.048 5.57 42.1 81.7
20 0.312 0.273 15.376 15.4 474 50.3 0.061 5.55 52.3 80.5
Std. 30 0.375 0.328 15.250 18.4 562 70.3 0.074 5.53 62.6 79.1
XS 40 0.500 0.438 15.000 24.4 732 91..\ 0.100 5.48 82.8 76.5
0.625 0.547 14.750 30.2 894 112 0.127 5.44 103 74.1

60 0.656 0.574 14.688 31.6 933 117 0.134 5.43 108 73.4
10" 0.750 0.655 14.500 35.9 1050 131 0.155 5.40 122 71.5
16.000 80 0.843 0.738 14.314 40.1 1160 145 0.176 5.37 136 69.7
0.875 0.766 14.250 41.6 1190 149 0.184 5.36 141 69.1
100 1.031 0.£02 13.938 48.5 1370 171 0.221 5.29 165 66.1

120 1.218 1.066 13.564 56.6 1560 195 0.268 5.23 192 62.6
140 1.438 1.258 13.124 65.8 1760 220 0.325 5.17 224 58.6
160 1.593 1.394 12.814 72.1 1890 237 0.368 5.12 245 55.9
340 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
C-l. Properties and Weights of Pipe - Continued
Nominal Weight Avcr- 1-1ini- Bend Weight of
Cross- Sec- Rtldius
Size Inside
o

Designation agc mum !\'1omcnt Charac-

Sectional tion of
Outside and/or Wall WaU Diam- of tcristic
Diam- Schedule Thick- Thick- etcr
~fetal
Inertia
Mod- per Unit
Gym- Pipe Water
cler Number
Area ulus tion
ness ness Bend
(~ Yst) Rndius
inches int'(hes inches inches square inches inches~ inchcs 3 11ft inches Wp Ww
D t 1m d A I Z hlR Ib per ft, Ib per ft
"
10 0.250 0.219 17.500 13.9 5-19 61.0 0.038 6.28 47.4 IO!
20 0.312 0.273 17.376 17.3 679 75.5 0.048 6.25 59.0 103
Std. 0.375 0.328 17.250 20.8 807 89.6 0.058 6.23 70.6 101
30 0.438 0.382 17.12·1 24.2 932 104 0.008 6.21 82.2 99.7
XS 0.500 0.438 17.000 27.5 1050 117 0.078 6.19 93.5 98.3
40 0.562 0.492 16.876 30.8 1170 130 0.089 6.17 105 96.9
0.625 0.547 16.750 34.1 1290 H3 0.099 6.15 116 95.4
18" 60 0.750 0.650 16.500 40.6 1520 168 0.121 6.10 138 92.6
18.000 0.875 0.766 16.250 47.1 1730 192 0.143 6.00 160 89.9
80 0.937 0.820 16.126 50.2 1830 20! 0.155 6.04 171 83.5

100 U56 1.012 15.683 61.2 2180 242 0.196 5.97 208 83.7
120 1.375 1.203 15.250 71.8 2500 278 0.239 5.90 244 79.1
140 1.562 1.367 14.876 80.7 2750 300 0.278 5.8! 274 75.3
160 1.781 1.558 14.438 90.8 3020 336 0.325 5.77 309 70.9

10 0.250 0.219 19.500 15.5 757 75.7 0.031 6.98 52.7 129
Std. 20 0.375 0.328 19.250 23.1 1110 111 0.047 6.9! 78.6 126
XS 30 0.500 0.438 19.000 30.6 1460 146 0.003 G.gO 104 123
40 0.593 0.519 18.814 36.2 1700 170 0.076 6.86 123 120

0.625 0.5-17 18.750 38.0 1790 179 0.080 6.85 129 120
0.750 0.655 18.500 45.4 2100 210 0.097 6.81 154 117
20" 60 0.812 0.711 18.376 48.9 2200 226 a.IOG 6.79 166 115
20.000 0.875 0.766 18.250 52.6 2410 241 0.115 6.77 179 113
80 1.031 O.!JOZ 17.!J38 61.4 2770 277 0.138 6.72 209 109

100 1.281 1.121 17.438 75.3 3320 332 0.175 6.63 256 103
120 1.500 1.313 17.000 87.2 3760 376 0.210 6.56 296 98.3
140 1.750 1.531 16.500 100. 4220 422 0.252 6.48 341 92.6
160 1.968 1.722 16.064 112 4590 459 0.291 6.41 379 87.8

10 0.250 0.219 23.500 18.7 1320 110 0.021 8.40 63.4 188
Std. 20 0.375 0.328 23.250 27.8 1940 162 0.032 8.35 94.6 184
XS 0.500 0.438 23.000 36.9 2550 213 0.Q.13 8.31 125 180
30 0.502 0.·192 22.875 41.4 2840 237 0.049 8.29 141 178
0.625 0.547 22.750 45.9 3140 261 0.055 8.27 156 176

24" 40 0.687 0.601 22.625 50.3 3420 285 0.061 8.25 171 174
24.000 0.750 0.655 22.500 5!.8 3710 309 0.057 8.22 186 172
GO a.nos 0$17 22.064 70.0 ·1650 388 0.088 8.15 238 166
80 1.218 1.066 21.564 87.2 5670 473 0.113 8.07 296 158
100 1.531 1.340 20.938 108 6850 571 0.146 7.96 367 149

120 1.812 1.585 20.376 126 7820 652 0.177 7.87 429 141
140 2.062 1.80! 19.876 142 8630 719 0.200 7.79 483 134
160 2.3·13 2.050 19.314 159 9460 788 0.240 7.70 542 127

10 0.312 0.273 29.37(; 29.1 3210 214 0.017 10.5 98.9 294
0.375 0.328 29.250 34.9 3830 255 0.021 10.5 119 291
20 0.500 0.438 29.000 46.3 50!0 33G 0.028 10.4 157 286
30"
30.000
O.5G2 0.492 28.875 52.0 5640 376 0.031 10.4 177 284
30 0.625
0.750
0.547
0.655
28.750
28.500
I 57.6
68.9
6220
7380
415
492
0.035
0.012
10.4
10.3
196
23!
281
277
 CHARTS AND TABLES :141

17.
16

15.
14

13

I-'
u.
0 II
0
a::
w
Ii a-
~ 9

I
z
0
(j)
8
Z
<t
a- 7
X
W

II 4

TEMPERATURE, F
Materials (Nominal Analysis)
1. Carbon, carbon-}% molybdenum, and ~% chromium-~'% molybdenum steels.
2. 1% to 3% chromium-~% to 1% molybdenum steels.
3. 4% to 10% chromium-!% to 1!% molybdenum steels.
4. 18% ehromium-8% nickel steels (AISI types 302,303,304,321, and 347).
Note: This chart is reproduced from a standard of The M. W. Kellogg Company that was used in the preparation of the sample
calculations in thia book. It is not in full agreement with data in ASA B31.1-1955.
342 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
C-3. Modulu6 of Elasticity, Carbon aud Alloy Steels

29

~
..... 28
<Xl
...J

'"Q 27
,.:
I-
[)
i=
(f)
26
<t
...J
W
25
LL
o
(f) t
:3 24 I
::>
o
o I
1
::< 23 l
W
...J
enz
I
22
w
I-

21

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

TEMPERATURE F
19

18

MATERIALS
17
I. CAR80N STEEL
CHROMIUM-NICKEL STAINLESS STEELS
SUCH AS AISI TYPES 304,309, 310, 316,347. 16

2. FERRITIC ALLOY STE ELS

SUCH AS CAR80N-MOLYBDENUM, 15
1/2% TO 10% CHROMIUM-MOLY,
AISI TYPES 405, 410, 430, 446.
14

13
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

TEMPERATURE F
Note: This chart is reproduced from a standard of The M. W. Kellogg Company thnt was used in the preparation of the samplo
calculutions in this book. It is not in full agreement with datn. in ABA B31.1-1955.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 34.1

C-4. Chart for Criterion in Par. 620(a) in Code for Pressure Piping ASA 831.1
344 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

,C-5. LENGTH OF LEG REQUIRED

Two-Member System, Doth Ends Fixed, Thcrnlul Expansion in Plane of l\fcmbers

'::r
20 L

I
A~

c
L = Length of leg AB, ft.
c = Unit linear thermal expansion, in./ft.
Value of E used = 29 X 10' psi.
SA = Code allowable stress range
(1.258,+ 0.258,), Jlsi.

.2

Multiply L by [( to obtain length of leg Be required.

 CHARTS AND TABLES 345

C-6. MOMENTS AND FORCES

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed
Thermal Expansion in Plane of MClnbers

60
50

40

30
K<l
20

F;r;A = -F:t;c = -106AIIe/L~

F,A = -F,c =
+1O'A,le/L'
10 M. A = +1O',l,le/£
9
8 M. c = -10',I,le/£
7
8
I
.
<t
5 I
LIFT}
-A--'=-'--'-'-- 8

•
.
<t 3

.
<t 2

K>I
<f
I 1.0
.9
c
.a
.7
.6
F.. = -Frc = -10'A,le/([(£)'
.5 F'A = -F,c =
+IO'A,le/([(£)'
M. A = 10'11,le/[(£
•• M.c = -10'11,le/[(£
.3
F = Force, lb.
M = Moment, ft-lb.
.2
First subscript denotes direction.
Second subscript denotes location.
Signs are those of forces or moments acting on
anchors.
"9 .1 .2.3.4 .~ .6 .1.8.9 1.0
I = ·Moment of inertia of pipe, in. 4.
I,II'lillilil 1ijl" 'I ill il" i 'I" "I" iI Iii II I ' i I III I i i i I I , I I
10 9 8 7 6 ~ 4-:5 2 1.0 e = Unit linear thermal expansion, ill./ft.
K Vnlue of E used = 29 X 10' psi.
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-7. LENGTH OF LEG REQUIRED

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed
One Support Displaced in the Direction of the Adjoining l\Icmbcr
100
90

Goa
80
70

50

~O

30

20. L = Length of leg AB, ft.

c

6. = Displacement as shown of end A, in.

Value of E used = 29 X 10' psi.

Ia SA. = Code allowable stress range

(1.258, + 0.258,), psi.

2'

,2'
I!li

.5

••

I
.1
.1 .2

K
2 3 ~ 5
I
Multiply L by ]( to obtain length nf Be required.
 CHAIns AND TABLES 347

C-8. MOMENTS AND FORCES

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed
Displaced in the Direction of the Adjoining I\lembcr

'0 _
9
8
A

\:- 7

F•., ~
c
-F.c ~ -10' IC>.1,/L'
F,A ~ -F,c = +JO'lt>.1,/L'
M. A ~ +JO'lt>.1,/L'
M,c = -!O'IC>.1,/L'

F = Forcc, lb.
M ~ Moment. It-lb.

I
First subscript denotes direction.

.
<t
Second subscript denotes location.
Signs arc those of forces or moments acting

. on anchors.

I
<t I = !\'loment of inertia of pipe, in. 4 •
!J. = Displacement in x-direction of end
.:1, in.
Value of E used = 29 X 10 6 psi.

I
.~.
348 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-9. LENGTH OF LEG REQUIRED

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed
One SUPP9rt Displaced Normal to Plane of Members
l

L ~ Length of leg AB, ft.

.6. = Displacement normal to plane, in.
Value of E used ~ 29 X 10' psi.
SA = Code allowable stress range (1.25S, + 0.25S,), psi.

2.0 _

1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6 J~"

.5 JO"
.4 ~4"
i?0"
'e"
'6"
''/'' w
'i?" N
.2 U>
10"
w
e" <>.
ii:
8" J
<t
-'-- Z
i
'/" 0z

J"
i?~"
i?"

Ih"
~

,"
.1 .2 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0

K
Multiply L by]{ to obtain length of leg Be required.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 349

C-lO. MOMENTS AND FOHCES

Two-l\'lcmbcr System, Both Ends Fixed
One Support Displaced Nornlul to Plane of l\lcnlbcrs
l

, I lo. 1
FilA = -File = 10 LJ.' 1

Ilo.
ALe = -10' L' A.

M. e = 10' ~~ A,

F = Force, lb.
M ~ Moment, ft-Ib.
First subscript denotes direc-
tion.
Second subscript denotes loca-
tion.
Signs arc those of forces or
moments acting on aBchors.

1 = Moment of inertia of
pipe, in. 4 •
f:" = Displacement normal to

I plane, in.
Valueof Eused = 29 X 10' psi.

o .I .2 .3 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
K
350 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-I1. REQUIHED HEIGHT

Symmetrical Expansion Loop
.~ .~ .~ f ,.-----,
\

~ ~ ~ " ,, , K,
Guido ( Guido •
-/.s ·.. 0. '0..,. ~o
A' 1----A*~""f P'-'"'--Jfi- ii- - - of,.
K, l
.9
1.0
.8 • •

.7 L ~ Length from .'\ to B, ft.

.6 I¢*,,:>;..~ L e = !L(l - [(I)

6. = Expansion from ...1 ' to B', in.

D = Outside diameter of pipe, in.
V"I"e of E used = 29 X 10' psi.
SA "" Code allowable stress range (1.25S( +
0,258,), psi.

7 t,
10 0 l::.

t 1"-"
I ,
, '

T~ Tt 1: -
~ 1 .. ~ ' ••
fI. .• ·:t . •

, 1
, "
;
t .
.02
.05 .10 .2 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0

Multiply L by K 1 and K2 to obbin dimensions cf loop.

 CHARTS AND TABLES .151

C-12. MOMENTS AND FORCES

Synlmctrical Expansion Loop

~rq
\

ido I-J , .
t -- Guid ____-t:
~
-F. B , = -IO'A,It.jL'
8 "'8'
-M•• = lO'A,It.jL'
t, K,t l,

I = Moment of inertia of pipe, in.". F = Force, lb.

!:1 = Expansion from A' to B', in. M = Moment, It-lb.
Value 01 E used = 29 X 10' psi. First subscript denotes direction.
Second subscript denotes location.
Signs are those of forces or moments acting on anchors.

f
" .2 .3 .4.5.6 .6

I
~1'J
;~

I
6

4 2
I A,
I 3

I
:$ .8
I
~
;~
2
.6

~ Ae .5
i~ .4
.~ .3

.2

.10

.08

.06
,05
,04

•10 .2 .3 .. .6 .7 .8 .9 LO
352 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-13. Guided Cantilever Chart

_------~~s L ~ Length of leg. ft.

o= Lateral deflection, in.
1:---L T Value of E used = 29 X lOG psi.

