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Complete Year 12 HSC Biology Summary
Complete Year 12 HSC Biology Summary
Reproduction
- Reproduction occurs in individual organisms to ensure the continuity of a species for
generations. This occurs in all organisms in various forms entail asexual or sexual
reproduction as well as internal and external fertilisation.
Definition Is when the male transfers his Is when the male fertilises a
gametes directly into the female female’s egg outside the female’s
reproductive tract for fertilisation to body. Therefore, resulting in the
occur. This mainly occurs in zygote developing outside the
mammals, birds and reptiles. parent’s body. This occurs in
aquatic environments e.g. fish
reproduce this way
Advantages - Can take place on dry land - More rapid and prolific
- Less gametes have to be - Female can continue to
produced reproduce without pausing for
- More likely to be successful the birth of an offspring
because male gametes are - Parents do not expend energy
released near that of a female for gestation and caring of
- Gametes and zygote are young
protected from predation and - Young are widely dispersed,
disease reducing competition with their
- Developing young are fed and parents and each other
protected by parents increasing
their survival chances.
- Embryos are protected inside the
mother until born
o Fungi reproduce asexually through 2 different means entailing that of budding and
spores.
- Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new cell arises from an
outgrowth from the parent. This bud is smaller yet genetically identical to the
parent cell. Repeated budding forms a chain of buds that are independent from
each other. The bud tends to pinch inward from the base to detach from the
parent cells.
- Spores are tiny haploid unicellular reproductive cells capable of developing into
an adult without fusion with a second cell. This is seen as when the spores are
released into the environment by wind or water and by chance land in a suitable
environment, a new daughter cell germinates identical to the parent cell.
o Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission in which the parent cell splits into
2 identical daughter cells.
o Protists reproduce through both binary fission and budding. Within binary fission this
process differs to that in bacteria due to each cell containing a membrane bound
nucleus, thus prior to their separation replications need to occur. This process results
in the parent splitting and becoming into 2 identical daughter cells. They also
reproduce through budding the same as that occurring within the fungi, in which new
organisms grow off from the parent and then detach.
● Within mammals there are 3 main features involved in reproduction: fertilisation,
implementation and hormonal control of pregnancy and birth.
o Fertilisation refers to the fusion of 2 haploid gametes to form a single diploid zygote
cell. This cell contains the genetic material of both egg and sperm which equal half of
the information from both paternal and maternal DNA.
o Implementation refers to the attachment and embedding of the blastocyst into the
lining of the uterus. This is an important stage as it commences the development of
the blastocyst into a foetus.
o Hormonal control of pregnancy and birth hormones are important as they are
responsible for the communication between organs and tissues to regulate
physiological and behavioural processes. E.g. progesterone is a hormone produced
in the ovary which stimulates early preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. This is
noted by the endometrium thickening which helps support the pregnancy in the first
few weeks when the placenta is still developing. Prior to birth levels of this hormone
drops to facilitate labour.
● Scientific manipulation of plants and animals has been used in an attempt to assist and
improve reproduction.
o Plants have been manipulated to increase the amount of produce produced. This is
seen through maize as it has been selectively bred, to create the high yielding
modern maize we have today.
o Animals have also been selectively bred to attract people to buy them. As seen
through domestic dogs, as they selectively breed the dogs with the most attractive
characteristics.
Cell replication
● Cell replication occurs to ensure the continuity of an organism. Through it enabling
growth and development, maintenance and repair as well as restoring the nucleus to
cytoplasm ratio. This occurs through the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
o Mitosis and meiosis are 2 types of cell replication that occur within the human body.
They are a very similar process except that mitosis does all cells but gametes whilst
meiosis does only gametes.
