MODULE 1: INTRO TO HISTOLOGY
functions together and reacts to stimuli and
HISTOLOGY
Study of the tissues of the body and how these
tissues are arranged to constitute organs.
Literally translated, the root word histo means
tissue or web.
The Greek root histo can be translated as either
“tissue” or “web,” both of which are appropriate
because tissues are usually webs of interwoven
filaments and fibers, both cellular and noncellular,
with membranous linings.
1. Cell structure.
2. Arrangement
3. Functions
Histology involves all aspects of tissue biology,
with the focus on how cells’ structure and
arrangement optimize functions specific to
each organ.
Two (2) interacting components of Tissues:
1. Extracellular Matrix
The ECM consists of many kinds of
macromolecules, most of which form complex
structures, such as collagen fibrils and basement
membranes.
The ECM supports the cells and the fluid that
transports nutrients to the cells, and carries away
their catabolites and secretory products.
2. Cells
The cells produce the ECM and are also
influenced and sometimes controlled by matrix
molecules.
Cells and matrix interact extensively, with many
components of the matrix recognized by and
attaching to cell surface receptors. Many of these
protein receptors span the cell membranes and
connect to structural components inside the cells.
Thus, cells and ECM form a continuum that
inhibitors together.
Why study Histology?
• To be able to better understand the
structure and the inner workings of the
human body in general.
• To distinguish diseased tissues from
normal specimens.
• To understand the proper handling of
tissue samples.
• To be able to recognize histologic
sections through their structure.
Tissue Processing
Most tissues studied histologically are prepared
as shown, with this sequence of steps (a):
Fixation: Small pieces of tissue are placed in
solutions of chemicals that cross-link proteins and
inactivate degradative enzymes, which preserves
cell and tissue structure.
Dehydration: The tissue is transferred through a
series of increasingly concentrated alcohol
solutions, ending in 100%, which removes all
water.
Clearing: Alcohol is removed in organic solvents
in which both alcohol and paraffin are miscible.
Infiltration: The tissue is then placed in melted
paraffin until it becomes completely infiltrated with
this substance.
Embedding: The paraffin-infiltrated tissue is
placed in a small mold with melted paraffin and
allowed to harden.
Trimming: The resulting paraffin block is trimmed
to expose the tissue for sectioning (slicing) on a
microtome.
angat, m
Similar steps are used in preparing tissue for
transmission electron microscopy (TEM), except
special fixatives and dehydrating solutions are
used with smaller tissue samples and embedding
involves epoxy resins which become harder than
paraffin to allow very thin sectioning.
A microtome is used for sectioning paraffin-
embedded tissues for light microscopy. The
trimmed tissue specimen is mounted in the
paraffin block holder, and each turn of the drive
wheel by the histologist advances the holder a
controlled distance, generally from 1 to 10 μm.
After each forward move, the tissue block passes
over the steel knife edge and a section is cut at a
thickness equal to the distance the block
advanced. The paraffin sections are placed on
glass slides and allowed to adhere,
deparaffinized, and stained for light microscope
study. For TEM, sections less than 1 μm thick are
prepared from resin-embedded cells using an
ultramicrotome with a glass or diamond knife.

angat, m
 Definition of Terms • Anastomosis G. " + stoma = an opening;
natural communication between two
Commonly encountered terms in histology.
vessels (adj. anastomotic).
• Acidophilic - adj. L. acidus = sour + G.
• Angio- G. angeion = a vessel, prefix used
philein = to love; affinity for an acidic dye,
to refer to blood vessels.
such as eosin staining cytoplasmic
proteins. • Angström, Anders Jonas. 1814-1879.
Swedish physicist; unit of measurement; 1
• Acinus (-i) L. = a juicy berry, a grape;
Angström (symbol Å) = 0.1 nanometer.
applied to small, rounded terminal
secretory units of compound exocrine • Anlage (-n) Ge. an = on + legen = to lay,
glands that have a small lumen (adj. place; a primordium; an incipient structure.
acinar).
• Antrum (-ra) L. = a cave, cavity; a nearly-
• adenoid G. " + -oeides = in form of; in the closed cavity or bulge.
form of a gland, glandular; the pharyngeal
• Apical adj. L. = apex, tip.
tonsil.
• Apposition L. ad = to + ponere = to set,
• Adipose adj. L. adeps = fat.
place; placed in contiguity; juxtaposition.
• Adluminal adj. L. ad = towards + lumen =
• Arborisation from L. arbor = tree;
a hole; adjacent to lumen.
branching as in a tree.
• Adnexa L. ad = to + nexus = bound;
• Argentaffin L. argentum = silver + affinis
accessory parts of a structure, e.g., the
= associated with; of cells which can
adnexa of the eye.
reduce silver from its salts without special
• Adventitia L. adventicius = coming from pretreatment.
the outside; outermost connective tissual
• Argyrophilic G. argyros = silver + philein
covering of an organ, e.g., the outer coat
= to love; of cells or structures reducing
of a blood vessel is its tunica adventitia.
silver from its salts after special
• Afferent adj. L. ad = to + ferre = to bear, pretreatment with a reducing agent.
carry, produce; passing towards,
• Artefact L. arte = by art + factus = made;
centripetal, e.g., sensory nerves are
inadvertent abnormality in tissue arising
afferent nerves with respect to the brain
during histological processing; also
and spinal cord; afferent arteriole of the
artifact.
renal glomerulus.
• Atrophy G. a = without + trophe = food; a
• Albicans adj. L. = whitish.
wasting or reduction in organ size.
• Albuginea adj. L. albus = white; firm white
• Azurophilic OF. azur = blue + G. philein =
fibrous tissue.
to love; refers to reddish-purple granules
• Alveolus (-i) L. = a small hollow, basin or in some leucocytes when stained by
flask (dim. of alveus = a belly, tub); Romanowsky method.
applied to air-cell in lungs; large terminal
• Basal G. basis = base.
secretory units of some exocrine glands
with relatively thin walls (cf. acinus); tooth • Basement Membrane = histological term
socket; adj. alveolar. for extracellular layer at base of
• Amoeboid G. amiobe = change + -oeides epithelium.
= form of; having motion like an amoeba. • Basophilic G. basis = base + philein = to
• Amorphous G. a = not + morphe = form; love; affinity for a basic dye, e.g.
haematoxylin, gallocyanin, toluidine blue.
lacking structural definition.
• Bifurcate L. bis = twice + furca = fork;
• Ampulla L. ampla = full + bulla = vase; a
divide into two branches.
jar or flask; a local widening in a tube;
duodenal ampulla of Vater.