Assumed mode of deflection of guided cantilever. SA = Code nllowable stress range (1.25St + O.25Sh), psi.

20 _ _

10
9
8
7 .,.
6
5

3
2lj~if§l. " ",l>-\..

+' ,?\,?x,
2
." "
L~SA
103
"

~:~ -'-""":.·';-"=,P "- :..l~' _ •

0.8
.9:= -
0,7
0.6 " j:'

I
I
0.5

0.4

0.3
.::: =;;...- ::::3~: i> III 11 1
I II
I i
L
0.2
'"<3 I
I
8
Instructions: Determine value of LVSA/10 3 • Enter with this value of ordinate scale and read over to line for proper
nominal pipe size. Read down to abscissa scale. The value obtained will be the permissible lateral deflection for leg.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 353

C-14. Correction Factor f, Guided Cantilever Method

I I n
~,
L

L LA ( LII

Case I. For any exterior leg L. Case II. For any interior leg L whose maxi-
100 mum deflection is in the plane of L and LA
where LA is the shorter of the connecting legs.
90•
80 •,
70
60

40

30 -,-
Case III. For any interior leg L whose maxi-
mum deflection is perpendicular to the plane
20 of L and LA where LA is the shorter of the
connecting legs.

! I J
o. o
'"o o"'
'"
,.;
~
et>
0 ~qq
,..: co 0'1 Q

L LENGTH OF LEG UNDER CONSIDERATION

LA = LENGTH OF SHORTER ADJACENT LEG
354 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-15. Design Data: Trigonometric Constants for Circular l\lembc1'8

-
"
(degrees) Co CO c" Coo COb "
(degrees)
c, CO C" C" Cbb

0 +.0038 -.0872 -.0038 +.0003 +.0871 0 +.0341 -.2588 -.0335 +.0059 +.2559
15 +.0202 -.0882 -.0250 +.0080 +.0794 15 +.0999 -.2412 -.0915 +.0394 +.222,1
30 +.0408 -.0730 -.0395 +.0253 +.0021 30 +.1589 -.2071 -.1250 +.0974 +.1044
45 +.0643 -.0589 -.0434 +.0475 +.0399 45 +.2071 -.1589 -.1250 +.1644 +.0974
60 +.0774 -.0403 -.0357 +.0087 +.0187 00 +.2·112 -.0999 -.0915 +.=4 +.0394
75 +.0852 -.0189 -.0184 +.0832 +.0042 75 +.2588 -.03·11 -.0335 +.2559 +.0059
90 +.0872 +.0038 +.0038 +.0871 +.0003 90 +.2588 +.0341 +.0335 +.2559 +.0059
105 +.0832 +.0202 +.0250 +.0794 +.0080 105 +.2·112 +.09nn +.0\)15 +.2224 +.039·1
120 +.0730 +.0408 +.0395 +.0621 +.0253 120 +.2071 +.1589 +.1250 +.164-1 +.0974
135 +.0589 +.0043 +.0·134 +.0399 +.1589 +.2071 +.1250 +.0974 +.1644
+.0-175
~ 135
'"
""
00
0
0
150
105
+.0403
+.0189
+.0774
+.0852
+.0357
+.0184
+.0187
+.00·12
+.0687
+.0882
'"0
Co> 150
105
+.0999
+.03·11
+.2412
+.2588
+.0\1l5
+.0335
+.039·1
+.0059
+.2244
+.25W
"
~ 195
180 -.0038
-.0202
+.0872
+.0832
-.0038
-.0250
+.0003
+.0080
+.0871
+.0794
~ " 180
195
-.03H
-.0999
+.2588
+.2412
-.0335
-.0915
+.0059
+.0394
+.255!)
+.222·1
0
210 -.0408 -.0395
E
-<" +.0730 +.0253 +.0021 210 -.1589 +.2071 -.1250 +.0\174 +.1044
,-<
:., 225 -.0643 +.0589 -.0·134 +.0475 +.0399 :::; 225 -.2071 +.1589 -.1250 +.1644 +.0974
240 -.0774 +.0403 -.0357 +.0687 +.0187 240 -.2412 +.0999 -.0915 +.=4 +.0394
255 -.0852 +.0189 -.0184 +.0832 +.00·12 255 -.2588 +.0341 -.0335 +.2559 +.005!l
270 -.0872 -.0038 +.0038 +.0871 +.0003 270 -.2588 -.030\1 +.0335 +.2559 +.005!l
285 -.0832 -.0262 +.0250 +.079·1 +.0080 285 -.2412 -.0999 +.0!l15 +.=4 +.0394
300 -.0736 -.0468 +.0395 +.0021 +.0253 300 -.2071 -.1589 +.1250 +.1644 +.0974
315 -.0589 -.0643 +.0434 +.039!l +.0475 315 -.1589 -.2071 +.1250 +.O!I74 +.10·14
330 -.0403 -.0774 +.0357 +.0187 +.0687 330 -.099!l -.2412 +.0915 +.0394 +.222·1
345 -.0189 -.0852 +.0184 +.0042 +.0832 3·15 -.0341 -.2588 +.0335 +.0059 +.255H
300 +.0038 -.0872 -.0038 +.0003 +.0871 300 +.0341 -.2588 -.0335 +.0059 +.255!l

0 +.0152 -.1730 -.0151 +.0018 +.1728 0 +.13·10 -.5000 -.1250 +.0453 +.4783
15 +.0595 -.1638 -.0558 +.0208 +.1538 15 +.2588 -.4483 -.2165 +.1368 +.3808
30 +.1000 -.1428 -.0810 +.0576 +.1170 30 +.3060 -.3660 -.2500 +.2618 +.2618
45 +.1335 -.1121 -.0855 +.1023 +.0722 45 +.4483 -.2588 -.2105 +.3808 +.1368
60 +.1580 -.0737 -.0665 +.1431 +.0315 00 +.5000 -.1340 -.1250 +.4783 +.0·153
75 +.1716 -.0303 -.0297 +.1689 +.0057 75 +.5176 0 0 +.5118 +.0118
90 +.1736 +.0152 +.0151 +.1728 +.0018 !l0 +.5000 +.1340 +.1250 +.4783 +.0453
105 +.1038 +.0596 +.0558 +.1538 +.0208 105 +.4483 +.2588 +.2105 +.3868 +.1308
120 +.1428 +.1000 +.0810 +.1170 +.0576 120 +.3000 +.3660 +.2500 +.2618 +.2618
.0 135 +.1121 +.1335 +.0855 +.0722 +.1023 G 135 +.2588 +.4483 +.2105 +.1308 +.3808
'" 150
!: +.0737 +.1580 +.0665 +.1431
'"
Co>
150 +.1340 +.1250 +.0453 +.4783
0
165 +.0303 +.1716 +.0297
+.0315
+.0057 +.1089
'"0 105 0
+.5000
+.5176 0 +.0118 +.5118
~" 180
195
-.0152
-.0596
+.1730
+.1038
-.0151
-.0558
+.0018
+.0208
+.1728
+.1538
~ " 180
195
-.1340
-.2588
+.5000
+.4483
-.1250
-.2165
+.0453
+.1368
+.4783
+.3868
0 0

,-<" .'<
210 -.1000 +.1·128 -.0816 +.0570 +.1170 210 -.3660 +.3600 -.2500 +.2618 +.2018
~ 225 -.1335 +.1121 -.0855 +.1023 +.0722
::, -.4483 -.2165 +.1308
225 +.2588 +.3808
240 -.1580 +.0737 -.0665 +.1·131 +.0315 '" 240 -.5000 +.13·10 -.1250 +.4783 +.0·153
255 -.1716 +.0303 -.0297 +.1689 +.0057 255 -.5176 0 0 +.5118 +.0118
270 -.1736 -.0152 +.0151 +.1728 +.0018 270 -.5000 -.1340 +.1250 +.4783 +.0·153
285 -.1638 -.05!l0 +.0558 +.1538 +.0208 285 -.4483 -.2588 +.2165 +.3868 +.1308
300 -.1428 -.1000 +.0810 +.1170 +.0576 300 -.3000 -.3060 +.2500 +.2618 +.2018
315 -.1121 -.1335 +.0855 +.0722 +.1023 315 -.2588 -.4483 +.2165 +.1308 +.3868
330 -.0737 -.1580 +.0665 +.0315 +.1431 330 -.13·10 -.5000 +.1250 +.0453 +.4783
345 -.0303 -.1716 +.0297 +.00,57 +.1089 345 0 -.5176 0 +.0118 +.5118
300 +.0152 -.1736 -.0151 +.0018 +.1728 360 +.1340 -.5000 -.1250 +.0·153 +.4783
 CHARTS AND TABLES 355

C-15. Design Data: Trigononlctric Constants for Circular l\lcmbcrs - Continued

,
a a
e. e.b c•• e", e. e",
(degrees) '" (degrees)
'" e.b c••

0 +.2929 -.7071 -.2500 +.1427 +.6427 0 +1.‫סס‬oo -1.0000 -0.5000 +0.7854 +0.7854
15 +.4659 -.6072 -.3415 +.3012 +.4842 15 +1.2247 -0.7071 -0.4330 +1.0354 +0.5354
30 +.6072 -.4659 -.3415 +.48·12 +.3012 30 +1.3660 -0.3660 -0.2500 +1.2184 +0.3524
45 +.7071 -.2929 -.2560 +.6427 +.1427 45 +1.4142 0 0 +1.2854 +0.2854
60 +.7588 -.0999 -.0915 +.7342 +.0512 60 +1.3660 +0.3660 +0.2500 +1.2184 +0.3524
75 +.7588 +.0999 +.0915 +.73-12 +.0512 75 +1.2247 +0.7071 +0.4330 +1.0354 +0.5354
90 +.7071 +.2929 +.2560 +.6427 +.1427 90 +1.0000 +1.0000 +0.5000 +0.7854 +0.785·1
105 +.6072 +.4659 +.3415 +.4842 +.3012 lOS +0.7071 +1.22-17 +0.4330 +0.5354 +1.0354.
120 +.4659 +.6072 +.3415 +.3012 +.4842 120 +0.3660 +1.3660 +0.2500 +0.3524 +1.2184
135 +.2929 +.7071 +.2560 00 135
...'"'"0
+.1427 +.6427 0 +1.4142 0 +0.2854 +1.2854
...
0

-"
00
150 +.0999 +.7588 +.0915 +.0512 +.7342 150 -0.3660
165 -.0999 +.7588 -.0915 +.0512 +.7342 '" 165 -0.7071
+1.3660
+1.2247
-0.2500
-0.4330
+0.3524
+0.5354
+1.2184
+1.0354
" 180
!!:. 195
-.2929
-.4659
+.7071 -.2500 +.1427 +.6427 180
!!:. 195
-1.0000 +1.0000 -0.5000 +0.7854 +0.7854
0 +.6072 -.3·115 +.3012 +.48·12 0
-1.22-17 +0.7071 -0.4330 +1.03.4 +0.5354
k k
<0 210 -.6072 +.4659 -.3415 +.48·12 +.3012 <0 210 -1.3660 +0.3660 -0.2500 +1.2134 +0.362·1
•..,. 0 225
'" 225 -.7071 +.2929 -.2500 +.6427 +.1427
'"
-1.4142 0 0 +1.2854 +0.2854
240 -.7588 +.0999 -.0915 +.7342 +.0512 240 -1.3660 -0.3660 +0.2500 + 1.2184 +0.352·1
255 -.7588 -.0999 +.0915 +.7342 +.0512 255 -1.22·17 -0.7071 +0.4330 +1.0354 +0.5354
270 -.7071 -.2929 +.2500 +.6427 +.1427 270 -1.0000 -1.6000 +0.5000 +0.7854 +0.785'1
285 -.6072 -.4659 +.3415 +.4842 +.3012 285 -0.7071 -1.2247 +0.4330 +0.5354 +1.0354
300 -.4659 -.6072 +.3415 +.3012 +.4842 300 -0.3660 -1.3660 +0.2500 +0.3524 +1.2184
315 -.2929 ' -.7071 +.2500 +.1427 +.6427 315 0 -1.4142 0 +0.7854 +1.2854
330 -.0999 -.7588 +.0915 +.0512 +.7342 330 +0.3660 -1.3660 -0.2500 +0.3524 +1.2184
345 +.0999 -.7588 -.0915 +.0512 +.7342 345 +0.7071 -1.2247 -0.4330 +0.5354 +1.0354
360 +.2929 -.7071 -.2500 +.1427 +.6427 " 360 +1.0000 -1.0000 -0.5000 +0.7854 +0.7854

0 +0.5000 -0.8660 -0.3750 +0.3071 +0.7401 0 +2.0000 0 ~O ~ + 1.5708 ~ +1.5708

15 +0.7071 -0.7071 -0.4330 +0.5236 +0.5236 15 +1.9318 +0.5176
30 +0.8660 -0.5000 -0.3750 +0.7401 +0.3071 30 +1.7320 +1.0000
45 +0.9659 -0.2588 -0.2165 +0.8986 +0.1486 45 +1.4142 +1.4142
60 +1.0000 0 0 +0.9566 +0.0906 60 +1.0000 +1.7320
75 +0.9650 +0.2588 +0.2165 +0.8986 +0.1486 75 +0.5176 +1.9318
90 +0.8660 +0.5000 +0.3750 +0.7401 +0.3071 90 0 +2.0000
105 +0.7071 +0.7071 +0.433U +0.5236 +0.5236 105 -0.5176 +1.9318
120 +0.5000 +0.8660 +0.3750 +0.3071 +0.7-101 120 -1.0000 + 1.7320
...;;;-..,. 135 +0.2588 +0.9659 +0.2165 +0.1486 +0.8986 S 135 -1.4142 +IAH2