- Meiosis is the division of gametes into 4 different daughter cells. It is the formation of
gametes from germ cells. This process is very similar to that of which occurs within
meiosis except that each stage occurs twice. In meiosis 1 the homologous
chromosomes are separated and 2 haploid daughter cells are produced. Crossing
over and recombination often occur as well. During meiosis 2 each of the 2 haploid
daughter cells divide into 2, producing 4 unique daughter cells. Independent
assortment and random segregation in meiosis is what causes genetic variation as
homologous chromosomes are separated and randomly assorted into haploid cells.
o Nucleotides are the chemical building blocks of DNA and RNA. Each of which
contains a phosphate, a sugar and a nitrogenous base (Adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine or uracil). With DNA the 4 bases are: A, G, T and C (A and T, G and C link
together). Within RNA A and U, G and C link together.
● There are multiple structures and functions of proteins, thus enabling all to have differing
roles.
- Primary structure is a linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain of
a protein.
- Secondary structure is the folding or coiling of the polypeptide chains in proteins
due to hydrogen bonds. The main forms are: alpha helix, beta-pleated sheets and
random coils.
- Tertiary structure is the structure in proteins created by further folding as a result
of bonds forming between the R groups of amino acids, leading to greater stability
than the folding in secondary structure
- Quaternary structure is 2 or more polypeptide chains joined as a single functional
protein.
Genetic variation
● Meiotic combinations refer to the type of offspring that will be created dependent upon
the types of alleles available.
o Types of dominance:
- Autosomal dominance refers to the state in which one trait is dominant over
another. E.g. Mendel’s pea plants in which T(tall) is dominant over t (small). TT =
Tall, Tt = Tall, tt = Short
- Sex linkage inheritance is a pattern for traits that are locate on the genes of the
sex chromosomes and therefore may be inherited in different ratios in males and
females. E.g. colour blindness is more frequent in males than females.
- Co-dominance refers to the expression of both alleles in an expression. E.g. for
Roan cows RR = red, WW = White, RW = Roan
- Incomplete dominance is a condition in which a gene is expressed as a blending
of the characteristics of the two alleles present in a hybrid (neither allele is
dominant or recessive). E.g. for snapdragon flowers RR = Red, WW = White, RW
= Pink
- Multi-allelic describes a single-gene trait for which there are 3 or more alleles, e.g.
ABO blood groups.
Genotype Phenotype
AA or AO A
BB or BO B
AB AB
(codominance)
OO O
● Mutagens are any substances or processes that can dramatically increase the rate of
mutations through altering an organism’s DNA.
o Electromagnetic radiation sources refer to the physical sources of radiation that
affects an individual’s DNA, this occurs through both particle and electromagnetic
radiation. There are 2 types:
- Ionising radiation: is a mutagen through it breaking down chemical bonds in
individuals thus causing damage to DNA and basic cellular functions. Repeated
exposure to ionising radiation can cause cancer. Types of ionising radiation
includes: x-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays.
- Non-ionising radiation: is not associated with damage to DNA though as the
energy emission is low, thus unable to cause cellular damage.
o Chemical mutagens refer to the chemical factors that cause mutations. This can
occur through ingesting chemicals or inhaling poisons. There are 3 types:
- Intercalating agents: are chemicals that insert into the bonds between DNA
nucleotides, altering the shape of the DNA thus leading to subsequent errors in
replication.
- Base analogues: are chemicals whose molecular structure is similar enough to
the DNA bases that it can be incorporated into sequences instead of the
appropriate bases, making the DNA non-functional.
- DNA reactive chemicals: are any chemicals that are known to react directly with
DNA. This affects the DNA as it causes breakages and cross links in DNA
strands.
o Naturally occurring mutagens are biological factors that can cause mutations through
interfering with the function of oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes. There are 2
types:
- Retroviruses: are an RNA virus that use reverse transcription to copy their RNA
genome into DNA for integration into the chromosome of the host.
- Transposable elements: are short DNA sequences that move around the
genome. They can cause errors in replication and interfere in the function of
certain genes.
● Mutations occur in 2 forms. This is a way that genetic variation is caused within species.
o Point mutations refers to the change to a single base pair of DNA only affecting a
single gene. Within this form there are 2 types:
- Substitution mutations: is when an individual nucleotide is replaced by a different
nucleotide. This alteration can cause a silent mutation (no effect), missense
mutation (creates a different amino acid) and nonsense mutation (stop codon).