angat, m
• Bulbar L. bulbus = a swollen root; of eye-
ball; of urethra; of olfactory tract; of aorta;
of a hair; of embryonic heart.
• Bursa (-ae) L. from G. = a leather sac, a
purse.
• Canaliculus (-i) L. = a small channel (L.
canalis = a channel, a water-pipe; dim.L.
canna = a reed).
• Cancellous adj. L. cancellus = lattice; of
spongy bone with numerous
interconnecting cavities.
• Capillary L. capillus = hair (from L. capitis
pilus = hair of the head); a very narrow
("hair-like") blood vessel.
• Carneae L. carneus = fleshy; trabeculae
carneae.
• Cell L. cella = a small room.
• Cervix (-ices) L. = the neck (of an organ).
• Chromophil G. chroma = colour + philein
= to love; cells or granules taking up dye
readily.
• Chromophobe G. " + phobos = fear; cells
or granules not taking up any dye readily.
• Cilium (-ia) L. = eyelash; also hair-like
projections on epithelial cells.
• Circumvallate adj. L. circum = around +
vallare = to wall; of largest lingual papilla,
surrounded by a moat-like depression.
• Cisterna (-ae) L. = a reservoir, dilated
sac.
• Coeliac (celiac) G. koilia = a belly; related
to abdominal organs.
• Coelom G. koilos = a hollow, belly; an
internal sac; the single coelom inside the
embryo gives rise to the pleural,
pericardial and peritoneal sacs of the body
lined by mesothelium.
• Collateral L. con = together + lateralis =
of a side; accessory or accompanying
branch of something; side branch of a
neurite or axon; branch of a blood vessel.
• Cytology G. kytos = hollow vessel (cell) +
logos = study; study of cells and their
organelles, usually with electron
microscope.
• Deferens L. = carrying away or down.
• Desmosome G. desmos = a bond, anchor
rope + soma = body; intercellular bridge;
patch component (i.e., macula adherens)
of terminal bar.
• Desquamation = shedding of squames,
or shedding of cells from any epithelium.
• Diapedesis G. dia = through + pedan = to
leap; normal passage of red or white blood
cells across an endothelium of a capillary.
• Diaphysis G. dia = apart + physis =
growth; a gap between teeth; point of
branching of a plant; shaft or mid-region of
long bone between the growing ends.
• Differentiation = 1. embryological
process by which different tissues and
organs arise in ontogeny; 2. histological
process of distinguishing different tissual
components.
• Diploid G. diploo = to repeat (a process);
having a (normal) double set of
chromosomes = twice the haploid number
(all somatic cells are diploid).
• Distal L. distare = to stand apart; away
from the centre; opposite to proximal.
• Diverticulum (-a) L. = a by-road, from L.
devertere = to turn aside; a blind-ended
sac or pouch in wall of an organ.
• Ductule L. ductulus = a little duct (dim. L.
ductus); bile ductules; efferent ductules;
prostatic ductules.
• Ductus (-us) L. = passage from L. ducere
= to lead; tube lined by epithelium for
exocrine glandular secretions to reach
surface.
• Eccentric G. ek = out(side) + kentron =
centre.
• Ectoderm G. ek = outside + derma = skin;
outer cell layer of embryo giving rise to
CNS, skin, glands, etc.
• Ectopic G. ek = out + topos = placed;
displaced; in an abnormal position;
opposite to entopic.
• Efferent L. ex = away + ferre = to carry;
centrifugal; e.g., motor nerves are efferent
with respect to central nervous system;
angat, m
 efferent arteriole of renal glomerulus;
opposite to afferent.
• Effete = worn out.
• Electron-dense = appearing dark in
electron microscope; scatters electrons.
• Electron-lucent = appearing light in
electron microscope; transmits electrons;
opposite to electron-dense.
• Encephalon G. enkephalos = brain, from
en = in + kephalos = head.
• End Artery = a small artery that ends in
branches which do not have sufficient
anastomoses other arteries to keep the
organ alive if the end artery is occluded.
• Endo- or Ento- G. endon = within.
• Endothelium G. " + thele = nipple; the
special name for epithelium (q.v.) lining
blood and lymph vessels
• Eosin G. eos = dawn, rose-coloured; an
acidic dye staining the basic cytoplasmic
proteins pink
• Eosinophilic = having an affinity for eosin
dye.
• Epi- G. = upon, on.
• Euchromatin G. eus = good + chroma =
colour; chromatin rich in nucleic acid.
• Evagination L. evaginare = to unsheath;
protrusion of an organ or a surface.
• Extravasation L. extra = out + vas =
vessel; leakage, e.g., of urine from urinary
tract.
• Exudate L. ex = out + sudare = to sweat.
• Facet F. facette = a face.
• Fascia (-ae) L. = a band, bandage; fibrous
membrane covering and supporting
muscles, cf. epimysium; hypodermis.
• Fascicle L. fasciculus = a little bundle,
dim L. facis (fasces was a symbolic bundle
of rod with an axe in the middle); e.g., a
bundle of nerve fibres, of muscle fibres
• Fenestrated adj. L. fenestra = window; 1.
of an aperture in a cell membrane (e.g., in
a capillary endothelial cell) often closed by
a membrane; 2. of an aperture in an
elastic sheet in tunica media of an artery.
• Fibre L. fibra = fibre (Vesalius, c. 1550);
original meaning was a lobe, e.g., of lung,
liver, or bowels examined for prophecies.
• Fibril L. fibrilla = a small fibre (from L.
fibra = fibre); subunit of a fibre, i.e., many
fibrils bundle together to form a fibre; cf.
microfibril.
• Field of View = the circular field seen
when looking into an optical device (e.g. a
microscope).
• Filiform L. filum = a thread + forma =
form; hair-like, of thread of keratin
emerging from the apex of a filiform lingual
papilla.
• Fimbria L. = a fringe; e.g., fimbria at
ovarian end of uterine tube; fimbria of 3rd
ventricle of brain.
• Flavum L. flavus = yellow (often due to
presence of large amount of elastic
tissue); ligamentum flavum of vertebral
column.
• Flocculus L. = a little tuft, dim. L. floccus;
small lobe beneath each cerebellar
hemisphere.
• Folium (-ia) L. = a leaf; 1. folds of
cerebellar cortex; 2. leaf-like foliate
papillae of tongue.
• Follicle L. folliculus = little bag (dim. of L.
follis).
• Fovea L. = a pit or depression.
• Foveola (-ae) L. = a little pit (dim. of L.
fovea).
• Fundus L. = bottom, base (as in
fundamental); refers to region of organ
(e.g., stomach, uterus, eye), gland (e.g.,
gastric glands).
• Fungiform L. fungus = mushroom + forma
= a shape; of lingual papillae.
• Fusiform L. fusus = spindle + forma =
shape; see extrafusal/intrafusal.
• Ganglion (-a, -ions) G. = knot, swelling;
an accumulation of nerve cell somas
outside the central nervous system; also
applied to cells forming optic nerve axons
within the central nervous system; also
small synovial swelling under skin.
• Gap Junction = intercellular junction for
communication between cells (see nexus).
• Glomerulosa adj. L. = like a little ball;
e.g., zona glomerulosa = superficial zone
in adrenal cortex where cells are arranged
in small clusters.
• Glomus (-mera) L. = a ball; cluster or
conglomeration of small arteries or
arterioles and nerve fibres.
• Glycan G. glykos = sweet.
• Glycocalyx G. " + kalyx = cup; layer like a
husk rich in carbohydrates outside cell
plasma membrane.
angat, m
• Granulosa L. granulum = little grain; cells
around ovarian oocyte.
• Granulosum L. " ; referring to granule-
containing cells in epidermis.
• Ground substance = colloidal material,
with variable viscosity, of the intercellular
spaces of connective tissue; usually
homogeneous and scarcely stainable.
• Haematoxylin or Hematoxylin = a basic
dye from a South American tree; its
oxidation product haematein is used with
mordants for histological staining of
nucleic acids.
• Haemopoiesis G. haima = blood + poiein
= to make; production of the cellular
elements of blood, in bone marrow, etc.
(also haematopoiesis or hematopoiesis).
• Haustrum (-a) L. haurire = to draw water
in a bucket; sacculated pouches of colon.
• Helicine adj. G. helix = coil, snail; e.g,
helicine arteries of ovarian medulla, penis,
etc.
• Heterochromatin G. heteros = other +
chromatin; other than euchromatin.
• Hilum or Hilus (-a) L. = a trifle;
depression in a seed; a depression at
vascular entrance/exit of a gland or organ.
• Histochemistry G. histos = web, tissue +
chemeia = chemistry; application of
specific chemical reagents to a histological
section to reveal the location (topography)
of natural substances within the various
tissues of the section; cf. cytochemistry.
• Histology G. histos = web, woven
material, sail of a ship + logos =
knowledge, study; microscopic anatomy,
as opposed to macroscopic anatomy.
• Humour L. umor = a fluid; aqueous
humour and vitreous humour of the eye.
• Hyaline adj. G. hyalos = glassy,
translucent, crystalline; hyaline cartilage
with its glassy appearance.
• Hyaloid adj. G. " + -oeides = form of.