-"
C! 150
165
0
-0.2588
+1.0000
+0.9659
0
-0.2165
+0.0906
+0.1486
+0.9566
+0.8986
-
:;;:
oi 150
165
-1.7320
-1.9318
+1.0000
+0.5176
!!:.
180 -0.5000 +0.8660 -0.3750 +0.3071 +0.7401 "
!!:. 180 -2.0000 0
0 195 -0.7071 +0.7071 -OA330 +0.5236 +0.5236 0 195 -1.9318 -0.5176
k k
<0 210 -0.8660 +0.5000 -0.3750 +0.7·101 +0.3071 <0 210 -1.7320 -1.0000
•0 0
co
<0 225 -0.9659 +0.2588 -0.2165 +0.8986 +0.1486 ~ 225 -1.4H2 -IA142
240 -1.0000 0 0 +0.9566 +0.0906 2·10 -1.0000 -1.7320
255 -0.9659 -0.2588 +0.2165 +0.8986 +0.1486 255 -0.5176 -1.9318
270 -0.8660 -0.5000 +0.3750 +0.7401 +0.3071 270 0 -2.0000
285 -0.7071 -0.7071 +OA330 +0.5236 +0.5236 285 +0.5176 -1.9318
300 -0.5000 -0.8660 +0.3750 +0.3071 +0.7401 300 +1.0000 -1.7320
315 -0.2588 -0.9659 +0.2165 +0.1486 +0.8986 315 +1.4142 -1.4142
330 0 -1.0000 0 +0.0906 +0.9566 330 +1.7320 -1.0000
345 +0.2588 -0.9659 -0.2165 +0.1486 +0.8986 345 +1.9318 -0.5176 j j j
360 +0.5000 -0.8660 -0.3750 +0.3071 +0.7401 360 +2.0000 0 0 +1.5708 + 1.5708
356 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-I6. Span vs. Stress,

"Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform Load
.1 1000
30
BOO
.2 600
20
.3 3
.4 400
4
.6 300
10 .B
1.0 6
B 200

B I-
6 ';:2 U-
z 10
00
-3 100
ll. 4 00 4 z
0 ::> «
ll.
BO I-
U-
0 ...J
0
3 56 00
60 m "...J
00
00
w 2
_oB
::i:

z
1O ------
20 w
ll.
ll. 40 l-
I
a:
I-
00
°t; 20 30 " 30 Cl
w
w -> :;::
Cl 00 30 40
:z 20
0 " 40 I-
:z 1.0 N
w Z
m 60 ::>
.B
60
::E BO
::> 10 ...J
100
::E .6 BO «
8 I-
X
«
::E 200
100
6
°
I-

.4
" 300 "
00
4
.3 400 \:
3
600
.2 BOO
1000 2

200
.1 1.0

Formula: 8 = 1.2w12/Z
Key: (1) Connect Z with tv locating turning point (It).
(2) Connect (A) with s locating I.
Connect (A) with llocating s.
Example: Given: Z = 24.5 in. 3 , w = 66lb/it, S = 2750 psi.
Result: 1 = 29 ft.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 357
C-I7. Span vs. Natural Frequency and vs. Deflection
Horizon tal Pipe Lines, Unifornl Load
GOpOD 1000

40,000 eoo
1.0 10
600
20,000 e
6 >-
I- 400
10.000
e,ooo 1.5 4 _ <3
j:;
6,000 (j u.-(/) 300
W 3 ---- _ et
4POO;: ...___(/)-2 ..J
z WW
2,000"'- ____
®...___ ...--- ffi 2 0:
~O
u. 200

1,000 ~
et ----- --__......@
100
_____ ----
eo____
---- ...--- Q.

W
(/)
..J 3
0
I-
et(/)
o:~
W..J
I-
U.
1.0 Q. ~ 0:
eoo 0: ...___ ...--- ::E 0 UJ
600~"""""-
60
---- CD G .e wO
1-::0'
100 Q.

---400 - ~ m

- ------0
-.......... >- 4 .6
II II
eo ....J
"'0:----"'"
~5- - 4 I- W 60
200 I- --- ~ ~ ~-I--I l-
X
Z
W
100 ::0'
- - - -.@_ _ ~
0: 6
.3 70-3
"':600-2"5 _ 40
~
UJ
30 .2 2eoo--
eo 0 --~ 7 ::'900. 20 _ ~
60 ::E ..J e
.. et 1000- 30 I-
40
H 20
0:
~
9 51100-15 2
~
I- I- 10
et
.10 f= 20
20
u. Z .oe~
..J
et
10
z W .06
..J
u.
I-
0
et I-
10 Q. et W I-
e 0
6
10
(/)

W
::0' 15
X
0
.04
.. 10 .
.03
4 8
Q. 0:
<J) e ~
Q. &20

Ii
et .02
2 "
6 .-->
6
"
~
1.0 30 4
.e .01
4
.6 3
.4 3

I .2
2
2

.10
.oe 1.0
Formulas: 0 = 17.lwl'/EI In = 3.13/-Vo
Key: (l) Connect E (or ']') with I locating turning point (/1) at intersection on l.
(2) Connect (11) with w locating turning point (11) n.t intersection on I.
(3) Connect (B) with llacating 0 (or In).
Connect (B) with 0 (or In) locating I.
Example: Given: E = 29 X la' psi, 1= 28'10 in." w ~ 320 Ib/ft.
Hesult: In = 0.76 ey/see, 0 = 0.17 in.
358 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

C-I8. Corrcction Factors for Usc with Olllrts C-16 and C-17
/'1-9)<'1/>1<1.., M/lXIMvM
~
0 END FIXt9T1o/V MOMeNT DIRG, MoMeNT DUL.ECTION
Fs r;.
UNIT Lo.f10 = ur

~
.ozsw-l Iff' z< 1'1 ",. tI-
I .OZ5W}1. ]'
EI I I
SrJFFrlC!;'S~ELz::::.-)
10 1'120
( c;:.
I. l I .o25w-11.

2 .lw-1'l.
(11' III III I II I I II I11)
./w-l"
m .furZ'"
ur Z'"
10
1
1920 E,I
tv Zl
/ .05'l('

z' ur z4-
3
III! II 11111111119,.
/3?\ tV
8
S
3&4 !31 /.25 1.3/C,

.0417. IAT ll.

~
vr l' / <if" Z4-
4 ~ I I I I III II I IIIIIII!I~ /2 384 EI .833 .2t;;3

.5
Li! 1I11111!1111 IIII ~ ~~' Iff Z' 1 vr 1·
~l 8 /85 Er 1.25 .547

~lZ
t
(, urZ I w-Z 4
II II II I IIIII IIII I II~ 2 8 EI 5 /2.6'3

For Chart C-16: :Multiply S value from chart'b)' F s to obtain maximum stress for case shown.
For Chart C-17: Multiply 0 value from chart by Vt. to obtain maximum deflection for case shown.
 APPENDIX

A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis

and
The Use of Digital Conlputers

i
I
iI
I

359
 Acknowledgment

This presentation has been sponsored by the Power Piping Department of The
M. W. Kellogg Company. Development of the shape coefficient matrix theory,
in Section 5A-2, was earried out by Dr. A. M. Peiser, Staff Consultant in l'vlathe-
matics. Dr. D. H. Cheng, of the City College of l'\ew York and Consultant in
Meehanieal Development to Kellogg, has been responsible for writing and editing
this presentation, as well as undertaking a critical review of the material in
Seetion 5A-2. The material in this work is substantially original and cannot be
found elsewhere in the published literature.
Valuable suggestions and criticisms have been made by a number of members
of the company. Notable among these have been: :Nlessrs. D. B. H.osshcim,
J. H. Rickerman, .J. T. MeKeon, A. F. l\IyJes, and A. M. Mitehel.

!{E""IOTIl H. l\hCWATT
Sales M anagcr
Power Piping Department

360

5A-l Introduction
T HE I(ellogg general analytical mcthod for
relating the expansion displacements of space
piping systems to terminal and intermediate
forces, moments, and stresses was organized for
internal company use in the early 1930's, and was
formally pnblished in 1941 in the First Edition of
the "Design of Piping Systems." In the Second
Edition of the "Design of Piping Systems," publishcd
in 1956, the presentation was extended to include
the combined effects of terminal and intermediate
restraints, and of concentrated and distributed loads.
This Second Edition also provided the mathematical
basis for the simplification of complex problems by
the inversion method, and a brief discussion of the
then current application of computing machines.
In recent years, rapid developments in the field
of digital computers have permitted the solution of
increasingly complex piping systems with economy
and versatility, not previously attainable. Although
exploratory computer solutions were carried out
much earlier, routine solutions were first obtained by
Kellogg in 1954 using card programmed computing
equipment. The magnetic drum type computer ob-
tained ill 1950 reduced computation time to ol1e-
tentll. The magnetic core type computer acquired
by Kellogg in 1961 has further reduced computation
time by still another factor of ten. With speed of
this order, the ultimate objective of completely auto-
matic machine analysis of arbitrarily complex piping
systems has become a reality.
With the development of computer programs of
,ever widening scope, the task of the program planner
has become more demanding. The program must be
361
so planned that any conceivable configuration can
be analyzed, regardless of the number of branches,
anchors, stops, or internal multiple closed loops.
The program should require a minirn.um amount of
input data and provide' a maximum amount of
automation. Essential to the attainment of these
objectives is a rigorous statement of the compu-
tational problem in concise mathematical terms.
The importance of this is attested by the growing
acceptance of the notation of matrix algebra in the
description of the piping problem. III recent ycars,
Kellogg engineers and mathematicians have used
vector and matrix algebra in re-deriving the shape
coefficients for spatial pipes of any orientation and
securing efficient solutions to piping problems of any
complexity. This chapter summarizes the current
Kellogg approach.
In Section 5A-2, the syrnbols and nomenclature
will be defined, followed by a step-by-step derivation
of the shape coefficient matrix, referred to an arbi-
trary set of right-hand orthogonal coordinate axes.
It will be shown that the shape coefficient rn.atrix
can be expresscd as a function of two suhmatrices,
one of which refers only to a local origin and a local
coordinate system and, hence, is independent of the
skewness of the member with respect to the common
coordinate system chosen for the entire piping sys-
tem. The other matrix serves to transfer the local
coordinates to tlie common coordinate system, and is
independent of the geometrical configurat.ion of the
pipe element, whether it be straight or curved. Fol-
lowing the theoretical derivation, the shape coeffi-
cient matrices for straight pipes and eireular bends
will be constructed, and a method of obtaining these
matrices from minimal input data will be given.
362 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

In Section 5A-3, the two anchor problems will be
extended to the multiple branch and loop problems
in a manner that provides convenient automatic
assembly of shape coefficient matrices by computer.
Systems with intermcdiat<J r<JStraints will be treated,
including skew stops. A brief discussion on com-
puter solutions currently in use will be presented in
Section 5A-4, with the machine input data and print-
out r<JSults for a simple illustrative problem. Finally,
the chapter will be concluded with a brief review of
a selected bibliography.
b. At the convenient local origin, q: XI, X2,
~3, called the A-system;
c. At any point along the pipe line, P: ~"
b h called the ~system.
Note that Xi, ~; and ~i are all unit vectors.
(v) The following position vectors are defined:
a. With r<JSpect to the x-syst<Jm, the position
vector of point q is:
ij(x) = L qiXi
and the position vector of point Pis:

5A-2 Derivation of the Shape Coefficient l' ~ L PiXi.

l\-Iatrix
b. With respect to the A-system, the position
1. Definitions and Nonlcnclaturc. Unless
vector of point Pis:
otherwise specified in the text, the following defi-
nitions and nomenclature will be used consistently P= L P'~i.
in this chapter.
Figure 5A.I shows a space curve in the
(i) A vector is distinguished from a scalar by a x-system. Any point P on the curve can
bar over the symbol, thus j is a vector; f; be defined by the equation:
is a scalar representing the component of j P = L P,x, = ij + P = ij + L pJi. (5A.I)
in the i-direction.
A vector with a superscript, [7\ represents
(vi) A vector defined in one coordinate system
a six-component force (including moment) may be transformed to another system
vector acting on the pipe branch i. Also, through a linear transformation defined as
ai represents a six-component displacement follows:
(including rotation) vector at the end of a. From the A-system to the ~system:
branch i.
(ii) An element in a matrix, located at the i-th ~j = Li ~j'~', j = 1,2,3. (5A.2)
row and the j-th column, is represented by a
symbol with two subscripts, such us A ij . b. From the x-system to the A-system:
A matrix consisting of an array of numbers,
Xi = L AiiXi, j = 1,2,3. (5A.3)
Aij, is represented by IA ij !. or by a capital i
letter without subscript and vertical bars, It may be noted that. ~i' represent direction
e.g., A, B, etc. cosines of the unit vector ~i with respect to
A matrix with a superscript, A i, represents
the shape coefficient matrix of the branch i.
The transpose of a matrix A (or IA ij !) is
x,
denoted by A' (or IAj,I).
A zero (null) matrix is denoted as 101.
A diagonal unit matrix is denoted as III·
(iii) L = L represents a summation with
i i_1,2,3
respect to i of the term or terms following J:o,;:,-------+- x,
this sign, when i varies from 1 to 3.
(chosen origin)
(iv) A right-hand, orthogonal coordinate system
is denoted by one symbol with permutable
snbscripts I, 2 and 3. The following coordi-
nate systems are defined:
a. At the chosen origin, 0': XI, X2, X3, called x,
the x-system;
 A MATRIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COl\U'UTERS 363
unit vectors Xi. Similarly, Aji represent di- forces and moments and the corresponding displace-
rection cosines of the unit vector Xj with ments are functions of the coordinates of the points
respect to unit vectors Xi_ ' '"- of application. To facilitate analyses, it is customary
(vii) N omc:ncuuure to consider all the redundant forces and moments,
F = Redundant Force Vector and the corresponding displacements, to occur at a
M = Redundant Moment Vector common origin and in the fixed x-system.
3: = Displacement Vector In what follows, we shall develop the shape coef-
if> = Rotation Vector ficient matrix for a two-anchor system subject to
j = Internal Force Vector thermal expansion. The generalization of this de-
m = Internal Moment Vector velopment to multiple anchor and loop problems will
be discussed in Section 5A.3. We define:
Fi(l"=I,2,3) = Components of P in XI, X2,
and xa direction, respec- Ii' = L: F/Xi
i
tively. (MA)
11-fi (i=I,2,3) = Components of M in xlJ X2, M = I: MiXi
and xa direction, respec-
tively. as the redundant forces and moments at the free
Li i (1=1,2,3) = Components of .3. in Xl, X2, end of the cantilever, but transferred to the comlllon
and xa direction, respec- origin; also, the corresponding translative and rota-
tively. tional displacements at the same origin as:
tPi(i=1.2,3) = Components of ¢ in XI, X2, 3: = I: Il i x;
and xa direction, respec-
tively. (M.5)
if> = I: 1>i Xi·
f;(i~1.2.3) = Components of j in ~" ~2, i

and ~3 direction, respec- The condition of static equilibrium requires that

tively. the internal forces and moments at "'w point along
mi(i=I,2.3) = Components of ill in ~IJ ~2J the line be:
and ~3 direction, respec-
tively. j = I:Mi = P,
ai, bi (i=1.2,3) = Flexibility factors as defined
in Eq. 5A.9. { m= ~ mi~i = M - p X F.
(5A.O)