- Frameshift mutation: is a mutation in which the reading frame of mRNA is shifted
so that the triplets of bases that normally form codons are no longer grouped
together. Resulting in a gene being translated unnaturally from the position of the
mutation onwards. This occurs due to insertions or deletions.
o Chromosomal mutations are a large-scale change in genetic material where either
the overall structure of the chromosome is changed or the entire number of
chromosomes in a cell is altered. There are 5 types:
- Duplication mutations: is the replication of a section of a chromosome resulting in
multiple copies of the same gene appearing.
- Inversion mutations: is where a section of the DNA sequence breaks off, rotates
180 degrees (flips) and reattaches to the same chromosome.
- Deletion mutations: is the nucleotides added to an existing sequence.
- Translocation mutations: is when a whole chromosome or a segment of a
chromosome becomes attached to or exchanged with another chromosome or
segment.
● Somatic and germ-line mutations are the 2 types of mutations, they differ through the
effect they have on individuals.
● Coding and non-coding segments of DNA for mutations determine the detrimental effect
to the organism. Generally, if a mutation occurs on the coding region of DNA it typically
alters the end product of a protein, through creating a different amino acid. However, it
does have the possibility also to cause a nonsense mutation. If a mutation occurs on the
non-coding section of DNA it causes developmental problems if it is in the somatic cells.
It can also lead to over or under expression of a gene.
● Mutations cause new alleles to become apparent. This is highlighted through it affecting
the transcription and translation processes thus leading to a change to genetic variation.
This ultimately causes changes evolutionarily especially as genetic drift occurs. Resulting
in people from different continents having slightly altered features e.g. skin colour to
ensure their better adaptation.
Biotechnology
● Genetic Engineering has allowed modified corn such as Bt corn to be produced. Bt corn
has a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) incorporated into its genome. The Bt gene
allows the corn to produce a toxin that kills caterpillars when they eat it, thus reducing the
number of caterpillars present in the ecosystem. This may reduce the food available for
species that feed on them, thus affecting food chains and food webs potentially reducing
the number of species that can survive and therefore biodiversity. But corn may also
reduce the biodiversity of the caterpillar population as susceptible varieties are killed and
only those that are resistant survive to reproduce.
● Artificial Insemination in agriculture involves collecting semen from desirable male
animals such as bulls. Semen can be frozen, stored and transported to other locations
and can be used to inseminate many females in order to produce multiple offspring with
desirable traits. This results in a loss of biodiversity as one male has many offspring. All
the offspring will be genetically half siblings so will have reduced genetic variation.
● Social implications refer to the effects that the financial positions, lifestyle and the social
profile of an individual and community affect the use of a certain biotechnology.
o Social equity, accessibility and cost: biotechnology has allowed greater access to
goods. This can be seen through DNA technologies allowing for the creation of safer
vaccines whilst it also allows the improvement of nutrition in crops. This is noted by
the genetic modified organism of golden rice, as it has been altered to include more
vitamins in its yield including vitamin A to improve the health of individuals in 3 rd world
countries.
o Health concerns have been raised surrounding the safety of new technology for
humans. Reports have suggested GM foods have the potential to cause toxic effects
on humans.
● Ethical implications
Genetic technology
● Advantages and disadvantages of current genetic technologies
Disease = any condition that disrupts the normal functioning of an organism. It usually
causes symptoms, ranging from mild to severe
Infectious disease = A disease that can be spread from one organism to another and is
caused by a pathogen
Asymptomatic Carrier = person is infected by pathogen but does not show symptoms of
disease
Symptomatic carrier = person is infected by pathogen but does not show signs of disease
Spontaneous generation = suggests that life could come into existence from non- living
matter
Germ theory = states that many diseases are caused by specific micro-organisms
PATHOGENS
- Mode of transmission:
Robert Koch
Koch identified the microbial origins of many diseases by developing a procedure for
isolating and identifying disease-causing microbes. He applied his investigations by finding
the causative agents of several infectious diseases, including anthrax, cholera and
tuberculosis
Koch’s postulates:
1. Suspected causative agent must be present in all diseased organisms
3. Cultured agents must cause same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible
host
His postulates don’t apply to all pathogens as they require a causative agent that can be
grown in pure culture (on a plate eg. Agar) – only bacteria and some fungi can be grown in
such conditions
Louis Pasteur
Pasteur investigated the causes of fermentation and the cause of some wine becoming sour.