• Hydatid G. hydatis = watery vesicle; a
cyst; e.g., appendix testis is the hydatid of
Morgagni.
• Hyperplasia G. hyper = above, an excess
of + plassein = to form; growth of organ
due to increase in cell number.
• Hypertrophy G. " + trophe = nourishment;
growth of organ or tissue (e.g., muscle)
due to increase in cell size.
• Hypodermis G. hypo = under, a lack of +
dermis; subcutaneous connective tissue =
superficial fascia.
• Hypoplasia G. " + plassein = to form;
reduction in tissue or organ size.
• -iculus L. = a diminutive suffix.
• Infundibulum L. = a funnel, from L.
infundere = to pour into; funnel-shaped
part of an organ.
• Integument L. in = on + tegere = to roof,
to cover (L. tegmen = a roof) ; a covering,
hence the skin, consisting of epidermis,
dermis and hypodermis.
• Intercalated L. inter = between + calare =
to proclaim, calatus = inserted; of a duct
inserted between the end of the gland
(acinus, or alveolus) and a larger duct; of
a disc inserted between the ends of two
cardiac fibres.
• Interstice (-es) L. " + sistere = to set; a
space or gap in a tissue or in an organ.
• Interstitial adj. L. " ; located in between,
e.g., cells of Leydig.
• Interstitium L. " ; the interstices.
• Intima L. = innermost; cf. tunica intima.
• Intra- = within
• Invagination L. invaginare = to ensheath;
process of pushing inwards and thereby
creating a sheath.
• Involution L. in = into + volvere = to roll;
retrogressive change with size decrease.
• Isotropic G. iso = same + tropos = a
turning; having the same properties in all
directions.
• Isthmus G isthmos = a narrow passage, a
land-bridge; a connecting band.
• Iter L. = a journey, a passage-way; a way
between two anatomical structures, e.g.,
iter of Sylvius = midbrain aqueduct; iter
chordae tympani (anterior, posterior).
• Karyon G. = nucleus, nut.
• Keratin G. keras = horn; protein of hair,
nails, horny tissue.
• Lacuna (-ae) L. = a pit, a small hollow
space, a dimple, dim L. lacus = lake.
• Lamella (-ae) L. = a little plate, a scale,
dim. L. lamina.
• Lamina (-ae) L. = plate or layer; hence
adj. laminated.
• Lamina Propria (-ae -ae) L. " + propria =
belonging to; layer of connective tissue
under epithelium.
• Limbus L. = border, edge.
• Lingual adj. L. lingua = tongue.
• Lobule L. lobulus = a small lobe, dim. L.
lobus = lobe, from G. lobos.
• Locule L. loculus = a small place; dim. of
L. locus; a cavity or chamber; used to
angat, m
 describe unilocular & multilocular
adipocytes.
• Lumen L. = light; space enclosed by
tubular or vesicular structure; hence
luminal.
• Luteum L. luteus = yellow; cf. corpus
luteum.
• Lysis G. = dissolution.
• Macula Adherens (maculae adherentes)
L. macula = a spot, a mark + adhaerere =
to stick to.
• Matrix L. = the ground substance of
cartilage harbouring the chondrocytes.
• Medulla (-ae) L. = pith, marrow, inner
portion of an organ (from L. medius = in
the middle), in contrast to cortex.
• Membrane = any structure in the form of a
sheet that separates one region from
another, e.g., a layer of cells, a thin layer
of connective tissue, a layer of glycocalyx,
etc.; plasma (q.v.) membrane = cell
membrane.
• Mesangial adj. G. mesos = between +
aggeion = a blood vessel (G. "gg" is
pronounced "ng"); 1. the mesentery
suspending a developing blood vessel; 2.
the extravascular tissue of the renal
glomerulus.
• Mesenchyme G. mesos = middle +
enchyma = infusion; cells, fibres & fluids
derived from mesoderm (middle layer) of
embryo.
• Mesoderm G. " + derma = skin; middle
cell layer of embryo giving rise to
connective tissues, most muscle,
circulatory system, urogenital system, etc.
• Mesothelium G. " + thele = nipple;
epithelium lining coelomic body cavities;
most superfical layer of a serous
membrane (tunica serosa).
• Meta- G. = after, beyond, over.
• Metachromasia G. " + chroma = colour;
change in colour of a dye when it binds to
different components of tissue; a
metachromatic dye may stain one
component differently to the background
(or ground substance).
• Molecular L. molecula = a little mass.
• Myelin G. myelos = marrow; lipoprotein
sheath around axons (Virchow, 1854).
• Myeloid adj. G. " + -oeides = form; of
bone marrow tissue.
• Myo- G. mys = a mouse, a muscle, q.v.
• Myoepithelial = a contactile cell derived
from ectoderm (as opposed to
mesoderm).
• Nest = a group or collection of similar
objects, e.g., a cell nest, a keratin pearl.
• Nucleolus L. = a little kernel, dim. of L.
nucleus = a nut (G. Valentin, 1836).
• Nucleus L. = a kernel; 1. central
component in a soma (R. Brown, 1831), 2.
cluster of nerve cells in central nervous
system.
• Organelle dim. of G. organon = a living
part of body with special function, hence a
little body; an intracellular component,
e.g., a mitochondrion.
• Os L. os, ossis = a bone, e.g. os
innominatum.
• Osteon G. = bone; system of concentric
bony lamellae surrounding a canal
containing nerves, blood vessels, etc.; cf.
Havers.
• Ostium L. = a door.
• Oxyntic adj. G. oxyntos = making acid;
parietal cells in gastric mucosa.
• Oxyphil G. oxys = sour, sharp + philein =
to love; staining readily with acidic dyes.
• Palisade L. palus = stake; like a fence of
stakes.
• Papilla (-ae) L. = a teat, a nipple; a nipple-
like projection, e.g., on the tonge
(Malpighi, c. 1670; cf. circumvallate,
filiform, foliate, fungiform, vallate);
duodenal papilla (containing duodenal
ampulla); optic papilla; renal papilla
(Berengarius, c. 1480-1550).
• Para- G. = beyond, beside, near.
• Parenchyma G. " + enkeim = to pour in;
the essential functional cells of an organ
as opposed to its stroma (NB. the accent
is on the "e", not the "y").
• Parietal adj. L. parietalis = relating to
walls; the outer region or wall as opposed
to visceral.
• Pars L. = a part; a part of an organ, or
structure, e.g., pars iridica retinae; pars
nervosa; pars distalis, etc.
• Peri- G. = around, about.
• Plasma G. = a thing formed; liquid
component of lymph, blood; NB. plasma
membrane = cell membrane.
• Pleomorphic G. pleon = more + morphe
= form; varying in shape and size.
• Plexus (-i) L. = a braid; a woven network
of linear structures, especially nerves.
• Polysome = aggregation of ribosomes.
angat, m
• Refractile L. refractus = ability to turn • Stroma G. = a cover, table-cloth, bedding;
back, i.e., bend the path of light. strictly, an incorrect term for the internal
• Rete (-tia) L. = a net (-work); a snare. supporting frame-work of a tissue, or
• Reticular adj. L. reticula = a little net; of a organ, as opposed to its parenchyma.
type of extracellular fibres that form a • Suture L. sutura = a seam (in sewing).
network and can be impregnated with • Trabecula (-ae) L. = a little beam, dim. L.
silver salts; of a type of connective tissue trabs, from G. trapes = beam, rib of a ship;
with a network of many fine branching 1. bundles or sheets of fibres giving
reticular fibres; thickest and strongest internal support to an organ, 2. bony
layer of dermis with many dense irregular lamellae in cancellous bone.
collagen fibres. • Tunica (-ae) L. = a shirt, a sheath.
• Rouleaux F. = rolls (of erythrocytes). • Visceral adj. L. viscera = body organs; as
• Ruga (-ae) L. = a fold or wrinkle, e.g., in opposed to somatic structures.
stomach, in vagina. • Viscus L. = any internal organ in a cavity,
• Sac L. saccus = sack, bag, from G. from L. visco = I make sticky.
sakkos. • Zona L. = a girdle.
• Saccule L. sacculus = a little bag, a
purse; 1. smaller of two sacs of
membranous labyrinth ofinner ear, 2.
saccule of larynx.
• Secretion L. secretus = separated;
production of materials by glandular
activity.
• Septum (-a) L. saeptum = fenced in;
hence, a flat partition; e.g., septum
pellucidum.
• Serosa L. serum = whey; a pale fluid; a
serous membrane lining body cavities.
• Sinus L. = a hollow, a curved space;
usually a larger vessel, or space, which
may contain air, blood, or lymph.
• Sinusoid L. " + G. -oeides = like; a tiny
vessel with a tortuous path and many
connections to similar vessels, e.g.,
hepatic sinusoids, bone marrow sinusoids.
• Soma (-ata) G. = body, mortal part of
body (as opposed to G. psyche = soul);
cell body.
• Somatic adj. G. " ; of cells of the body
excluding cells of the viscera and sex
cells.
• Sphincter G. sphinkter = a binder, from
sphingo = I strangle; a ring-like muscle
controlling an aperture.
• Squamous adj. L. squama = scale (of a
fish), a paving stone; of an epithelium with
flat cells.
• Stellate adj. L. stella = star; star-shaped.
• Stratum (-a) L. = layer, bed-covering,
sheet; of layers in the skin: cf. basale,
spinosum,germinativum, granulosum;
lucidum, corneum; rete Malpighii.
• Stria L. = a channel, a furrow, a flute in a
column.