(Xij, {3ij As defined in Eqs. 5A.14

and 5A.24 The force and moment components may be ob-
U jk , V jk , lV jk As defined in Eqs. 5A.I5 tained by vector algebm as follows:
and 5A.25 j,. = kP,
ii, = Ii X ~" as defined in Eq. 5A.22
(5A.7)
'PI = 0 + sin 0 {
mi = kM - kp X F = t·M +pX ~,·P.
"'2 = 0 - sin 0
o = Central Angle of a Circular Bend The total internal strain energy (a scalar quan-
k, = In-plane Bending Factor of a Pipe tity), indnced by F and M in the pipe is:
k 2 = Out-of-plane Bending Factor of a Pipe
Sj = Spring Constant (in lbs/radian for U = _1_ fI: (a-I-'
2EI' ill
+ blll_2 ) ils
! I 1
(5A.8)
j = 1,2,3; Ibs/in for j = 4, 5, 0) in
tbe j-direction. where aj arc the flexibility fadors associated with
tbe so-called direct effects (axial !lnd transverse
2. The Shape Coeffieient Matrix. In piping shear) and bi , those associated with bending (in-
analyses, it is convenient to consider a complex cluding torsion) effects. Taking Poisson's ratio as
piping system, consisting of straight and curved 0.3, and assuming thin pipe of uniform stiffness El,
members randomly oriented in space to be a canti- the quantities aj and bi have the following values:
lever (or a series of cantilevers), rigidly fixed at one
al = 0.5 r 2 bl = 1.3
end and free at the other (or others) upon wbieh the
2
redundant forces Ii' and moments M act to preserve a, = 2.G r b2 = k 2 (5A.9)
the prescribed physical conditions. These redundant a3 = 2.0 r 2
b3 = k l
364 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

where r is the mean radius of the pipe, k 1 and k z urc where

the in-plane and out-of-plane bending factors. If aij = k xj,
there is any portion of the pipe,vith stiffness ENIN ( (5A.14)
{3'j = (p X ~i) ·Xj.
different from the constant EI, the integration of
Eq. 5A.8 must be performed in segments, and a We introduce the notation:
correction factor Q = EIIENIN be applied to all ai
and bi .
Using Castigliano's Theorem which states that:
I: (aiaiiaik + bi{3ii{3,k) ds,
aaA~j ,
V ik = I (5A.15)
4>j = ,
j = 1,2,3 (5A.IO)
av
1 D.j = -,
aF j
It may be noted in Eq. 5A.15 that the subscriptsj
we obtain from Eqs. 5A.7 and 5A.8 the following and k can be i,iterchanged for W jk and V jk withont
equations: affecting the results, but this is not true for V jk. In
other words, the matrices IWik !, IVjkl are sym-
am' metric but !Vjkl is not. Thus we have:
EI4>j =
I I: b,'1I!, aM'. ds
- -, -
, I
Wjk = Wkj, or W = W',
ami
=
I I: ,
b;[k (M - p X F)] aM ds,
I
Ujk=U kh or U=U',
(5A.IG)
(M.ll) ( l'kj = V' jk = f li bJ3 jj et ik ds.

EU·J =1" L.:-

,
(a'l f ' aF.
aj;
I
I
+ b'm' am,)
I aF. ds
I
I
Substituting Eqs. 5A.15 and 5A.IG in Eq. 5A.13, we
get:
- [ , aj;
= I ~ ~" aJ' aF j EI"'j = I: AhWik + I: ['\V ik ,
k k
j ~ 1,2,3
-
+ bi(M - am,]
- P X F) aF ds, { EI!:>, = I: MkV'ik + I: FkUik,
j k k

j = 1,2,3. or in a detailed form:

From Eqs. 5AA and 5A.7, we see that:

EI"" = WIIM, + W"M, + W'3M3 + VIIF,
+ V 12 F 2 + V l3 P 31
am i ~ ~"x' aj; , W 2,M, + W"M, + W'3M3 + V 2,F,

l
= EI"" =
aft!j I} aF j
(M.12) + V22F2 + V23F3,
ami _ ~
aF = -~i' (p X Xj) ~ (p X ~i) ·Xj. EI"'3 ~ W 3,M, + W 32 M, + W 33 M" + V3,F,
j + V 3,[o', + V 33 F3, (5A.17)
Substituting Eq. 5A.12 in Eq. 5A.1l and collecting EI!:>, = VIIM, + V 2,M 2 + V 3,1113 + VIIF,
terms, we get:
+ V'2F2 + V'3[o'3,
EI!:>, = V"M, + V22 M 2 + V",M3 + V 2I F,
+ U 22 F z + U 23 F 3 !

+ ~ FkI ~ bi{3ik{3ii <is, EI!:>3 ~ V'3M, + V 23 M, + V 33 M3 + V:nF,

(5A.13) + V"2F2 + V"3[o'3'
EI!:>, = I: MkII: bi{3ijaik ds Equation 5A.17 ean he written simply in the
k i matrix form:

j = 1,2,3, (5A.18)
 A MATRIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS 365
where the displacement and force (including mo- Equation 5A.20 may be written as:
ment) matrices are column matrices, while matrix A
is a 6 X (j square matrix known unacr various names pX ~; = L ~;,ii, +L e;,X,
, (5A.23)
as shape coefficient, influence coefficient, or perform-
ance, matrix. According to Maxwell's law of reci- L ~;, L
k
U,kXk + Lr e;, L
k
A,kxk.

procity, matrix A should be, and is, in the present

II case, symmetrical about its diagonal.

It should be noted that the elements in matrix A
are obtained by performing line integrations in Eq.
Substituting Eqs. 5A.2, 5A.3 and 5A.23 in Eq. 5A.I4,
we get:

5A.I5. Since a line integral can be evaluated by seg- (5A.24)

}
ments, i.e., a line integral is the sum of line integrals

I
i
of the component segments, the shape coefficient
matrix for the entire pipe may be obtained by sum-
ming the shape coefficient matrices of the component'
Equation 5A.I5 will then take the following form:

II segments.
W jk = L A,j L A'k L b,J~;,~;, ds,
Equation 5A.IS ean be used to solve the rcdundant r t i

II moments and forces at the freed anchor provided that

the displacements at the same point are prescribed. V jk = L A,j L Alk L a;J~;,~;, ds
Once the redundants become known, Eq. 5A.7 will r I i

give the internal forces at any point along the pipe

as follows: + L, A,j LA,.
, L, b,Je;,ea ds

Ih I I 0
1//; = <X;j {3;j
Ct.i;
I l!ffFj
j I· (5A.I9) + L,. ll,j L
t
U,k
i
J
L b; ~;'~;I ds
(5A.25)
The elements
5A.I4.
<X;j, and (3;j are determined by Eq. +L ,.
U,j L
I
A" L
i
b; J~;,ea ds

3. The Suhma trices of the Shape Coefficien t +L ,.

A,j L
I
U'k L b;Je,A;, ds,
i
l\1atrix. The coefficients ct. ,) and fJi;, being funCtion
of direction cosines and the position vector 11, may V jk = L A,j L u,. L b;J~;,~a ds
be easily obtained for favorably oriented straight ,. I i

line pipes or simple bends. If the pipe is skewed with

respect to the fixed x-system, we shall select a con-
venient local origin) iiI as shown in Figure 5A.I,
Section 5A-2.1, and introduce a local coordinate We define:
system with respect to which the given segment of
pipe will have thc simplest form of shape coefficient L = I A'kl , N = Ill.. I,
matrix. We can then refer the shape coefficient
matrix back to the x-system by means of suitable B = IB,,[ =1 L, b,J~;,~" ds I, (5A.26)
matrix operations which will be derived below.
Let the local coordinate system be identified as the
X-system. Using Eqs. 5A.l und 5A.2, one gets: C = IC,,[ II L, a;J~;,~a ds + L, b;Je;,c;1 ds I,
+ p X ~,.
= ID"I = 1~ bJ~"ea ds
qX L
]J X ~; = ~"X, (.5A.20)
D I,
Introdlicing the vector fir defined in the x-system as:
each being a 3 X 3 matrix. Upon substitution of
(5A.21) Eq. 5A.26 in the matriccs of Eq. 5A.25, we get:

IWjkl = L'BL,
and the veetor e,. defined in the X-SYStCIl1 as;
I Vjkl = L'CL + N'BN + N'DL +L'D'N, (5A.27)
iJ, = p X ~, = L e,kX" (5A.22)
k I Vjd = L'BN + L'DL,
366 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Substituting Eq. 5A.27 in matrix A which is dcfined point along the pipe, except that (Xij, Pij are now
in Eq. 5A.I8, it is easy to verify that: defined by Eq. M.24.

~,I I~, ~ II~ :I

L' 4. Illustrative Exaulples
A- a. Straight pipe (Figure 5A.2). The local origin
\ N'
is chosen at. the mid-point. The A-syst.em and I;-
(5A.28) system are defined as shown. The systems are
whcre 0 represents a 3 X 3 null matrix. If we let: chosen such that each axis will coincide wit.h the
proper principal axis of the pipe.

X ~ I~, ~ I (5A.29)
Let the lengt.h qP be denoted as s. With respect.
to the A-system, the following vectors wit.h compo-
nent.s in the I, 2, and 3 directions listed in parentheses

y = I ~ : I
are first det.ermined:
p (s, 0, 0)
be thc submatrices of the matrix A, Eq. 5A.28 can ~l (I, 0, 0)
then be written as:
~2 (0, I, 0)
A = y'XY. (M.30)
~3 (0, 0, 1)
The following observations may be made on the
submatrices in Eq. 5A.30: Cl = P X ~l (0, 0, 0)
1. The 3 X 3 matrices B, C, and]) (Eq. 5A.2G) in C2=PX~2 (0, 0, s)
X matrix have identical meanings in the X- ij3=PX~3 (0, -s, 0).
system as IWid, IUi.1 and lFid (Eq. M.I5) Then, following Eq. 5A.2G, the submat.rices B, C
in the x-system. In fact, if thc local origin is
and]) can be comput.ed as follows:
taken as the common origin, and the X-system
1/2
identical to the x-system, N would become a
null matrix as can be seen from Eqs. 5A.21 and
5A.2G, and L would becomc a diagonal unit
= I:i Vi 1 -1/2
~i'~it ds

1 0 0 1 0 0
matrix as can be seen from Eqs. 5A.3 and 5A.2G. 1/2
Consequcntly, A simply becomes X. There-
fore, X may be called the shape coefficicn t ma-
=
1 -1/2 i
I: Vi o 1 0
o 0
o
o
1 0
0 1
ds

trix, but referred to the A-systcm. It is implicit

here that X can be computed for every segment o
of a pipe irrespective of the x-system. o v,l 0
2. The A-system, or the coordinates at. the local
origin! can be chosen so as to make the con- o 0 vsl
struction of the X matrix as simple as possible.
The correct, choice of the X-system for comrnOl1
piping configurations is not difficult to obtain
as will be dem.ollstratcd in the illustrative
examples in Scction 5A-2.4.
3. The Y Inatrix! eOllsisting of terms which arc
functions of the position vector q and the local
coordinate Xi only, can be cornputed for every
piping segment irrespective of its geometrical
configuration. Once ij and Xi are given in the
x-system, Y follows from Eq. ,jA.29.
"Then matrix il becomes available for every seg-
ment of the pipe, the shape coefficient matrix for
the entire pipe may be obtained by summation.
Equation 5A.18 can again be used to obtain the d
redundants and Eq. 5A.IH the internal forces at any FIGURE 5A.2
 A MATRIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF nIGITAL COMPUTEHS 367

c = I ~ a,J~,,~it ds + ~ b,J
Q P ~
I
~
"-"Cit ds

0 0 0
\
\ :II
- /

~
all 0 0 b313
0 0
0 a2 1 0 + 12
\ 8 "2 /
0 0 a3 1
0
b,l3 ~\"2 . I
0
12 \ \ I
\ I
all 0 0 \~, I -
\
, { >-'s
b313
0 a,l + 12 0

b,l3
0 0 a3 1 + 12 0'
FIGURI:: 5A.3
D = 101.
Let the arc length QP be denoted as s. Then the
The matrix X then takcs the following form:
following vectors can be specified in the X-system:
b,l 0 0 0 0 0
n'
. s s
0 b21 0 0 0 0
p ( RSlIl R cos n'
0 0 b31 0 0 0
0 0 0 all 0 0
_ (
~, cos n'
s .
-SlIl-,
S
R
X=
~2(-sin~,
s
b313 - cos - ,
0 0 0 0 a2 1 + 12 0 R
~3 (0, 0, -1).
b213
0 0 0 0 0 a3 1 + 12 It follows that:

b. Circular Bend (Figure 5A.3). The X and ~

c, (0, 0, -R),

I systems are ehosen as shown, X, being parallel to the

chord of the circular arc and X2 directed toward the
e2 (0, 0, 0),

I center of the bend, Q; whereas ~, is tangent to the

arc in the increasing direction of the arc lcngth and
C3 ( -R cos ~, RSlIl
. s
n
, 0) .
~, is directcd toward point q. Equation 5A.2G gives:

s
cosn - sinns 0 hi cos n" I . R" - )1 SIll - 0

B~r - SIn
s
Ii - cosns 0 -h 2 81I1
.
n -h, n
8
ClJS
S
0
ds

I 0 0 -I 0 0 -h"
R
"2 (b l "', + b''''2) 0 0

R
o "2 (h''''2 + b''''I) 0

o o h3 RO
where
"'1 = 0 + sin 0, "'2 = 0 - sin O. (a)
368 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Similarly,

o o
c= o R
"2 (a,>1', + a,>1', + b3R >1'2)
,
o
o o
• 0
o o -2b, R ·sm-
o

2
D= o o o
. 0
2b3 R' sm 2 0 0

Then the X matrix is:

o 0 0 0 -2blR2 s in ~
2
R
0 "2 (bpf2 + b2lfl) 0 0 0 0

x= 0 0 baRO 2b 3 R2 sin ~ 0 0

2b 3 R'l. sin ~
R
0 0 "2 (u l1f 1 + UZIf'l + b3R~fd 0
0 0

0 0 0 0 '2R (a 111'2 + U2iftl + b3 Ih/tz)0

0

-2b 1RZ sin ~ 0 0 0 0 RO(a3 + b,R')

2

c. Construction of thc Y Matrix from Working It is customary to specify working points whose
Points. So far, only the X matrix has been con· coordinates are given in the x-system. For a straight
structed for a straight pipe as well as for a circular pipe, the starting and terminal points are usually
bend. To refer the shape coefficient matrix to a given (Figure 5AA), and the necessary calculation
defini te x-system at the ehosen origin 0', the Y for the construction of Y matrix can be outlined
matrix appearing in Eq. 5A.30 mllst also be con- below.
structed, and the proper shape coefficient matrix will
Given
simply be Y'XY.
a= b- ii,

then
1= va·a,
X, = a/I,
(b)
X2 = any unit vector satisfying Xl ''\2 = 0,
.\3 = .\1 X .\21
)J'~------x,
and, finally,
Ii = l(u + 6). (c)

x, Now, let ij be expressed by:

ij = qlXI + q,/iz + qaxa.
 A MATRIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTEHS 369
we have

X, =---,
i + i'
e
2 eos 2
(I)
i' xi
X3 = sin 0 I

and
X2 = X3 X X,.