He showed that live microbes (yeast) caused fermentation and that when bacteria were
present, the wine went sour. His observations that ‘disease’ in wine was caused by
microbes, led him to believe that microbes
could cause disease in humans. He
developed the technique of pasteurisation,
involving heating liquids to high temperatures
and then rapidly cooling them, to kill microbes
in wine, milk and other liquids. Pasteur’s
famous experiment using swam-neck flasks
refuted the idea of spontaneous generation as
microbes only developed in the flask open to it
– helping people to realise that microbes were
carried by air, or by other means, as
suggested by the germ theory
Plant diseases
Causes Effects
- Pathogens: bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa, - Inhibits ability to carry out normal functions
macro-parasites - Reduction in productivity and costs associated
- Abiotic factors: drought, frost, nutrient with prevention – impact trade
deficiency - Crop loss
- Pests: fruit flies (macro-parasite), wheat stem - Diminished food security
rust, etc.
Animal diseases
Causes Effects
Pathogens: bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa, - Economic impacts: livestock industry may be
macroscopic-parasites impacted by disease outbreak, leading to a
decrease in economic income
- Food security: may severely impact
agriculture, which impacts at-risk populations
facing poverty or malnutrition
- Health risks: animal disease have the
potential to infect human hosts, may affect
farmers and handlers, as well as those who
consume the products
Pathogenic adaptations facilitating entry into hosts:
RESPONSES TO PATHOGENS
Types of barriers
- Physical barriers:
- Chemical barriers:
- Behavioural barriers:
Blinking, excreting
General, non-specific mechanisms that try to destroy any pathogens that enter the
body. This response is improved with re-exposure to the same pathogen
Antigen = anything that triggers an immune response (eg. The pathogen, a splinter,
pollen (for some people)
Phagocytosis
Cells that are a specialised type of WBC that can recognise body cells infected by a
virus. NK Cells will attach to a virus-infected cell and release chemicals that cause
the cell to undergo apoptosis (cell suicide)
T-lymphocytes (T-cells)
Memory T-Cells = Remain in the system to respond to future infections by the same
pathogen
B-lymphocytes (B-cells)
Memory B-cells = Remain in the system to respond to future infections by the same
pathogen
The immune system enacts a coordinated response to pathogen exposure,
mediated predominantly by WBCs, B cells and T cells.
1. Pathogen first enters the body (eg. Bacteria) – is detected as foreign due to
the presence of non-self-antigens on its surface
2. Inflammation allows increased blood flow to the site, allowing WBCs to
migrate from blood to infected tissue
3. Non-specific responses, including phagocytosis, occur. Phagocytes engulf the
pathogen
4. Phagocytes present the foreign antigens on their surface (becoming an
antigen-presenting cell) for recognition by B cells and T helper cells
5. Phagocytes and Helper T cells both release cytokines that activate Plasma B
cells (release pathogen-specific antibodies to immobilise foreign cells) and
Cytotoxic T cells (kill infected cells by releasing cytotoxins)
6. Plasma B Cells clone to make more Plasma B cells and Memory B Cells
7. Cytotoxic T cells clone to make more Cytotoxic T cells and Memory T Cells
8. Antibodies attach to pathogen
9. Phagocyte engulfs antigen and antibody – turning into an antigen-presenting
cell… etc.