angat, m
 THE MICROSCOPE Key components of a Light Microscope
The primary tool used in the study of histology is
the microscope.
The microscope is an optical device that
produces an enlarged image and enhances
contrast for resolving details.
Histology is the study of body tissues and cells,
their constituents. Cells cannot be seen with the
naked eye,
The primary tool used to study them is the
microscope. It produces enlarged images of
cells and enhances contrast for resolving details.
Of several kinds of microscopes,
Two major ones are light and electron
microscopes. They have different lenses and
sources of illumination and provide
complementary information at different levels of
resolution and magnification.
The ability to discriminate two points that are
close together is the resolving power of a
microscope. It is related to the light wavelength. Photograph of a bright-field light microscope
A conventional light microscope uses bright-field showing its mechanical components and the
illumination, with a resolving power of about pathway of light from the substage lamp to the
0.2μm. Study specimens absorb visible light; eye of the observer. The optical system has three
glass lenses focus and magnify specimens. sets of lenses:

Most cells absorb very little light, so staining is
needed to increase light absorption.
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Brightfield Microscopy
Specimen is examined with ordinary light passing
through the preparation.
The condenser collects and focuses a cone of
light that illuminates the tissue slide on the stage.
Objective lenses enlarge and project the
illuminated image of the object toward the
eyepiece. Interchangeable objectives with
different magnifications routinely used in histology
include X4 for observing a large area (field) of the
tissue at low magnification; X10 for medium
magnification of a smaller field; and X40 for high
magnification of more detailed areas.
The two eyepieces or oculars magnify this
image another X10 and project it to the viewer,
yielding a total magnification of X40, X100, or
X400.
Fluorescence Microscopy

angat, m
Tissues are stained with a fluorescent dye that Phase-contrast Microscopy
binds to specific component of the tissue and are
irradiated with UV light.
When certain cellular substances are irradiated
by light of a proper wavelength, they emit light
with a longer wavelength—a phenomenon called
fluorescence. In fluorescence microscopy,
tissue sections are usually irradiated with
ultraviolet (UV) light and the emission is in the
visible portion of the spectrum. The fluorescent
Uses a lens system that produces visible images
substances appear bright on a dark background.
from transparent objects and, importantly, can be
For fluorescent microscopy the instrument has a
used with living, cultured cell.
source of UV or other light and filters that select
rays of different wavelengths emitted by the
substances to be visualized.
Fluorescent compounds with affinity for specific
cell macromolecules may be used as fluorescent
stains. Acridine orange, which binds both DNA
and RNA, is an example. When observed in the
fluorescence microscope, these nucleic acids
emit slightly different fluorescence, allowing them
to be localized separately in cells. Other
compounds such as DAPI and Hoechst stain
Living neural crest cells growing in culture appear
specifically bind DNA and are used to stain cell
differently with various techniques of light
nuclei, emitting a characteristic blue fluorescence
microscopy. Here the same field of unstained
under UV. Another important application of
cells, including two differentiating pigment cells, is
fluorescence microscopy is achieved by coupling
shown using three different methods (all X200):
compounds such as fluorescein to molecules that
will specifically bind to certain cellular Bright-field microscopy: Without fixation and
components and thus allow the identification of staining, only the two pigment cells can be seen.
these structures under the microscope.
Antibodies labeled with fluorescent compounds Phase-contrast microscopy: Cell boundaries,
are extremely important in immunohistologic nuclei, and cytoplasmic structures with different
staining. refractive indices affect in-phase light differently
and produce an image of these features in all the
Components of cells are often stained with cells.
compounds visible by fluorescence microscopy.
(a) Acridine orange binds nucleic acids and Differential interference microscopy: Cellular
causes DNA in cell nuclei (N) to emit yellow light details are highlighted in a different manner using
and the RNA-rich cytoplasm (R) to appear orange Nomarski optics. Phase-contrast microscopy, with
in these cells of a kidney tubule. or without differential interference, is widely used
to observe live cells grown in tissue culture.
(b) Cultured cells stained with DAPI (4′,6-
diamino-2-phenylindole) that binds DNA and Confocal Microscopy
with fluorescein-phalloidin that binds actin
filaments show nuclei with blue fluorescence and
actin filaments stained green. Important
information such as the greater density of
microfilaments at the cell periphery is readily
apparent. (Both X500)