FIGUItE 5.:\.5 The position vector ij call be expressed as:

R _
Ii = c - - -e A2 .
Substituting Ii in Eq. 5A.21, with Eq. 5A.3, we get: (g)
('OS -
. 2
UrI = q2Ar3 - q3Ar2
(d) It is clear that thc matrix Y for the bend can be
Ur 2 = qaArl - qt Ar3
constructed by an identical procedure as outlined
U T3 = qt Ar2 - q2 Arl previously for a straight pipe.

where Ara, for instance, is the direction cosine of Xr 5A-3 A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis
with respeet to Z3, etc. All the direetion cosines arc The shape eoeffieient matrix derived on the basis
available from Eq. (b). Thc Y matrix can finally be of a two-anchor problem was presented in the previ-
written as: ous section. In order to solve a more complex piping
system, a certain generalization will be necessary.
All AI2 A13 Uil U,2 U13 To illustrate this, we shall consider a system with
A21 A22 A23 U21 U22 Un
two anchors and two closed loops as shown in Figure
5A.G. Subsequently, the effect of intermediate re-
A31 /..32 A33 U31 U32 U33 straints will be discussed.
Y= (c)
0 0 0 All AI2 AI3
0'
0 0 0 A21 A22 A23 .JJ.JLLL...

0 0 0 A31 A32 A33

A'

For a circular bend, three working points (a, b,

and c in Figure 5A.5) are usually given in addition
to the radius of the bend, R. Let,

ii=C-li
ii' = [j - C.
4
Then the lcngths ac and cb are respectively,

1= Vd.d , I' = Vd' 'd' ,

and the unit vectors are:

i = d/l, i' = d' /1'.

Since 7
i·i' = cosO, F1GURl~; 5.:\.6
370 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
0'
1. Systems with Multiple Auehors and Loops.
Denote the fixed anchor as point 0', and label all the
joints sequentially as shown. The shape coefficient
matrix for each branch, all referred to a common
origin, is given with a superscript for identification.
One of the customary methods of treating a statically
indeterminate system is to imagine cuts in the system
with the points of cut loaded with equal and opposite
redundant forces to maintain continuity. Figure
5A.7 illustrates the cut system. It may be noted 4

that the given system requires a solution to three 3

sets of redundant forces (including moments), and A'

the forces are such that the equilibriuni condition is
satisfied everywhere. F'
For each set of redundant forces, a set of elasticity
equations can be written, using the proper combi-
nation of shape coefficient matrices along thc path
of action. Where several forces interact, Maxwell's
law of reciprocity can be used in writing the equa-
tion. The following table summarizes the procedure
by which the proper simultaneous equations may be
7
obtained.
FWl'RE 5:\.7

Summation of Shape Coefficient I"fatrices For

Redundant Displace-
Path
Forces mcnts (El)
[7'3 p~ P3+P·1 p~ jh + F4 + pro
j7'3
fi'4
0'123
0'14
,1'+,1'+,1'
A' .Ill
,I'
+ ...1 4
0
0
.til + . .12
,1'
0
0
,,',,'
]?3 + [7'4 36 0 0 A' 0 0 (is _ a
3
pro
j'h +]7'4 + ps
0'125
57
Al +A
0
Z
,I'
0
0
0
,1'+,1'+,1'
0
0
A'
,,'
lt7 - as
I I
Combining the equations and simplifying, the following matrix equation results:

0:
7
,1'+11'+11 3 +11"+11 7 11'+11 6 +11 7 11'+11'+11 7 j?3

EI 0:
7
11'+11"+11 7 11'+11"'+11"+11 7 11' +11 7 p.l (5A.31 )
I 0: 7 11'+11'+11 7 ./1 J + 11 7 it I +I1'+I1'+11 7 j [7'5

Equation 5A.31 points up t.he fact. that. t.he asscm-
bling of shape coefficient m.atrices. along any path
of action of the redundant for<~cs CUll be nmde auto-
matic by various coding tcehniques on computers.
It is also clear that the final solution requires no
specification on how the system is imagined cut.
Suppose in Figure SA.7, points 3, 4 and S were
anchors, and members 4G and G7 not cxisting, wc
would get a multiple anchor system. Equation
5A.31 would still be valid cxcept t.hat. II G and 11 7
would vanish and thc elcrnents in thc displacement
column matrix should be iiI u.'; and 5: 5 .
2. SystClllS , ....ith Intcrnlcdiatc Hcstraints.
Figure SA.S shows the &l.me two-anchor and two-
loop system with an intermcdiate restraint at point
8, locatcd bet.ween branch point.s 1 and 2. Dcnote
the shape coefficicnt matrix for braneh IS as A 8.
Then the following matrix equation can he written:
 A MATRIX METHOD OF I'II'ING ANALYSIS AND IJSE OF DIGITAL COllII'UTEHS 371
ei A'+A 2 +A 3 +A G+A' A'+AG+A' iI'+A 2 +A' AI + AS p3
ii' A'+AG+A' A' +A'+A 6 +A' AI + ii' AI p.i
EI =
ii' A'+A 2 :+A' A' + A' A' +A 2 +A 5 +A' AI + AS [7'5

iiS Al + AS A' AI + AS Al + AS FS
(5A.32)

stops occurring at point 8, it is necessary to modify

Eq.5A.32. Let pss be the force (including moment)
vector at point 8, but not referred to the origin; and
aSs be the corresponding displacement (including ro-
tation) vector at point 8 with respect to the uude-
i" formed position of point 8. We have:
ps = j{ ospss,
(5A.33)

4 where,
3
A' 0 -q3 q2
1 q3 0 -q,
[{os =
i" -q2 q, 0
0 1
(.5A.34)
1 ()

0 -qa fj2
7 f{' 80 =
q3 0 -q, 1
FIGUHE 5:\.8
-q2 ql 0
So far, all the forces and displacements are referred and ql, Q2, q3 are the coordinates of point 8. Upon
to the common origin. To account for the effects of substitution of Eq. 5A.33, Eq. 5A.32 becomes:

ii' A'+11 2 +:1 3 +:1 6 +A 7 A'+A 6 +:t' :1'+..1 2 +:1 7 (A'+As)!\.Ofi ji'3

ii' A'+...1 6 +:1 7 ..1 1 +..1'+..1'+..1' AI + A7 A 'Kos p4

EI p5
ii' 11 1 +..1 2 +:t 7 A' + ..1 7 ..1'+.:1 2 +.4 5 +:1 7 {A I + A '~)K08
K'soa 88 A' + A8 AI A' + AS (A I + A 8)/';08 pss

Since from Eq. 5A.34, /{os}{'so = 1, the last equation m.ay be moJified as follows:

ii' A'+A 2 +A 3 +..t 6 +A7 Al +.11 6 +:1 7 A'+A 2 +11 7 (AI + A S)/{Ofl, p3
I p4
ii' .4 1 +..1 6 +..1' .4 1 +.4 4 +.4 6 +.11' AI + A' AIKos
I
lEI (5:\.35)
ii' ..1 1 +..1'+..1' Al + A' ..1'+..1'+..1'+..1' (,1'+..1 8 )1\0< I p5
5 88 K'os(A I -I- :t s) K'osA 8 K'os(A I + AS) K'os(1l I -I- A ll)Kos pss

Equation 5A.35 is applicable to cases having orthogonal rigid stops whose directions eoineide with the directions
of the chosen coordinate axes. For orthogonal elastic stops, we must include the effects of elastic springs
as follows:
372 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
iX' .111+.112+.113+...16+..47 ,.4'+.11 6 +...1 7 ..-1 1 +.11 2 +.11 7 (A'+A 8 )Ko8
iX' A'+.:1 6 +A7 .11'+.11 4 +.11 6 +.11 7 AI + .11 7 A 1K o8
EI
iX' A'+A'+A' AI + .It 7 Al+A:l+A 5 +A 7 (A I+ 'A 8)Kos
aSs K'as(A' + A') K'osA 8 K'os(.A 1 + A 8) K'os(A 1 + A 8 )Ko 8 + A'
(5A.36)

where A' = diag. 11/8" 1/82, 1/83, 1/84, 1/85, l/sol, and 8 p (p = 1, ... ,6) are spring constants of moments
and forces for the orthogonal elastic stops.
In the case of a skew force-stop which has direction cosines \\~th the fixed coordinate axes as fh, {32 and {33,
Eq. 5A.36 will be modified to be:

iX' Al +A2+A3+A6+A7 ...1 1 +..1 6 +.11 7 .11'+.11 2 +.11 ' (A I + A8)KosT p3

iX' A' +.11 +.11
6 7
.IP+A +A +A 4 6 7 Al +.11 7 A IKosT p4
EI
iX' AI +.11 2 +.11 7 AI +.11 7 .11 1
+.11 2 +.:1 5 +..1 7 (A I + A8)KosT F5
askew T'K'os(A I + A 8) T'K'osA 8 r'K'os(A1+A 8 ) T'IK' 08(.11 1 + A8}K o8 + A'l1' FBkew
(5A.37)

where Fekew is the skew force and askew, the skew
displacement. They bear the following relationships
with pss and aS8 :
F skcw T = pSS,
askew = T' a88 ,
where
T' = 10, 0, 0, {3" {32, {331.
5A-4 An Example
Figure 5A.9 shows a sketch of a reactor coolant
loop representing a piping system with two anchors,
one closed loop, and four elastic stops. Thus, a total
of sixteen unknown moments and forces has to be
determined.
Page 3i5 shows the input to the machine. By
using the table marked "Key to Input Data", the
input is self-explanatory. It should be noted that
the flexibility factor (k) and the stress intensification
factor (i) for curved members are automatically
ealculated if not specified.
Page 3i 5 also sholl'S the check of eoordinates of
the end points of each branch.
Page 376 (at top) sholl'S the restraining moments
and forces on anchors and stops as well as on ad-
ditional points specified on the SUM-line on the
input sheet A. The total actions on the anchor at
(5A.38) the reactor are obtained by adding those for points
I and 101. The maximum stress in the system is also
automatically recorded.
(5A.39) Page 376 also gives the stresses, moments, de-
flections and rotations at each point of the system.
Since a curved member in the input is denot-ed by
a radins only, the machine calculates the tangent
points which are indicated as A and B.
Finally page 377 gives the moments, forces and co-
ordinates referred to the origin at the anehors, stops
and intersections. These moments and forces are
actually those from the solution of the equations.
A complete print-out of the eqnations and the in-
version of the same may be obtained by substituting
an IND-card for an END-card. Utilizing this
device, it is possible to split a complicated piping
system into two or more parts if the capacity of the
machine is insufficient to solve the required number
of equations.
r

:.... .:6~
/\
E ... ~-r--"""
,
•
/ • ./
~ .. 'f
x
~.L .. ?U~~OR"'::>~
~ .. f..~~!:>.!_~~.i_:-~,,:,_~- •.:-..:;-_ 'i~t.'".. '.&.J1
."' ............"oL..7

B~
~

"!il'I
1
,i /
I

;'
/

~;7
I.
,;,/
!+'"T

~
~ J: \./ /'
7 ~ .~M.~ .

;' ;'/;/ j<, -~

~

~
~

5.

."
.",

,&3~"_ _""'1, -------=:,.....,J7~.!L

_(,_~~5~
-----A-:Ji~J1'.~~ ----k,' ... ' ' .• ,oi I •.• .,.'
"
50:1.
,
~
~
<f
<0
~

'!'';r--/
~-----:I'~ ~_ .
.1'.'"
,,# ::fl'9'l /7 . ----.a.... ,

-~
'il1 >,j
oc:
~I " '"
OJ

~ " ~

" "'~.
'"<0:>-
~ •V-
oi'
v·
" /
...~ ,
." /
24'" ,<:J.'lJ.' 1.416:.4 .1."1",

'm!
m
<0'
~i
,

j "",.h
/, // #
,~~, ,/
/
17 5.845 , .l.~?
/
~..~ --
_ ~ ...

THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY JO. NO. ~ IMEItT HO.