10. Pathogen is cleared from site
11. Suppressor T cells come in and dampen the immune response, suppressing
killer T cells once the infection has passed
12. Memory B and T cells circulate providing long-term immunity
- Immunisation creates
herd immunity - Consideration of - Communication
environmental conditions between countries and
- Personal hygiene – water supply, sanitation with global health
practices (eg. Washing facilities, food, climate, organisations (eg. WHO)
hands) flooding
- Prevents transmission
- Prevents transmission
- Provides immunitY
- Prior exposure to disease = having the disease before o Provides immunity via. B
and T cells
- Getting given specific antibodies (eg. Via breast milk, hospital injections) o Provides
temporary immunity
- Public health campaigns = any campaign encouraging people to prevent disease
through other methods
- Pesticides = chemicals that kill insects
Antiviral = a class of antimicrobial used to treat viral infections, but inhibiting the
development of the pathogen inside the host cell
- Not able to destroy virus’s; they only inhibit the development of the pathogen
- To inhibit development, antivirals may target a number of different stages in
the virus life cycle
- It is very difficult to develop effective antiviral drugs because viruses use the
host cell machinery in order to replicate – the key is to target the molecules
which interfere with the virus, but not with the host cell processes
- Another difficulty is the rapid evolution of viruses and wide variation between
them
- Antivirals can be expensive and overuse can lead to antiviral resistance
Types of antivirals:
- Before cell entry: blocking the virus’ ability to infiltrate a cell
- During viral synthesis: drugs that inhibit the ability of a virus to synthesise its
requisite components inside the host cell. This may include:
- Release phase: blocking the ability for a virus to be released from the host cell,
inhibiting its ability to transmit to further cells
Mode of Transmission
- Direct transmission – via large respiratory droplets from an infected
individual to a susceptible individual
- Indirect transmission – via fomites
- Vehicle transmission – via droplets travelling through the air
Pandemic Details
2009 Pandemic:
Effectiveness of control
methods The methods used to control the disease were moderately effective as
WHO was able to signal the end of the pandemic by August 2010,
meaning the disease was controlled within a relatively short time.
However, as there was an outbreak in the first place, the initial efforts to
control the disease were not as effective.
Dengue Fever
- Caused by a virus
- Vector transmission between people by female mosquitos
- Causes flu-like symptoms usually lasting about one-week, however in some
dengue virus infections, a more severe, deadly form of disease occurs
- There is no cure
- Prevention – using insect repellent, insect nets and protective clothing
- 390 million infections globally - Found in tropical and - 22 million deaths globally per
per year sub-tropical climates year
- 75% of the global population - Most countries in south- east
exposed to dengue fever live in Asia experience a higher
the Asia-Pacific region burden of DF
- Higher ratio males than
females hospitalised
- Expected rate of DF will
increase overtime due to
climate change, globalisation,
trvel and trade factors and
socioeconomic factors
Ancient Hebrew hygiene – washing hands was emphasised and they were banned
from easting animals that we now know have an increased risk of transferring
disease when poorly prepared or cooked, therefore reducing their risk of infectious
disease
Positive feedback = when a variable triggers a response that intensifies the variable
Temperature
Glucose
Water Concentration
- When there is too much water content in the blood – less ADH is released,
increasing the amount of water lost through urination
Adaptations = traits or features of an organism that allow it to better survive and
reproduce in its environment
Behavioural Relate to how and - Insulation (g. feathers, fur, hair) traps a
organisms body layer of air next to the skin which reduces
works transfer of heat to the environment
- Surface area to volume ratio as more
compact bodies reduces the surface area
available for heat exchange, allowing
animals to retail heat more effectively
- Cold blooded
- Have greater variation in internal temperature than endotherms § Rely mainly