angat, m
uses a small point of high-intensity light (laser),
and a plate with a pinhole aperture in front of the
image detector to obtain better resolution and
focus.
With a regular bright-field microscope, the beam
of light is relatively large and fills the specimen.
Stray (excess) light reduces contrast within the
image and compromises the resolving power of
the objective lens. Confocal microscopy avoids
these problems and achieves high resolution and
sharp focus by using (1) a small point of high-
intensity light, often from a laser, and (2) a plate
with a pinhole aperture in front of the image
detector. The point light source, the focal point of
the lens, and the detector’s pinpoint aperture are
all optically conjugated or aligned to each other in
the focal plane (confocal), and unfocused light
does not pass through the pinhole. This greatly
improves resolution of the object in focus and
allows the localization of specimen components
with much greater precision than with the bright-
field microscope.
Confocal microscopes include a computer-driven
mirror system (the beam splitter) to move the
point of illumination across the specimen
automatically and rapidly. Digital images captured
at many individual spots in a very thin plane of
focus are used to produce an “optical section” of
that plane. Creating such optical sections at a
series of focal planes through the specimen
allows them to be digitally reconstructed into a 3D
image.
Merged stack of confocal images showing actin
filaments, stained with phalloidin, in an
osteosarcoma cell line (U2OS). The image has
been colour coded in the z-axis to show where
different types of filaments are found.
Electron Microscope
• Electron microscopes exploits the
interaction of tissue components with a
beam of electrons.
• Higher resolutions can be obtained in
electron microscopy, since electrons are
far smaller than the wavelength of visible
light.
Transmission and scanning electron microscopes
are based on the interaction of tissue components
with beams of electrons.The wavelength in an
electron beam is much shorter than that of light,
allowing a 1000-fold increase in resolution.
Electron microscopes are large instruments
generally housed in a specialized EM facility.
(A) Schematic view of the major components of a
transmission electron microscope (TEM), which is
configured rather like an upside-down light
microscope. With the microscope column in a
vacuum, a metallic (usually tungsten) filament
(cathode) at the top emits electrons that travel to
an anode with an accelerating voltage between
60 and 120 kV. Electrons passing through a hole
in the anode form a beam that is focused
electromagnetically by circular electric coils in a
manner analogous to the effect of optical lenses
on light.
The first lens is a condenser focusing the beam
on the section. Some electrons interact with
atoms in the section, being absorbed or scattered
to different extents, while others are simply
transmitted through the specimen with no
interaction. Electrons reaching the objective lens
form an image that is then magnified and finally
projected on a fluorescent screen or a charge-
coupled device (CCD) monitor and camera.
In a TEM image areas of the specimen through
which electrons passed appear bright (electron
lucent), while denser areas or those that bind
heavy metal ions during specimen preparation
absorb or deflect electrons and appear darker
(electron dense). Such images are therefore
always black, white, and shades of gray.
(B) The scanning electron microscope (SEM) has
many similarities to a TEM. However, here the
focused electron beam does not pass through the
specimen, but rather is moved sequentially
(scanned) from point to point across its surface
similar to the way an electron beam is scanned
across a television tube or screen. For SEM
angat, m
specimens are coated with metal atoms with
which the electron beam interacts, producing
reflected electrons and newly emitted secondary
electrons. All of these are captured by a detector
and transmitted to amplifiers and processed to
produce a black-and-white image on the monitor.
The SEM shows only surface views of the coated
specimen but with a striking 3D, shadowed
quality. The inside of organs or cells can be
analyzed after sectioning to expose their internal
surfaces.
Care of the Microscope
1. Carry microscope with two hands,
supporting the base with one hand.
2. Always hold the microscope in a vertical
position.
3. Clean optical surfaces only with a good
quality lens tissue and commercial lens
cleaner.
4. Do not use the 10× and 40× objectives
with oil.
5. Clean the oil immersion lens after use.
6. Always remove slides with the low-power
objective raised.
7. Store the microscope with the low-power
objective in position and the stage
centered.
Notes When Interpreting Structures of Tissue
Sections
• Tissue preparations may produce artifacts.
• A single stain seldom demonstrate well
various cellular organelles.
• Three-dimensional structure of an organ
cannot be demonstrated in a 2D section.
INTERPRETATION OF STRUCTURES IN
TISSUE SECTIONS
In studying and interpreting stained tissue
sections, it is important to remember that
microscopic preparations are the end result of a
series of processes that began with collecting the
tissue and ended with mounting a coverslip on
the slide. Certain steps in this procedure may
distort the tissues slightly, producing minor
structural abnormalities called artifacts not
present in the living tissue.
One such distortion is minor shrinkage of cells or
tissue regions produced by the fixative, by the
ethanol, or by the heat needed for paraffin
embedding. Shrinkage can create artificial spaces
between cells and other tissue components. Such
spaces can also result from the loss of lipids or
low-molecular-weight substances not preserved
by the fixative or removed by the dehydrating and
clearing fluids. Slight cracks in sections may also
appear as large spaces in the tissue.
Other artifacts may include small wrinkles in the
section (which the novice may confuse with linear
structures in tissue) and precipitates from the
stain (which may be confused with cellular
structures such as cytoplasmic granules).
Students must be aware of the existence of
artifacts and able to recognize them.
Another difficulty in the study of histologic
sections is the impossibility of differentially
staining all tissue components on one slide. A
single stain can seldom demonstrate well nuclei,
mitochondria, lysosomes, basement membranes,
elastic fibers, etc. With the light microscope, it is
necessary to examine preparations stained by
different methods before an idea of the whole
composition and structure of a cell or tissue can
be obtained. The TEM allows the observation of
cells with all its internal structures and
surrounding ECM components, but only a few
cells in a tissue can be conveniently studied in
these very small samples.
Finally, when a structure’s three-dimensional
volume is cut into very thin sections, the sections
appear microscopically to have only two
dimensions: length and width. When examining a
section under the microscope, the viewer must
always keep in mind that components are missing
in front of and behind what is being seen because
many tissue structures are thicker than the
section. Round structures seen microscopically
may actually be portions of spheres or tubes.
Because structures in a tissue have different
orientations, their two-dimensional (2D)
appearance will also vary depending on the plane
of section. A single convoluted tube will appear in
a tissue section as many separate rounded or
oval structures.
angat, m
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE ▪ Meaning, they are not supplied by blood
HumHisto Lec Module 2 vessels.
 Epithelial cells are polarized.
Outline: ▪ One side faces the basement membrane
I. Introduction (4 Basic Tissue Types) and underlying supporting tissues and the
II. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue other side faces outwards.
III. Types of Epithelia
BASAL SURFACE/ Faces the basement
I. FOUR TYPES OF TISSUES BASAL POLE membrane and underlying
1. Epithelial Tissue/ Epithelium tissue.
2. Nervous Tissue APICAL SURFACE/ Faces outwards.
3. Muscle Tissue APICAL POLE
4. Connective Tissue
 Epithelial cells are derived from three germ
1. EPITELIAL TISSUE/ EPITHELIUM
layers:
 It is composed of closely aggregated
polyhedral cells that adheres strongly to one
another and to a thin layer of extracellular • Arises epidermis of skin,
ECTODERM epithelium of corner, and lining
matrix.
of oral and anal canals, and
 It functions on lining of body cavities and neural crest derivatives.
glandular secretion that is why we have two • Arises lining epithelium of
types of epithelial tissue: kidneys, male and female
a) Lining Epithelium reproductive tracts, and lining
b) Glandular Epithelium of body cavities and urogenital
 Main focus for this module. MESODERM system.
• Another thing to take note:
2. NERVOUS TISSUE the connective tissues such as
 Characterized by very small amount of the bones, cartilages, and
extracellular matrix and comprises of cells with muscles also arises from here.
long, fine processes that are specialize to • Lining of gastrointestinal tracts
receive, generate, and transmit nerve impulses. ENDODERM and epithelium of GIT arises
here.

FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

3. MUSCLE TISSUE
There are several functions of epithelial tissue mainly it
 Characterized by moderate amount of
serves its purpose in:
extracellular matrix and is composed of
elongated cells that specialize for contractions
PROTECTION
and body movements.
 It protects underlying tissues from abrasion and
injury.
4. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ABSORPTION
 Characterized by cells that produce very
 Functions in the absorption of materials from the
abundant extracellular matrix and functions to
lumen such as that in the small intestine.
support and protect tissues and organs.
SECRETION
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Various epithelial glands secrete enzymes
 The cells of epithelial tissue are compactly
hormones and mucus.
arranged in 1 or more layers.
 They are supported by a Basement Membrane.
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
▪ Basement Membrane: It separates
 The basement membrane is a non-cellular
epithelia from underlying supporting tissues
region that separates the epithelium from the
and are never penetrated by blood vessels.
connective tissue.
It acts as a border, that’s why the epithelial
cells are:  It is a thin extracellular sheet of
macromolecules.
 Avascular.
▪ Vascular: means blood vessels; A—:
meaning none or no.

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 ▪ On the picture, the highlighted area or the • It contains type III collagen and
one in yellow, acts like a border that is bound to basal lamina by type
separates the two tissues. VII collagen.

1. COVERING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM
 Surface epithelia are classified according to
three morphological characteristics:

a) Number of cell layers

b) Shape of the component cells

c) Presence of surface specializations

CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE EPITHELIUM

A) BASED ON NUMBER OF CELL LAYERS
 It also serves as a semi-permeable filter for
In some books, the classification of surface epithelium
substances that reach epithelial cells from
is subdivided into four subtypes:
below.
 It has two parts: Simple:
− There is only one layer of cells.

Stratified or Complex:
− There is only more than one layer of cells.

Pseudostratified

Transitional

However, in most of the histology books, there are

only two types: Simple and Stratified. Stratified is
under simple (???) and transitional is under stratified

B) BASED ON SHAPES OF COMPONENT CELLS

• The one nearest the epithelial Dito rin mago-originate yung name of the type of
cells tissue.
• It is it is a mesh work of type IV
BASAL collagen and laminin. SQUAMOUS
LAMINA o LAMININ are large − Cells appear to
glycoproteins that attach to be flat.
integrins at the basal surface
of cells. CUBOIDAL
• It is a more diffuse and fibrous − Cells appear to
RETICULAR layer. be cube-like.
LAMINA • It contains type III collagen and is
bound to basal lamina by type VII COLUMNAR
collagen. − Cells appear to
be taller than its
width.
III. TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Epithelial tissue is present in two forms:
• It is present as SHEETS of
COVERING/ continuous cells that cover the
SURFACE/ body on the external surface and
LINING line the body on the internal
EPITHELIUM surface
• Present as GLANDS that
GRANDULAR originate from invaginated cells.
EPITHELIUM

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 • Proximal Kidney:
Convoluted transport,
tubules absorption,
(kidney) secretion
• Thyroid
CUBOIDAL follicles
• Exocrine
glands
(salivary and
pancreas)
• Lining
epithelium of
intestines
COLUMNAR • Male and
Female
reproductive
tract
• Lining of • Protection
trachea • Secretion
• Bronchi • Cilia
• Nasal Cavity mediated
PSEUDO- CUBOIDAL transport of
STRATIFIED particles
trapped in
1) Simple Squamous — It is a one cell layer mucus out
with flat epithelial cells. of the air
2) Simple Cuboidal — It is a single layer of passages
cuboidal cells or cube-like cells.
3) Simple columnar — Tall cells in one single A) SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
layer.  It is characterized by single layer of tightly
4) Stratified Squamous — multiple layer of packed flat cells polygonal cells that form a
cells with flat cells continuous sheet
5) Stratified Cuboidal
 They are also called “Pavement Epithelium”
6) Stratified Columnar
 They line surfaces involved in passive
transport of either gases or fluids.
▪ That is why they can be found in the
As mentioned, the classification of lining epithelia in pulmonary alveoli and also at the loop of
other books is composed of 4 subtypes: Simple, Henle.
Stratified, Pseudostratified, and Transitional — but for • Simple squamous epithelial tissue also forms the
this module, we’ll be following the 2 major classification parietal layer of bowman’s capsule in the kidney.
of lining epithelia: Simple and Stratified or Complex. • It also forms the endothelial lining of blood
vessels and lymph vessels and forms the lining of
1. SURFACE/LINING EPITHELIUM the pleura and peritoneal cavities.
Simple squamous
Simple cuboidal
Simple columnar
Simple columnar ciliated
Pseudostratified columnar ciliated

SIMPLE EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Serous lining Well –

of body adapted for B) SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
cavities exchange,
(pericardium, lubrication  It includes single layer of cells shaped like
pleura, and cubes or truncated hexagons.
filtration
peritoneum)
 They are the intermediate form between
SQUAMOUS • Lining of blood purposes
vessels simple squamous and simple columnar
SIMPLE
(ONE • Parietal layer epithelium.
LAYER) of Bowman
 Each cell has a centrally placed round
capsule
(kidney) nucleus.
• Pulmonary  Simple cuboidal epithelial lines excretory and
alveoli (Lungs)
secretory ducts and tubules.
• Ovary Protection  It also lines ducts and tubules with absorptive
(surface) functions.

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 ▪ Example of this can be found in the:
collecting docks of the kidney, proximal
convoluted tubules, small excretory
ducts of the pancreas, and salivary
glands.
▪ Other examples are the thyroid follicles
and the surface of the ovary.

Basement Membrane

A picture of simple columnar epithelium. We have here

the basement membrane (see photo) and we have here
a single layer of cells. You may notice that they are
rectangular in shape or they are taller than white.

This is an example of simple cuboidal epithelium. This is

a picture of Proximal Convoluted Tubules. You will
notice that the lining of the ducts are a single layer of
cube cells there are some surrounding flat cells which
are the Squamous Cells of the Parietal Surface.

But when asked what is the lining epithelium of proximal

convoluted tubules — the answer is Simple Cuboidal
Epithelium.
C) SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
 It is characterized by a single layer of cells that
are taller than wide — they are rectangular
cells.
 They have elongated nucleus in each cell and
may be found near the base at the center or
near the apex.
 Simple columnar epithelium is found on
absorptive surfaces such as the small intestine
 They may constitute the circulatory surfaces
such as in the stomach.
 They are also found in the gallbladder and
large blocks of glands.
 They may exhibit a striated border or
microvilli.
▪ Microvilli are narrow finger-like cytoplasmic
processes that project from the apical layer
of the cells.
▪ They may have cilia or hair-like structures
projecting from the apical surface of cells
into the lumen.
D) PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
 It is characterized by layers of cells with nuclei
at different levels — not all cells reach
surface but all adhere to basal lamina.
 The term “pseudostratified” is derived from the
appearance of this epithelium in the section
 Remember “pseudo” means almost or
approaching — pseudostratified conveys the
erroneous impression that there is more than
one layer of cells, when in fact this is a true
simple epithelium since all the cells rest on the
basement membrane.
 The most common type of pseudostratified
columnar epithelia has Cilia, which are motor
hair like projections on the apical surface.
 They are almost exclusively confined in the
respiratory tract and hence is referred to as
“Respiratory Epithelium”
 Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium is
found in the trachea, primary bronchi,
auditory tube, part of the tympanic and nasal
cavities, and lacrimal sac.