'0' ~I(.O
PIPING FLEXIBILITY & STRESS AHALYSIS l.IN!!: DATE
374 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY

PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
Key to Input Dat.a

Problem Identification CAL No. For Date

Selected Points for Summary Sheet SUM
Symbol From To 1"1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 FlO
- - - - - - - -- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Busic Material Properties EMP O.D. t Mat'l of
Special Material Properties SMP O.D. t Mat'l of e Eh Ec
Change of !\faterial Properties CHA O.D. t Mat'l OF
Origin aRC Origin B.A. X Y Z (i)
Intersection INT Point X Y Z (i,) (i,)
Anchor ANC Point X Y Z
Curved Member Point x y z R (k) (i) (q)
Straight Member Point x y z (k) (i) (q)
Stiff Member STM Point x y z
Cold Spring CSP Point x y z (k) (i) Dt (q)
Concentrated Load ECL Point x y z (k) (i) Px Py pz (q)
Extraneous Rotation ERa Rx Ry Rz
Extraneous Movement EMO Dx Dy Dz
X-8top STX Dx (Cx)
Y-Stop STY Dy (Cy)
Z-8top STZ Dz (Cz)
Skewed Stop STS Lx Ly Lz (C) (Dt)
Nozzle Rotation NIW x y z L (k) (i) (q)
Moment Restraint at Anchor MRA
Force Restraint at Anchor FIlA
Special Shape Coefficients SCF Q
Shape Coefficients Only COF
Inverse l\htrix and Solutions Only INV
End of Problem END

N omcllclalurc:
O.D. = Out.'lide Pipe Size (in.) R = Radius of Curved Member (ft.) B.A. = Base Anchor
t = Thi{~kness of Pipe (in.) k = Flexibility Factor Hx,Ry,Hz = Hotations (radians)
e = Expansion Coefficient (in.jlOO') i = Stress IntenBificat.ion Factor Dx,Dy,Dz,Dt = Movement (in.)
E = !vloduluii of Elasticity (piiijI06) q = Moment of Inertia Correction Factor Cx,Cy,Cz,C = Spring Constant (llls.jin.)
X,Y,z. = Coordinates (ft.) Q = Stillness Factor Lx,Ly,Lz = Directional Cosines
x,y,z = Change in Coordinates (ft.) L = Equivalent Length (ft.) Px,Py,Pz = J~xtcrnal Loads (kips.)
 A MATnIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTEHS 375
THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY
PIPING FLl-:XInILITY ANI> STR}~SS ANAI,YSIS
Input Data

Typ 1'1 1'4 1'5 1'6 1'7 1'8 1'9

Sym Fr To
SUM -3+5+11 +18+21 +25+27 +30
BMP
ORG 15 1 -29.209 -0.509 -10.086
33.052 2.276 LCS +480 I
STM 2 +5.000 I
STM 3 +8.833
SMP 33.052 2.276 18-8 +650 +6.87 2,1.1 28.3
4 +17.471 3.750 3.81 1.58
5 +2.532 +4.385
CHA , LCS +480
STM 6 +2.664 +4.615
ECL 6 -600.0
STM 7 -4.950 +4.950
STY 600009
STM 8 -9.000
STY 609000
STM 9 +9.\100
STY 609000
STM 10 +9.900
STY 600000
STM II -2.286 -4.615 -4.950
SMP 33.052 2.276 18-8 +480 +4.77 26.2 28.3
12 +0.502 -0.870 3.750
13 -8.015 a.750
14 -4.70·1 +8.6!J.l
STM 15 -0.753 +1.302 I
INT +0.000 +0.000 +0.000 I
STM 16 -1.864 +3.445 ,
CHA 24.000 0.857
17 -5.8·15 +10.802 3.000 7.16 2.42
18 +7.833 I
Input J)at~l

Typ 1"1 1"2 1'4 1"5 1'6 1'7 1'8 FH 1'10

Sym Fr To Fa
I I
STM 19 +4.167
,,
.• i._"""..

STM 20 -2.833
STM 21 -0.824 -0.824
CllA 33.052 2.276
22 -2.750 -2.759 3.750
23 -2.270 -4.603 -2.279
INT -la.571 +7.a97 +5.552
23 24 -1.416 -2.897 -1.416 3.750
25 -7.076 -7.076
ellA LCS +480
STM 102 -6.246 -6.246
STM 101 -5.000
,INC -29.209 -0.500 -10.086
SMP 24.000 0.857 18-8 +480 +·1.77 26.2 28.3
15 26 -2.072 +4.355 +3.830 3.000
27 +3.478
STM 28 +4.167
STM 29 -2.000 I
STM 30 -3.0\)2 +1.001 ,
:1I -2.152 +0.697 :1.O00
23 -6.255 -4.6m +2.02·1 !
INT -13.571 +7.307 +.1.552
END I i i I
Coordinate Checks
.. .... _ . ~
Uranell Calculated Coordinates Given Coordinat~s !)iITercIH'c
End Pl, X Y % X Y % X Y %
No (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
..
015 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00
023 -13.57 +7.40 +5.55 -13.57 +7.40 +5.55 +0.00 +0.00 +0,00
101 -29.21 -0.50 -10.09 -29.21 -0.50 -10.09 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00
023 -13.57 +7.40 +5.55 -13.57 +7.40 +05.55 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00
376 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY
PIPING FI.EXIBILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
Calculation Summary
110ments (ft Ibs) and Forces (lbs) Acting on Restraints

Point M(X) M(Y) M(Z) F(X) F(Y) F(Z)

B.ANC 001 -37378 -164217 -4061972 -20573 -178813 +432
003 -39539 -160398 -2585385 -20573 -178813 +432
005 +41435 +151752 -901191 +20573 +178813 -432
ECL 006 +0 +0 +0 +0 +600000 +0
STOP 007 +0 +0 +0 +0 -20643 +0
STOP 008 +0 +0 +0 +0 -32364 +0
STOP 009 +0 +0 +0 +0 -18000·1 +0
STOP 010 +0 +0 +0 +0 -168283 +0
011 +157475 + 149·148 +137087 +20573 -19893 -432
018 -25930 -9·176 -59242 -8725 +6981 +4740
021 -71212 -45288 -89845 -8725 +6981 +4740
025 +31328 +33017 -508499 +20573 -19893 -432
ANC 101 +153418 +164217 -735616 +20573 -19893 -432
027 -21159 -60169 +74250 +29298 -26874 -5173
030 +27242 -14907 +113240 +29298 -26874 -5173
Maximum Stress = 22112 pSI at Pomt 003

THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY

PIPING FU·;XIBIUTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
Stress, !\loments, Deflections and Rotations at the Point

Br Pt Stress M(X) M(Y) M(Z) D(X) D(Y) D(Z) R(X) R(Y) R(Z)
No No (psi) (ft II» (ft 11» (ft II» (in) (in) (in) (rad) (nHI) (rad)
----
01 001 0 -37378 -IG4217 -40GH172 +0.000 +0.000 +0.000 +.000000 +.000000 +.000060
01 002 0 -S9S3!) -164217 -416·18:l8 +0.000 +0.172 +0.000 +.000000 +.000000 +.000000
01 003 22112 -3B539 -160398 -2585385 +0.304 +0.172 +0.000 +.0‫סס‬oo0 +.000000 +.000000
01 004:\ 2931 -39539 -153782 +151534 +1.35.1 -0.374 +0.049 -.000172 -.000527 -.004079
01 004B 9461 -40350 -152378 -6036.16 +1.653 -0.300 +0.07-1 -.000124 -.000900 -.002577
01 005 7808 -41435 -151752 +!IOlHH +1.824 -0.260 +0.086 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
01 006 0 -43430 -150600 +1282603 +2.031 -0.167 +0.110 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
02 006 0 -,13·130 -150600 +1282603 +2.031 -0.167 +0.110 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
02 007 0 +20·114·18 -50903 +3:367481 +1.800 -0.0:34 +0.219 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
03 007 0 +20'!l448 -50nD3 +:3367481 + 1.800 -O.Q:l·I +0.210 -.QO(Jl6·1 -.001022 -.002071
03 008 0 -1923!1-14 -254577 +3:367481 + 1.921 -0.054 -0.121 - .000164 -.001022 -.002071
04 008 0 -1!l2:l044 -254577 +3367481 +1.921 -0.054 -0.121 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
04 009 0 -19239>14 -250297 -277508 +2.261 -0.300 -0.000 -.00016·1 -.001022 -.002071
05 009 0 -192:l0-l-l - 2502!l7 -277.508 +2.201 -0.300 -0.000 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
05 010 0 -61000 -46623 -277508 +2.140 -0.280 +0.:341 -.000164 -.001022 -.002071
06 010 0 -61000 -46623 -277508 +2.140 -0.280 +0.:3·11 -.00016,1 -.001022 -.002071
06 011 2100 -157·175 -14!l-l-18 -137087 +2.007 -0.302 +0.151 -.00016,1 -.001022 - .002071
06 OIZA 3258 -157175 -1-19-1-18 -1:l7086 +2.007 -0.392 +0.151 -.00016-1 -.001022 -.002071
06 012B 273,1 -150665 -149231 - 108514 +1.9R2 -0.494 +0.165 -.000434 -.00 115·1 -.002207
06 013A 2.197 -155256 -14\12:l1 -41431 + 1.892 -0.650 +0.18-1 -.000541 -.001287 -.002319
00 013B 1468 -8S024 -R2140 +7121S + 1.640 -0.740 +0.:l-l4 -.001026 -.001578 -.002461
06 014 10\13 +19315 +27598 +12H295 + 1.3!16 -0.586 +0.545 -.00108!1 -.001613 -.002297
00 015 0 +·17006 +55910 + 144275 +1.3:3:3 -0.547 +0.597 -.OOIOS!1 -.001613 -.002297
07 015 0 +S82.58 +972.14 +44718 + 1.:l:l:3 -0.547 +0.597 -.00 IOS!I -.00161:l -.0022H7
07 016 :3889 +6-1209 +76014 +31705 +1.177 -0.451 +0.725 -.001080 -.001613 -.002297
07 017A 2:l99 +7210 +25728 +868 +0.S46 -0.259 + 1.0-18 - .OO06·IS -.000992 -.002106
07 01iB 1602 +3021 +0476 + 17075 +0.834 -0.001 + 1.1-12 -.000539 -.000558 -.002075
07 018 243·1 +25f.l30 +0476 +59242 +0.950 +0.170 +1.111 -.000447 -.000-179 -.001833
07 019 0 +45683 +9476 +95598 + 1.0·12 +0.:368 + 1.089 - .0004-17 -.000479 -.0018:3:3
 A MATRIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTEHS 377
THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY
PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND STHl';SS ANAl.YSIS
Stress, 11oments, Deflections and Rotations at the Point (Continued)

Br Pt Stress M(X) M(Y) M(Z) D(X) D(Y) D(Z) R(X) R(Y) R(Z)
No No (psi) (ft Ib) (ft Ib) (ft Ib) (io) (in) (in) (rad) (rad) (rad)
--- -
07 020 0 +65460 +34193 +95598 +1.058 +0.353 +0.954 -.000447 -.000479 -.001833
07 021 1008 +71212 +45288 +89845 +1.024 +0.367 +0.910 -.000447 -.000·179 -.001833
07 022A 1241 +80836 +63851 +80221 +0.966 +0.390 +0.836 -.000400 -.000457 -.001788
07 022B 1191 +88420 +93009 +51106 +0.839 +0.349 +0.729 -.000306 -.000340 -.001743
07 023 1161 +84563 +113124 +14515 +0.711 +0.232 +0.662 -.000227 -.000236 -.001700
08 023 2826 +154255 +164265 +262003 +0.711 +0.232 +0.662 -.000227 -.000236 -.001700
08 024A 3613 +142369 +151131 +300822 +0.657 +0.182 +0.634 -.000167 -.000160 -.001602
08 024B 3975 +99676 +105313 +377495 +0.529 +0.135 +0.529 -.000207 -.‫סס‬oo71 -.001005
08 025 4175 -31328 -33017 +508499 +0.215 +0.172 +0.215 -.o00ooo +.00‫סס‬oo -.o00ooo
08 102 0 -155580 -164217 +632751 -0.000 +0.172 +0.000 -.o00ooo +.00‫סס‬OO -.0‫סס‬oo0
08 101 0 -153418 -164217 +735616 -0.000 -0.000 +0.000 -.o00ooo +.0‫סס‬oo0 -.000000
09 015 4298 -41252 -41324 +99557 +1.333 -0.547 +0.597 -.001089 -.001613 -.002297
09 026A 4068 +22928 +39692 +42156 +1.274 -0.297 +0.659 -.001179 -.001555 -.001782
09 026B 37Q6 +32722 +60169 -8756 +1.280 -0.179 +0.670 -.000319 -.001238 -.001633
09 027 3645 +21159 +60169 -74250 +1.323 -0.072 +0.663 -.000240 -.001008 -.001755
09 028 0 -395 +60169 -196334 + 1.411 +0.127 +0.651 -.000240 -.001008 -.001755
09 029 0 -54143 +1573 -196334 +1.435 +0.121 +0.556 -.000240 -.001008 -.001755
09 030 4372 -2n12 +14907 -113240 +1.275 +0.189 +0.566 -.000240 -.001008 -.001755
09 031A 7418 -163,13 +20312 -79588 +1.210 +0.219 +0.571 -.000273 -.000977 -.001924
09 031B 246·1 +706 +27372 -l!)703 +1.110 +0.246 +0.583 -.000001 -.000636 -.002752
09 023 9763 +69692 +51141 +247.148 +0.711 +0.232 +0.662 -.000227 -.000236 -.001706

THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY

PIPING Fu;xmn.ITY AND STRESS ANAI..YSIS
j\loments, Forces and Coordinates Referred to the Origin