on external sources of heat
- Most fish, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates are ectothermic
Endotherms
- Warm blooded
- Animals that can generate most of their heat internally
- Allows them maintain a relatively constant internal body temperature, in spite
of significant variations in environmental temperature
- Mammals and birds are endothermic
Homeostasis mechanisms
- Consists of nerves that extend all over the body and connect back to the spinal
cord and brain
- Nerves allow the brain to receive and respond to information (stimuli) from the
internal and external environments
- Stimuli – light, heat, sounds, pressure, chemical concentrations
- In humans, sensory organs (ears, eyes, nose, skin and tongue) have sensory
receptors that detect various stimuli
- Sensory neurons (nerve cells) in the nerves transmit the information as
electrochemical signals to a control centre (usually the brain) where it is processed
- The control centre responds by activating motor neurons in nerves to transmit the
information to an effector organ
- Metabolism
- Growth and development
- Tissue function
- Sexual reproduction
- Sleep
- Mood etc
Excretion
- The removal of metabolic waste and excess materials from the cells of an
organism
- Assist in the maintenance of homeostasis by removing wastes and aiding
osmoregulation (the balance of water and salt)
- Materials excreted include carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes, excess salts
and excess water
- Human excrete via sweating, exhalation and urination
- Kidneys are used to filter nitrogenous wastes from the blood for excretion
- Nitrogenous waste = by-products from breaking down any proteins that are
consumed in food. Tend to initially form ammonia, which mammals convert to
urea and excrete in urine. Birds and reptiles convert it to uric acid (white
paste)
Organisms that excrete this Mammals, adult amphibians, Insects, birds, snails, reptiles
form of waste some marine species
Adaptions include:
- Smaller leaves → reduces SA:V ratio, reducing surface area for transpiration
- Closing somata → inhibits water loss through leaves
- Light coloured leaves with reflective surfaces → reduces sunlight exposure
and therefore transpiration
- Cuticles covering leaves → seal in water
- Succulents,, thick, fleshy leaves/stems that can store water → used when
water access is low
Causes and effects of non-infectious diseases in humans
Cancer - many cancers are caused by many - Cervical cancer (from HPV
different factors, including infectious exposure)
agents, genetic disorders, exposure - Breast cancer
to mutagenic factors in the - Melanoma
environment (e.g. radiation), and - Lung cancer
lifestyle habits (e.g. smoking)
Symptoms: dry eyes, dry skin, frequent infections, dry spots on skin, can lead to
blindness Treatments: consumption of vitamin A rich foods, such as eggs, chicken,
milk or carrots
Genetic disease: Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Causes: occurs in 1 in 10,000 live births due to a mutation to the PAH gene on
chromosome 12 – has an enzyme that helps break down the amino acid,
phenylalanine (phe), which is contained in many foods
Treatments: diet modification to avoid protein-rich foods and to take phe-free protein
supplements
Causes: HPV (sexually transmitted disease) is the cause of over 99% of cervical
cancer cases Symptoms: unusual vaginal bleeding and discharge, loss of fertility and
death
Type 2 Diabetes
Description - Condition in which the body becomes resistant to insulin and is gradually
unable to produce it
- This leads to a build-up of glucose in the blood, which can cause damage
to systems in the body
- Causes include genetic factors, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy diets
Treatment + - Initial treatment = lifestyle changes (diet low in sugar and regular exercise)
Management - Insulin injections are given if lifestyle changes are not sufficient
- Insulin injections come from transgenic bacteria with the human
insulin genes
Incidence - Number of people with diabetes has quadrupled over the past 30 years
- Predicted increase in adults with diabetes between 2010 and 2030
Mortality Rates - Currently causes 5 million deaths per year, mostly as a result of CVD
- Type 2 diabetes is expected to become the seventh most prevalent cause
of death globally by 2030
What makes a good epidemiological study design?