Br End Idcnt M(X) M(Y) M(Z) F(X) F(Y) F(Z) X Y Z

No Pt (ft Ib) (ft Ib) (ft Ib) (lb) (lb) (lb) (ft) (ft) (ft)
--
001 B.ANC +1841O(J8 -55910 -1150680 +20573 +178813 -432 -29.21 -0.50 -10.09
01 006 ECL -60SlflOO +0 -1374600 +0 -600000 +0 +2.29 +13.50 -10.09
02 007 STOP +106021 +0 -54889 +0 +20643 +0 -2.66 +13..\0 -5.14
03 OOS STOP +486625 +0 -86056 +0 +32364 +0 -2.66 +13..10 -15.04
04 009 STOP +2706547 +0 +1303·112 +0 +180004 +0 +7.24 + 13.50 -15.04
05 010 STOP +864302 +0 +1218539 +0 +168283 +0 +7.24 +13.50 -5.14
06 015 +47006 +55910 +14427.> -20573 + HJ8!J3 +432 +0.00 +0.00 +0.00
07 023 +88258 +97234 +44718 +8725 -6981 -4740 -13.57 +7.40 +5.55
08 101 ANC +47006 +55!J1O +144275 -20573 + 1!J893 +4:12 -29.21 -0.50 -10m
O!J 023 -41252 -41324 +!J9557 -2!J2!J8 +26874 +51n -13.57 +7.40 +.1..\.\
1'1/144 ~ (6048.1432·j2) ~ 4834324200
378 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
5A-5 Selected Bibliography
Since 1956, considerable literature has been pub-
lished, using matrix algebra. Brock's comprehensive
treatment' of the piping problem, using matrix
methods, stimulated wide interests in this method.
The author treated first the two-anchor problem sub-
ject to expansion, then the problem of two anchors
with restraints and finally, the multiple-anchor prob-
lem with restraints. The shape coefficient matrices
for straight members as well as circular bends
situated in one of the principal coordinate planes,
and a straight member skewed in space were given.
Soule (1) t introduced "the connecting tensor,"
which enables one to solve, with greater facility, a
problem with multiple branch intersection points.
This scheme was extended subsequently to the closed
loop problem by the same author (4). Peck et al.
(5) reiterated Brock's transfer matrix for shapc co-
efficicnts, and generalized it to solve loop problems
by synthesizing the piping system so that the size of
matrices is no larger than 6 X (), the procedure being
similar to the well-known inversion method. In the
same paper, a method was also suggestcd for obtain-
ing shape coefficicnts for any pipe through integra-
tion, the integrand being the product of five matrices.
Chen (6) proposed a method by which a multiple
anchor and loop problem can be handled in a sys-
tematic manner. The summing of stiffness (the
inverse of flexibility) matrices of various intercon-
necting members follows a logical pattern consistent
with the piping configuration. The effects of uniform
and concentrated loads on straight, planar members
were treated by Soule (2). A general, mathematical
solution for weight effects on straight and curved
members was proposed by Owens (7), and later illus-
trated (8) by its application to a planar stl'Uelure
with straight members. Inspired by Brock's matrix
approach, Crawford (3) elaborated 011 the effect of
concentrated loads and extended the method to dy-
namic loadings.
IVlany other pertinent publications have not been
reviewed here due to space limitations. The re-
viewed ones are listed below in t.he order of the date
of publication.
1. J. W. Soule, "The Solution of :rvlultiple-Branch Piping
Flexibility Problems by Tensor Analysis," JI. of App.
l\'!ech., Trans. ASME, Vol. 78, 1956, pp. 176-180.
2..1. W. Soule, /lTensor-Flexibility Analysis of Pipe-
Supporting Systems," Ibid., pp. 181-184.
3. L. Crawford, "Pipe Stress Analysis for Static and Dy-
namic Loading," Trans. Soc. of Naval Arch. and Marine
Engrs., Vol. 65, 1957, p. 197.
4. J. W. Soule, "Tensor Flexibility Analysis of Closed-
Loop Piping Systems," .JI. of App. !vlech., Trans. ASME,
Vol. 80, 1958, pp. I1-W.
5. L. G. Peck, R. F. !\'Ieyer, P. F. Strong and H. Kalson,
"The Automat.ic Calculation of For<~es and Deflections
in Piping Systems," Trans. ASl\IE, Vol. SO, Hl58,
pp.2.15-244.
fi. L. H. Chen, "Piping Flexibility Analysis hy St.iffness
l\latrix," Jl. of Appl. !vlech., Trans. ASME, Vol. 81,
1959, pp. 608--4312.
7. R. H. Owens, "Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems
Formulated for Digital Computer Solution," Proc. 3rd
U. S. Nat. Congo of App. l\Iech., pp. 419-130.
8. It. H. Owens, "An Elementary Development of Piping
Flexibility Analysis with Illustrative Example," A.S.N.E.
JI., Feb. 1960.
• "Design of Piping Systems," see Appendix A, Section
A-2, "Bibliography on Piping Flexibility :llld Stress Analysis,"
pp. 297-299, reference /fl6/.
t Number in brackets refers to the Selected Bibliography
of this Chapter.
 Index

Abnormal temperature differentials, 43 Bellows expansion joints, force to compress, 214-215