- Two groups must be surveyed: (1) people are affected (2) people who are not
affected
Genetic engineering allows us to make changes to the genetic code, thus allowing
us to edit sequences causing non-infectious disease. A number of genetic
engineering techniques may allow for the prevention of non-infectious disease,
including:
→ Haemophilia
→ Parkinson’s disease
CRISPR: a gene editing system by which point mutations may be accurately
introduced into genomes
- This may be particularly beneficial for couples who carry known genes for
disease
- Screening allows selection of embryos only without genetic defects for
implantation
- Editing technologies, especially at the early embryo stage, open up the
possibility that whole organism changes may be made to the offspring
Hearing loss
Steps of hearing:
1. Pinna collects sound waves which pass through the ear canal
2. Waves reach the ear drum (Tympanic Membrane) causing it to vibrate
3. Vibrations pass to the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear
When sounds waves in the ear canal reach the ear drum, it vibrates at the same
frequency, passing these vibrations on to the middle ear bones
The ossicles receive vibrations from the ear drum and amplify these vibrations,
passing them on to the fluid in the inner ear
The Organ of Corti in the inner ear contains hair cells that can detect vibrations. The
movement of the hair cells causes cilia to vibrate. These vibrations are converted
into electrical nerve impulses that can be sent along the cochlear nerve to the brain
to be interpreted as sound
Technologies to deal with hearing loss
Bone conduction Sends sounds as Inner ear and - Amplifies the - Requires
implants vibrations through cochlear nerve natural surgery
bone directly to movement of the - Small risk of
the inner ear, ossicular chain new growth of
bypassing the resulting in the bone around the
external and quality of the re- implant site after
middle ear established surgery
hearing to
improve
- Sclera = tough white coating that covers and protects the eyeball
- Iris = coloured part of the eye, contains muscles that contract or relax to
change the diameter of the pupil to be smaller or larger, depending on light
levels
- Pupil = an opening in the middle of the iris that allows light to enter the eye
- Cornea = the transparent, front surface of the eye that is over the iris and
pupil. Light bends as it passes through this layer to enter the eye
- Conjunctiva= a thin, translucent membrane covering the sclera and lining the
eyelids
- Lens = a transparent, bi-convex disc that
focuses light onto the retina
- Aqueous and vitreous humours = two
regions of jelly-like fluid – one in front of the
pupil and the other inside the eyeball cavity,
light must pass through these to reach the
retina
- Retina = a sensory membrane lining the
inner surface at the back of the eye
containing photoreceptor cells and nerves
that allow light impulses to be changed into
electrical signals
- Optic nerve = carries electrical signals from
the retina to the brain, which interprets these
signals to form images
Eye Conditions
Accomodation = the ability of the lens to change shape to allow focus on near and
far objects
Myopia (short-sightedness /
near-sightedness):
- Blurry vision is experienced for objects
that are far away
- This causes light to focus in front of the
retina
- Shape of the eye is too oval or the curve
of the cornea is too round
- A CONCAVE lens refracts light to
diverge (spread apart)
- This makes the focal point in the eye
occur further away (in more distance)
- This corrects myopia, as their focal point
naturally before the retina, which is too short
Astigmatism:
- Visual disorder that can be caused by
the cornea or by the lens
- Corneal astigmatism = the curve in the
cornea is asymmetrical
- Lenticular astigmatism = the surface
curve of the lens is asymmetrical
- Light focuses in two different places (eg.
before and after the retina)
Presbyopia:
- Age-related visual disorder involving a
refractive error that causes blurry vision
- Typically causes light to focus behind
the retina of the eye, similarly to hyperopia
- As people age, the lens loses elasticity
overtime making it more difficult to change
shape and focus
- Typically begins in those aged 40 +
years
- The lens becomes too stiff to change
shape correctly, affecting the ability of light to
focus on the retina at the correct
- Treatment – multifocal glasses/contacts, readers and eye glasses
Concave and Convex Lenses
Advantages Disadvantages
What is it? LASIK is a popular method of laser eye surgery that can be used to correct
refractive errors by using a cool laser with ultraviolet radiation
Kidneys
Kidney Nephrons;
- Blood enters each kidney via a renal artery that branches into capillaries that
take blood to the nephrons
- Filtration:
→ the glomerulus, a knot of capillaries, allows parts of the blood to enter the
first part of a nephron, the Bowmans Capsule
→ the Bowmans Capsule filters blood from capillaries based on size - only
small particles such as water and dissolved materials can enter, not large
particles (e.g. blood cells)
- Reabsorption:
- Urine from nephrons is taken via tubes called ureters to be stored in the
bladder, then released via the urethra
Kidney transplants