Accelerated creep tests, 12 testing and quality control of, 222
Accuracy of General Analytical Method, 116 Bellows fatigue, 221
Acoustic conductivity, 274 "Bellows materials, 220
Acoustic expansion tank, 281 Bend characteristic for curved pipes, 53
Acoustic filters, 279, 290, 333-335 for miters, 61
Acoustic resonance, 277, 281 Bending-torsion vibration, 264
Activation energy, 11 Bingham material, 10
Allowo.ble stresses, 7, 3-1, 43 Blind flanges, 82
as related to Su. or SII for various codes, 35 Boardman formula, 43
for wind, earthquake, etc., 37 Bolting (of flanges), 74-77
Allowable stress range, 37 Braces, 232, 242
ASA code, 40 Brackets, 253
in expansion bellows, 221 Branch connections, acute angle, 64, 68-69
Anchor, 232, 244, 251 Code rules for, 67-69
Andrade's analysis of creep, 9 fabrication of, 69-70
Angle notation for circular members, 311 fatigue of, 66-67
Angle of inclination a, of straight members, 120 internal pressure, 62-6·1, 67-69
of curved members, 123 pressure reduction ratio for, 68-69
Angular frequency, 258 tests on, 63, 6G-67
Approximate methods, value of, 90-92, 97, 100, 102, 114-115 thermal expansion (repeated) loading of, 6G-67
Arc <f> of members, 123 types of reinforcement of, 62-63,70
ASA Code for Pressure Piping, 31 Branched piping, acoustics of, 276
AS!vfE Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, 31 characteristic equation (acoustic) for, 329
Attenuation factor, 280, 334 development of flexibility relationships for, 325
Auto-frettage, 45 flexibility analysis of, 145, 165
Automatic data processing, 115, 116 Brittle crack propagation in steel, criterion for, 18
Axial movement type expansion joints, 225 Brittle fracture, 13-15, 16-20,41--42
effect of crack length on, 19
Balanced expansion joints, 225 of steels, W
Ball joints, 214 Buckling of pi!;e, 37
Banks, piping in, 233 Bursting pressure, 7
Barlow formula, 43
Bauschinger effect, 3 Calculating aids, 116
Beams, vibration of, 261 Calculo.tors, training of, 116
Bellows, layer construction of, 215-216 Co.ntilever, vibration of, 261
life of, 220-222 Castigliano, Theorem of, 300
support and protection of, 216 Cast iron, use of for pressure parts, 42
welding of, 217 Cavity resonator, 27<1, 289
Bellows attachment details, 218 Charpy test, 19-20
Bellows contour, 215 Chart solutions, piping flexibility, 94-95, 296, 344-352
Bellows expansion joints, 214 Check of equations, 118-119
establishing purchasing requirements for, 219 Circular members, 123-126
fabrication of, 217-219 angle notation for, 123, 311
370
380 INDEX
Circular members, approximating effect of, 112-113 Damping, critical, 268
integration of shape coefficients for, 313, 315, 317, 322 Damping devices, 232, 247-248, 270-272
trigonometric constanta for, 35-1-355 effectiveness of, 269
Circumferential pressure stress, 44 ' hydraulic snubber force, 287
Clamps, 249 pulsation dampeners, 31, 279-281, 289
Classification of piping systems, 211 Damping ratio, 268
Clevis, 249 Dashpots, sec Damr-ing devices
Codes, 30-33 Davidenkov Wittman Theory, 17
ASA Code for Press~re Piping, ASME Boiler and Pressure Deflection of horizontal pipe lincs, 239, 357-358
Vessel Code, 31 Deflections and rolations in piping, at any point, 153, 155,
Coefficient of viscous damping, 267 157-158,324
Coil springs, 245 at ends, 129, 13-1, 307
HCold" modulus, 47 calculated, significance of, 49
Cold spring, 38, 49-50, 86-87,166,169-170 Deforma.tions, elastic, 1
Cold spring factor, 49 of a pipe line, 49
Combined stresses in piping, 47-48 calculation of, 153, 155, 157-158
Compressor piping, pulsations in, 279 development of formulas, 32-1-325
Computers, 116 Degrees of freedom, 258
Concentrated loads, support of, 239 Derivations of flexibility formulas, 299-327
Cone~to-cylinder intersections, 82-83 of acoustic vibration formulas, 328-335
Cone under internal pressure, 44 Dimensional units used, 261, 300
Conical reducers, 82 Direct and shear effects, 127,325
Considcre's geometrical construction,S Direction, convention for weight analysis, 1751 317
Constant effort support, 232, 241, 246 Direct tension or compression, shar:e coefficients for, 127, 325
Constraint, 301 Distortion-energy yield condition, 3, 48
Coordinate system, standard, 102 Double~bel1ows exransion joints, 216
Corrosion, 220 Draining, bellows expansion joints, 215
Corrosion fatigue, 21, 28 pitch of lines for, 2-10
Corrugated bellows, 215 Ductile fracture, 13, 15-16
Corrugated pir:e, 70-73 Dynamic loading, 41
fabrication of, 72
stress analysis of, 73 Ears, 250
test results, 72 Earthquakel acceleration of, 41
Corrugated pipe bends, 72 Effective mass, 261
Counterweights, 2-17 Elastic center, 104, 295-296
Cover plates, 82 Elastic follow~up, 38
Crack length, effect on brittle fracture of, 19 Elastic foundations for vibration prevention, 271-272, 286-
Cradles, 249 287
Creased pipe bends, 72 Ellipsoidal welding capsl 82
Creep, 8-13 Elliptical nozzlcs, 66
Andrade's analysis of, 9 Emergency loads, 42
effect of strain hardening and recovery on, 11-12 Endurance limit, 72
effect on flanged connections of, 76 Equalizing rings, 216
effect on life of, 36-37 Equations of a pipe linc, 308
logarithmic formula for, 10 check of, 118-119
safety facwr in, 36 solution of, 117-119
Creep fracture, 13 Equicohesive temperature, 13
Creep testing, 12-13 Equipment, intcreff~cts with piping, 83-86
Criterion, Code, on flexibility analysis, 93, 3-13 Erection stresses, 8G-87, 255
Critical damping, 268 Errors, 116-11 i, 1l n
Curved pipe (see also Circular members), bending of, 52-61 Examination, magnetic powdcr-, radiographic-, 51
effect of tangents, 58 E>.:pansion, thermal, 91-92
Cyclic permutation, 127-128 chart of, 3-11
Cyclic service, criterion for, 93 providing for in limited space, 210-212
Cylinder, stress variation in wall of, 45 Expansion bellows, 214-223
Cylindrical shells, local loading on, 85-86 action under movement of, 227
under external pressure, 46-17 fatigue life of, 220-222
under internal pressure, 6, 43-46 Expansion joints, 210-230
establishing movement demands of, 226-230
Damage (fatigue), 28 fabrication of, 217
cumulative effect of overloads, 42-43 prepositioning of, 227
Damping, 258,267-271 types of, axial movement, 225
coefficient of, 267 bellowsl 21-1-223
 INDEX 381
Expansion joints, types of, double bellows, 216 Fracture, creep, 13
hinged, 224-225, 228-230 ductile, 15-16
pressure balanced, 225 Fracture stress, 13
packed (slip), 212-214 dependence on shape, 35
tied,224 Free end, 102
universal, 224 Free movement piping system, 211-212, 243
Expansion joint systetnB, pressure reaction of, 212, 214 Free vibration, 258
support of, 242 Frequency, angular, 258
Expansion loop, chart solution for, 350-351 fundamental, 258
Expansion stresscs, 47 Frequency coefficient, 261-262
Expansion tank, 283 Fundamental frequency-mode, 258
Extraneous movement, 32
Gaskets, 75-76
Fabrication, bellows expansion joints, 217 Gas pulsation smoothing, 279-283
residual stresses, 255 comparison of devices for, 282-283
Failure, "by excessive deformation, 1, 5 expansion tank, 281-282
by plastic instability, 5 pulsation dampener, 280--281
types of, 1 surge tank, 279-280
Fatigue, 20-28 tuned resonator, 279
damage by overstress, 27-28 Girth welds, 50
elevated temverature, 26-27 Glass, delayed fracture of, 20
general theory of, 22 Goodman diagram, 24
influence 9f notches and surface flaws on, 25 Gradient of supports, 240
notch sensitivity in, 25 Grapho-analytical method, 296
of expansion bellmvs, 221 Griffith equation, 15
of local components, 59 Griffith Theory of Fracture, 13
warping of slip planes, 22 Guide, 232, 244
Fatigue limit, 21 Guided cantilever, chart {Of, 352
Fatigue strength, 21, 72 correction factor, 353
Fatigue tesls, 26 method, 97-100
flanges, 77
Filter, hydraulic, 279, 290, 333-335 Hangers, 232, 240
linear, 279 Heat treatment, 255-256
Fittings, heavy walled, 70-71 thermal unloading, 87, 255
standard, 31-32, 81-82 Helical springs, 245
Fixed end, 102 Helmholz resonator, 273
Fixtures, 243 High pressure, 4·1-15
Flanged connections, 74-79 Hinged expansion joint, 224-225
bolting, 74-77 Hinged joint piping systems, 129, 134, 211-212, 228
effect of creep, 78 History of piping flexibility analysis, 295
external loading, 78 Horizontal pipe lines, span of, 238-239, 269-270, 356-358
stress analysis of, 74-75 deflection of, 239, 357-358
test rcsults, 74, 77 Hose, flexible, 212
Flanges, blind, 82 Hydraulic damping devices, see Damping dcvices
insulation of, 78 Hydraulic filter, 279, 290, 333-335
Flat plates with circular cut-outs, 64-65 Hydraulic hammer, 283-285
Flexibility analysis, bibliography on, 297-299 Hydraulic snubbers (see also Damping devices), 270--271,
by General Analytical Method, 115-197 287
by Model Test, 198-209 Hydrostatic tests, 222
history of, 295-297 Hysteresis, 3, 2,'l
simplified methods for, 90-114
Flexibility factor, 48 Inclined members, 120, 222-123
bends, 53-54, 60-62 Infinitely stiff members, 103
branch connections, 67 In-plane bending of curved pipe, 52, 54-55
corrugated pive, 72, 73 Insr-ection, 50-51, 70
effect of in flexibility analysis, 111-112, 123 Instability, buckling of pipe, 37
miters, 61 elastic, 1
Flexibility formulas, derivation of, 299-327 plastic, 1-2, 5-7
Flexibility of piping, preliminary assessment of, 92-94 Insulation of pipe attachmcnts, 251
Follow-up elasticity, 38 Integral pir-e attachments, 250-251
Forced vibration, 258 Integration of shape coefficients, 306
Foundations, 271-272, 286-287 Internal pressure, 6
Fracture, brittle, 13-15,16-20, 41--42 cylinder under, 43-4-1
382 INDEX
Intermediate restraints, 146, 153 Mode, 258
Internal sleeves, 216 Model testing, 198-209
Inversion procedures, 157, 159, 165-166- basic principles of, 200
IPS pipe, dimensions and properties of, 336-340 description of Kellogg Laboratory for, 201-202
!zod test, 17 history of, 199
need for, 198
Jointed struts, 238 Modulus of clasticit.y, chart of values, 342
Joint efficiency, 50 use of in determining stresses and reactions, 47, 49
Joints, lap, 77-79 Molecular cohesion, 13
of dissimilar materials, 79-81 Molecular strength of a material, 14
screwed, threaded, socket welded, 82 Moments of inertia, pipe, 336-340
I\-1ovemenL,>, expansion joint, 227
Kelcaloy process, 80-81 Multi-layer bellows, 215
Kellogg General Analytical r\'fethod, 115-197, 296, 299-327 !vfultiplane pipe Jines, approximate and simplified solutions,
Kellogg Model Test Laboratory, 201-202 97-103, 107
K-weld,81 General Analyticall\Jethod, 128-129
Multiple necked chambers, 276
Lame formula, Boardman approximation of, 43 Multiple resonators, 274-275, 328-329
Lap joints, 77-79
Layer construction of bellows, 215-216 Natural frequency, 258
Layout, importance of, 211 calculations, acoustic, 273-277, 287-290
vibration considerations affecting, 259 structural, 260-267, 285-286
Layout to facilitate Bupport, 232, 235 of horizontal pipe Jines, 239, 357
Leak detection, 51 Neck (of resonator), 273
Uvy-1Hses equations, 4 Nodes, 273, 278
Life, effect of creep on, 36-37 Non-duetile materials, 42
of expansion bellows, 220-222 Non-equalizing expansion joints, 216
Life factor, 36 Non-integral pipe attachments, 249-250
Limit stop, 232, 242 Non-rigid piping systems, 211-212, 242
Linear filter, 279 Notch brittleness, 16-20
Load constants, 170, 175 Notch sensitivity in fatigue, 25
Loads, emergency, 42 Nozzle rotation, effect on piping: of, 86, 13·1
Loadings, piping design, 32-33 Nozzles, elliptical, 66
Local components, defmition of, 52 pressure vessel, 6-1-65
l.ocalized stresses, 3·1
Local loads on cylindrical shells (see also Pipe attachments), 85 Octahedral shear stress, 3
Location of supports, etc., 236-242 Offset (of expansion joints), 22i
Logarithmic formula for creep, 10 Openings in pbtes and shells, 64-66
Logarithmic strain, 6 Organ pipe, 273
Longitudinal pressure reaction, 212, 214 Origin, location of, 102
Longitudinal stresses, 50 Out-of-plane bending of curved pipe, 52-58
Loops, 273, 278 Ovalization of pipe bends, 53
LUder's bands, 4 Ovalling mode, 26i
Lugs (see aLso Pipe attachments), 250 Overloads, cumulative damage due to, 42-43
Overpressure protection, 33
1Jagnetic powder examination, 51
Magnification factor, 258, 267, 279 Packed expansion joints, 212
as a function of damping ratio or frequency ratio, 269 Packing friction, 213
Partially constrained ends, piping systems with, 129, 134-135
strain, 39
l\'1aintenance of supports, etc., 254 Periodic excitation, sources of, 259
Matrix notation, 296 Period of vibration, 258
Maximum load point, 5 Pipe, properties of, 336-340
Maximum shear-stress yield condition, 3, 48 corrugated, 70-73
Measurement of vibration, 292 Pipe attachments, 243, 248-251
Members, 102 insulation of, 251
circular, 123-136 integral, 250-251
inclined, 120, 122-123 location of, 236
infinitely stiff, 103 non-integral, 249-250
skewed, 134 Pipe banks, 233
Pipe bends (see aLso Circular members), creased, 52--61, 72
Mises yield condition, 3, 48
Mitchell-Bridge Method, 101-102 effect of internal pressure, 60
Mitchell's Method, 296 effect of tangents, 53
Miters, 60-62 forces acting on due to flowing fluid, 285
 INDEX 383
Pipe bends, ovalization of. 53 Restraints, 233, 234, 237
Pipe clamps, 249 intermedio.te, calculations involving, 146, 153
Pipe supports, etc., 231-256 Resultant restrained thermal expansion, 91-92
glossary of terms used, 232 Rigid fixtures, 244
Pipe wall, stress variation in, 45 Rigid support, 232, 2-10
Piping systems, classification of, 211 Ring, 250-251
Pitching of pipe lines, 239-240 Roller supports, 240
Plastic instability, 1-2,5-7 Rotary slip joints, 214, 224
Plastic constraint, 16-17 Rotating machinery, foundations for, 271
Plasticity, 2-8 Rotation of hinged expansion joints, 230
cylinders under pressure, 45-46 Rotation of nozzles, effect on piping of, 86, 134
stress-strain relationships, 4 Rotations and deflections of pipe line, at any point, 153,
Plates, openings in, 64-66 155-156,32·1
Point of maximum stress, 10·1 at ends, 129, 134, 307
Pre-integration of shape coefficients, 295, 306, 315 Routing piping for favorable support, 233-237
Preliminary assessment of piping flexibility, 92-94 Rupture (creep fracture) test, 13, 36-37
Prepositioning expansion-joints, 227 Rupture strength, fictitious, 37
Prerequisite data for flexibility analysis, 103
Prespringing, 38, 49-50, 86--87, 166, 169-170 Safety fMtors, 8, 35-36, 46-18
Pressure rcaction of expansion joint systems, 212, 214 Sag, 239
Pressure stresses, in cylindrical shells, 6, 43-47 Schedule number, pipe, 336-340
in pipe bends, GO Screwed joints, 82
in shapes of revolution, 44 Seal welding, 77, 79
Pressure surges, 277 Secondary stresses, 34
Pressure testing, 50-51, 222 Secondary term q, 125-127
Primary stres.<;es, 3·1, 37 Section modulus, pipe, 336-3-10
Principal creep rates, 11 Self-equalizing expansion joint, 216
Principal stresses, 3 Self-excited vibration, 258
Proof stress, 3 Saddle, 249
Pulsation dampeners, 31, 27~l-281, 289 Self-springing, 38-40, 49, 86-87
Pulsations, flow, 273-288 Semi-rigid piping systems, 211, 242
in compressor piping, 27U Service conditions, 33
Pumps, piping reactions on, 83-84 effect on allowable stresses of variations in, 42
Purging (of an cxpansion bellows), 217' Set-up procedure, General Analytical Method, 103
Shape coefficients, 306
Quality examination, of expansion joints, 223 for concentrated loads, 306, 311
of fabricated piping, 50-51, 70 circular members, 123, 125-126,313
Quality factor, 50 straight members, 120, 125, 312
for weight, 314
Radiographic examination, 51 circular members, 175-185, 317-320
Radius of gyration, pipe, 336-3·10 straight members, 175, 315-316
Range of stress, of reactions, of deflections, 37-41, 48--49, 116 for wind, 314
Hayleigh 1Tethod for approximating natural frequencies, 263 circular members, 176, 178, 186-188,322-323
Reactions, piping, 48-50, 86-87, 116 straight members, 185, 321
effect on equipment of, 92 for shear and direct effects, 127, 325
Hecovery creep, 11-12 for simplified General Method, 103-104
Heducers, 82 integration of, 306, 314-323, 325-327
Reed vibrometers, 292 tabulated for x, Y, and z planes, 310
Reinforcement of branch connections, nozzles, 62-71 Shear and direct effects, 127,325
Relaxation, 38, 86 Shear strain energy yield condition, 3-4, 48
Residual stresses from fabrication and erection, 255-256 Shells, local loading on, 85-86
Resilient support, 232, 241 openings in, fi.!-{)6
fixtures, 245 Shock absorbers (see also Damping devices), 247-248, 270-272
Resonance, 258, 267, 277 Shock loading, 41
due to wind, 259, 287 Shoes, 250-251
Resonator, 273 Short radius bends, 56-57
cavity, 274, 289 Short time service conditions, 33
Helmholz, 273 Shrink ring loading, cylindrical shells, 85-86
multiplc, 328-329 Signs, 102, 10,1, 118
tuned, 331 Silencers, 281
Resonator cho.mber, 282 Simultaneous equations, solution of, 117-119
Resting Bupports, 240 Single plane calculations, General Mcthod, 119-123
Restraint, definition of, 232 Simplified Method, 103-111
384 INDEX
Skewed members, 134, 136-137 Support, definition of, 232
Skirts, 250-251 of concentrated loads, 239
Sleepers, 254 Supporting, etc. from pressure vessels, 253
Sleeves, internal, 216 Supporting structures, 254
Slings, 249 Supporting system, elements of, 236
Slip lyre expansion joints, 213 erection and maintenance of, 254
Snubbers (see also Damping devices), 270--271, 287 Supports, 238-247
Socket welded joints, 82 adjustment of, 255
Solid support, see Rigid support location of, 236-242
Spacing of pipe supports, 238-239, 356-358 vibration considerations affecting, 260-269
vibration considerations affecting, 269-270 maintenance of, 254
Sphere under internal pressure, 44 spacing on horizontal pipe lines of, 238
Spring-mass, model, 260 Surge effects, pressure, 277
Springs, 245 Surge tanks, 279, 333
Squirming, 216 SVolivel joints, 214
Standards, 31-32 Symmetry, of equations, U8
Stiffness, variable, 120, 122-123 of piping, 102, 157
Stiffness ratio QJ 103, 120
Stiff piping systems, 211 Temperature differentials, "abnormal, 43
Stops, 232, 237, 244 restrained expansion, 91-92
equations fOf, 325 Terminal fixation of piping, 83-86
treatment of in piping flexibility calculations, 146, 153 TeslB, expansion joints, 222
Straight members, integration of shape coefficients, 120, 125, hydrostatic, 50-51
175, 185,312,315-316,321 significance of, 50-51
Strain, linear, 5 Thermal cycling, fatigue effect of, 26
logarithmic, 6 Thermal exr-ansion, chart of data, 341
Strain energy in pif.ing systems, 300, 325 restrained, 91-92
Strain gages, use of in model testing, 201 Thermal fatigue, 28
Strain hardening, 3 Thermal unloading, 87, 255
rate of, 8 Thick cylinders, 7, 45-46
Strain magnification, 39 Threaded joints, 82
Strength, molecular, 14 Three-hinged systems, 228-230
Stress corrosion, 20-21 Thrust axis, 101
Stresses, allowable, 7, 34-13, 221 Tied expansion joint, 22·1
combination of, 47-48 Tie rods, 238
expansion, 40 on expansion joints, 224-226
fabrication, erection, 37 Time constant, 334
in girth welds, 50 Tolerances, expansion joint, m
in horizontal pipe lines, 356, 358 Toroidal bellows, 215, 222
in pipe bends (see also Stress intensification factor), 53-60 Torus under internal pressure, 44
localized, primary, secondary, 3·1 Transfer of moments, 104
pressure, circumferential, 43-46, 50 Transient creep, 9
Stress evaluation, 43-47 Trigonometric constants for circular members, 123, 315,
in expansion bellows, 221 354-355
Stress intensification factor, 40, 48 Transition temperature, 17,42
for bends, 53-60 Traverse, 213
for branch connections, 65-67, 69 Tresca yield condition, 3, 48
for corrugated pipe, 72-74 True stress versus ultimate stress, 8
for flanges, 77 Trunnion, 250-251
for miters, 61 Tuhe (see also Cylindrical shell), plastic instability of, 6
in flexihility analysis, 111-114, 123 Tuned resonators, 279, 290, 331-333
in straight pir:e, 61 Turbines, piping reactions on, 83-8·1
Stress range, allowable, 37-41 Two-member systems, chart solutions for, 344-349
Stress rupture test, 13
Stress-strain curve, 2 Ultimate tensile stress, 5
Stroboscopic devices, 292 relation to allowable stresses, 35
Strouhal number, 259 Unbalanced pressure loads, 212, 214
Structural connections to pipe supports, etc., 251-254 Uniform loading, 170, 175-180,185,314-320
deflection of, 252 Universal type expansion joints, 224
location of, 236 Unrestrained expansion, 91, 92
Struts, jointed, 238 Unstable deformations, 1
Square corner assumption, effect of, 111-113
Summation coefficienlB, 129,307, 310 Vacuum exhaust steam service, design temperature of, 33
 INDEX 385
Valve closure, pressure build-up during, 283-285 Wall thickness, pipe, 336-3·10
Valves, 81 determination of, 43-47
Van Stone flanges, 76-79 Water hammer, 41, 283
Variable load springs, variability, 245 Wave equations for pressure and velocity. 330
Velocity effect in brittle fracture, 18 Weight loading, 170, 175-180, 185, 314-320
Vessels, piping reactions on, 84-85 \Veight of pipe, water, 336-3,10
Vibration, field correction of, 291-29·1 \'lelding, quality examination and inspection of, 50-51, 70
forced, 258 Welding caps, 82
free, 258 Welding elbows, 58
measurement of, 292-293 'Velding neck flanges, 77
of beams, 261 Welding tees, 64, 67
of plates, pipe (radial mode), 266 Wind loading, 185
of two-member configurations, 265 shape coefficients for, 176, 178, 185-188,314,321-323
types of, 258 Working planes, 127
Vibrometers, 292 "'orking stresses, 7, 34-43, 221
Virtual length, 134
Viscous creep, 9, 10 Yield conditions, 3-4
Visual inspection, 51 Yield point, 2
Von Karman vortices, 259, 287 Yield stress, 2
Von 1'!ises yield condition, 3, 48 relation of allowable stress to, 35