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A


Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
You will notice here that the layers of cells with nuclei
are at different levels. Not all cells reach the surface
but all adhere at the basal lamina — that is the
characteristic of pseudostratified epithelia.
Then, it is ciliated look at the apical surface and you
will notice hair-like projections — they function to move
microbes and debris up and out of the airways. This is a
section of a primary bronchus of the human lung
 Its cells form many layers with the less
differentiated cuboidal cells near the
basement membrane that become irregular in
shape and flatten as they move progressively
as toward the skin surface accumulating keratin
through the process of Keratinization.
▪ Keratinization is the process wherein cells
are filled with keratin.
▪ When you hear the word “in” — it is a
protein; so, Keratin is a protein that
strengthens and serves to waterproof the
tissue
 In this Keratinization, the cells lose their
nuclei and organelles and so they become thin
in active packets of keratin also known as
Squames.
▪ What is the function of squames? It
functions in the protection against abrasion,
desiccation, and helps in the prevention of
dehydration or water loss.
 Keratinized cells are regularly sloughed off
and replaced by new cells from basal layer.

2. STRATIFIED OR COMPLEX EPITHELIUM

Keratinized stratified squamous
Non-keratinized stratified squamous
Stratified cuboidal
Transitional

SQUAMOUS • Epidermis Protection

KERATINIZED Prevents
water loss
• Mouth Protection
CUBOIDAL • Esophagus Kidney:
NON- • Larynx transport,
KERATINIZED • Vagina absorption,
• Anal Canal secretion
• Sweat Protection
glands Secretion
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL • Developing This is a picture of the epidermis.
(TWO OR
ovarian
MORE
follicles
Above is the keratin layer. You will notice here the
LAYERS) stratification or the multiple layers of cells. You will notice
• Bladder Protection
• Ureters Distensibility that at the base, medyo undifferentiated pa or di pa siya
TRANSITIONAL • Renal ganon ka-flat. But, as they move toward the apical
calyces
surface, mas nagiging flat siya.
COLUMNAR • Conjunctiva Protection
B) STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS NON-KERATINIZED
 Here the flattened cells of the surface layer
acquire less keratin and retain their nuclei but
still provide protection and able to withstand the
A) STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS KERATINIZED wear and tear of the surfaces of the mouth,
 It is characterized to be tough and resilient esophagus, vagina, and oral cavity.
multi-layered epithelium.  Now, when we say Squamous Keratinized,
 This is the one packed with keratin filaments more on dry surfaces or for example the
and is found mainly at the epidermis of the skin epidermis of the skin.
▪ Remember that Epidermis, it is keratinized.

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

  But when we say Squamous Non-Keratinized, D) STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
more on wet surfaces such as the mouth,
esophagus, vagina, and oral cavity.
 The stratified squamous non-keratinized, its
multi-layered cellular composition protect the
surfaces of these organs.
 Secretions from closely associated glands
lubricates the surface of the epithelium.
 Again, when we say Squamous Keratinized —
dry epidermis of the skin; Squamous Non-
Keratinized — more on wet.

Stratified Columnar
This can be found at the conjunctiva of the eye.

E) STRATIFIED TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

 The stratified transitional epithelium can be
found at the bladder, ureters and the renal
calyces.
 Transitional epithelium is also known or also
Non-keratinized — you will not see here the keratin called as “urothelium”
layer, the wavy projection at the apical surface. Then, ▪ This is because the transitional epithelium is
stratified, you will see a multiple layer of cells and you commonly or is unique to the urinary tract,
will see squamous cells. it lines the urinary bladder, renal calyces,
ureters and a portion of the urethra.
 Another unique characteristic of the transitional
C) STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM epithelium is the presence of umbrella cells.
▪ Umbrella cells are large dome-like cells at
the superficial layer.
 Transitional epithelium is also unique in a way
that it is able to adopt changes in shape or for
example during distension
▪ For example, when the urinary bladder is
empty, the lining epithelium is characterized
to be a tall epithelia with 5 to 7 layers;
▪ But when the urinary bladder distends, this
tall or 5 to 7 layers of epithelia will be
downgraded or will be will shorten into 2 to 3
layers of thin epithelia.
▪ So, the function of this again, is for
distensibility and for protection against
hypertonic and cytotoxic effects of urine.
Stratified Cuboidal
This can be found under sweat glands or developing
ovarian follicles.

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 B) BASED ON THE FATE OF CELL
DURING ACTIVE SECRETION

• When we say merocrine eccrine

glands, the cells remain intact.
• They release secretion by
exocytosis.
• On the picture, the merocrine
glands have no loss of any part
of cell.
• Secretion usually contain protein
and most exocrine glands are
merocrine.
This is a picture of a transitional epithelium in the
• Examples of merocrine glands are
urinary tract.
salivary glands and sweat
MEROCRINE glands.

2. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
 They function to produce a secretion.
 Glands are specialized organs that consists of
epithelial cells that produce and secrete different
macromolecules.
▪ They develop from lining or covering
epithelia in the fetus by self-proliferation and
growth in to the connective tissue.
▪ It then differentiation undergoes to become
either exocrine and endocrine glands.

• Exocrine glands remain • When we say apocrine,

EXOCRINE connected with surface epithelium remember the word apoptosis —
GLANDS • They still have tubular ducts that it is cell destruction.
deliver secreted material. • When we say apocrine, part of
cell is destroyed and discharged
• Lose connection to original with secretion.
epithelium; they lack ducts. • Examples of these are sweat
• Secretory Products or glands in axilla and
ENDOCRINE Hormones are directly delivered circumgenital area.
GLANDS into the bloodstream through • Apocrine is described as having a
adjacent capillaries foul odor.
APOCRINE

CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS

A) BASED ON NUMBER OF CELLS

• Unicellular, meaning single
secreting cell.
• One cell: goblet cell (clear
UNICELLULAR cells).
• They secrete mucus.
• Secretion is produced via
• There are multiple secreting
destruction of entire cells.
cells.
MULTICELLULAR • An example of is • The difference between holocrine
HOLOCRINE and apocrine is that in Apocrine
Submandibular Gland.
Glands, apical part of cell is
released with secretory product —
so it's just a part of the gland

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 • But in Holocrine Glands, there is
a destruction of entire cells;
remnants of cells discharge
together with secretions.
• An example of this are
sebaceous glands.
C) BASED ON TYPE OF SECRETION
SIMPLE TUBULAR
 They are elongated
secretory portion and
duct is usually short or
absent.
 Examples: mucous
glands of colon; intestinal
glands or crypts (of
Lieberkuhn).

• It is characterized to be watery
SEROUS • Examples are sweat glands and BRANCHED TUBULAR
GLAND parotid glands
 Several long secretory
parts joining to drain into 1
• Mucus is characterized as viscous
duct.
MUCUS and thick
GLANDS • Example is the sebaceous gland  Examples: glands in the
uterus and stomach.
• It secretes both watery and
MIXED viscous — just like the sublingual
GLAND and submandibular glands
•
• Are glands that secrete cells just COILED TUBULAR
CYTOGENIC like the ovary.  Secretory portion is very long
GLANDS and coiled.
 Examples: sweat glands.

D) BASED ON MORPHOLOGY OR STRUCTURE

• Simple tubular
• Simple coiled tubular
• Simple branched tubular ACINAR (OR ALVEOLAR)
SIMPLE • Simple branched alv(acinar)  Rounded and sac-like
One branch • Simple acinar – not present secretary portion.
eolarin man  Examples: small mucous
glands along the urethra.
COMPOUND • Compound tubular
More than • Compound acinar
one branch • Compound tubulo-acinar

BRANCHED ACINAR
 Multiple sac-like secretory parts entering the
same duct.
 Examples: sebaceous glands of the skin.

E) CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND GLANDS

Tubular: they are tubular in shape

Acinar: Sac-like

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 COMPOUND TUBULAR
 Several elongated coiled secretory units and
their ducts converge to form larger ducts.
 Examples: submucosal mucous glands (of
Brunner) in the duodenum.

COMPOUND ACINAR
 Several sac-like secretory units with small ducts
converge at a larger duct.
 Examples: exocrine pancreas

COMPOUND TUBULOACINAR
 Ducts of both tubular and acinar secretory units
converge at larger ducts.
 Examples: salivary glands

@aweglay | BSMT 2-A

 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

CONNECTIVE TISSUE It consists of different types of cells and the

extracellular matrix. The matrix consists of ground
substance and fibers.
MATRIX
GROUND SUBSTANCE
● First component of the matrix
● Consists primarily of amorphous,
The diagram illustrates the classification of connective
transparent, and colorless
tissue.
It is subdivided into two types: extracellular matrix.
● Connective tissue proper ● Semifluid gel and high water content/
● Connective tissue specialized highly hydrated
Under connective tissue proper you have loose and ● Supports and surrounds all the
dense.
● Loose: areolar, reticular, adipose
connective tissue cells and fibers. (fills
● Dense: regular, irregular, elastic the spaces between cells and fibers)
Under connective tissue specialized, you have bone, ● Diffusion of small molecules and acts
blood, and cartilage as lubricant and barrier
● Bone: spongy, compact ● Its viscous consistency provides protection
● Cartilage: elastic, fibrocartilage, hyaline against invading microorganisms.
● Blood: RBCs, WBCs, Platelets ● It contains different types of mixed
CONNECTIVE TISSUE polysaccharides:
● Originates from the mesenchymal cells
○ GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS
● Origin: Mesoderm (except for some parts of
the head which is ectoderm derived) (GAGs)– HYALURONIC ACID
● 3 germ layers: ECTODERTM [Epidermis], ○ PROTEOGLYCANS
MESODERM [Inner lining of body cavities], ○ ADHESIVE
ENDODERM [Lining of GI tract]
GLYCOPROTEINS
●MESENCHYME
Hyaluronic acid: is the largest and the most ubiquitous?
●Highly vascular except for cartilage Glycosaminoglycans
●Good nerve supply except for FIBERS – Fibroblast
cartilage The amount and arrangement of these fibers depend
● Primarily consists of cells and on the functions of the tissues and organs in which they
extracellular materials (matrix) except are found.

for Blood and lymph They also primarily provide strength to the connective
● Extracellular matrix - consists of tissue and allows it to be resistant to stretching and
tissue fluid, ground substances and deformation.
fibers 3 TYPES
FUNCTION 1. COLLAGEN
● Provides support for different cells, 2. ELASTIC
tissues and organs of the body. 3. RETICULAR
● Allows exchange of nutrients, oxygen, Collagen and Reticular are closely related since they
are both formed by proteins of the collagen family
and metabolic waste - gel-like
medium of the ground substance. Fibers are produced by the fibroblast in the connective
● Provide defense and protection tissue proper
against bacterial invasion. In connective COLLAGEN FIBERS
tissue, there are different type of immune cells Collagen: most abundant protein
that fight off these invaders ● Found in almost all the connective
COMPOSITION tissues of all organs
● Most abundant fiber in the
body
● Tough, thick, fibrous protein
that do not branch
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

● There are primarily 28 types of RETICULAR FIBERS

collagen in the body ● Type III collagen – thin
● Most frequently recognized in
histological slides:
● Form delicate netlike support
○ TYPE 1 – most framework
common, very strong ● Liver, lymph nodes, spleen
and offer great and hematopoietic organs/
tissue where blood and lymph are
resistance to tensile
filtered
strength; found in the ● Capillaries, nerves and muscle
dermis of the skin, tendons
ligaments, fibrocartilage,
cells.
bones, and the capsules of
organs
○ TYPE 2 – provides
resistance to pressure;
found in hyaline and elastic
cartilage
○ TYPE 3 – thin
branching reticular
fibers that form the
supporting network in
some organs; found in
lymph nodes, spleen, and The mechanical and physical properties of the
bone marrow connective tissue primarily depend on the mixture of
the fibers in the extracellular matrix into which particular
○ TYPE 4 – meshwork
is dominant.
in the basal lamina of
the basement For example, if the connective tissue is dominated by
membrane to which the elastic fibers, that tissue will have a characteristic of
basal regions of the cells being flexible, probably that function of tissue requires
attached with the ability to recoil.
hemidesmosomes
Another example, if a connective tissue is dominated
ELASTIC FIBERS
by collagen fibers, that will provide great resistance to
● Less tensile strength than pressure, tensile strength, pulling and tearing, so you
collagen fibers might find those tissues in the body wherein they
● Thin, small, branching fibers, require that such strength and support. Example,
consists of microfibrils and tendons and ligaments.
protein ELASTIN.
Thick: collagen fiber, does not branch
● Capable of stretching and
thin : elastic fiber, branching
recoiling to their original length. CELLS
● Abundant in the lungs, bladder There are plenty connective tissue cells and each
wall, skin, walls of aorta and serves a particular function:
pulmonary trunk. FIBROBLASTS
● Active cells
The amount and arrangement of these fibers depend ● Most common cell types
on the functions of the tissues and organs in which they
are found.
● Synthesize protein fibers and
extracellular matrix
For example: it is just right that the lung is dominant FIBROCYTES
with elastic fibers, the bladder wall has many elastic ● Mature form of fibroblast
fibers. Lungs expand during inhalation and exhalation.
● Inactive or resting fibroblasts
Bladder when filled with fluid, it expands. Aorta pumps,
constricts, and dilates. MAST CELLS
● Associated with blood vessels
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

● Widely distributed in Skin, digestive ● Cytoplasmic storage of lipids (stores

and respiratory organs lipid in cytoplasm)
● Localized release of many bioactive ● Production of heat
substances – local inflammatory
All in all, now that their compositions are known, you
response
can now classify them now according to their type
● Play an important role in the local
depending on the:
inflammatory response. They release many
bioactive substance such as heparin, Amount, type, arrangement and abundance
histamine, and serine proteases of cells, fibers, and ground substance.
PLASMA CELLS
● Lymphocyte –derived
● Originated from B lymphocytes particularly and
give rise to Antibody / immunoglobulins–
producing cells
● Widely distributed
● Loose connective tissue, lymphatic
Under connective tissue proper, you have loose and
tissue of the respiratory and digestive dense tissue that refers to the amount of collagen
tract present.
LEUKOCYTES
● AKA. WBC (white blood cells) Loose connective tissue is more prevalent in the body
compared to the dense connective tissue. It is
● Main function: Defend the organism described by a loose irregular arrangement of protein
against bacterial invasion or foreign fibers and plenty of ground substance.
matter.
In order to do this function, they have to migrate from Dense connective tissue contains thicker and densely
the circulation to the connective tissue and until? The packed collagen fibers with fewer cells and less ground
site of the infection substance.
● Lifespan: Few hours or days
After completion their task, they will undergo apoptosis LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
MACROPHAGE AREOLAR TISSUE
● AKA. HISTIOCYTES General Organization
● Histiocytes: phagocytic cells that ingest foreign ● Cells, fibers and ground substance –
substances or dead cells present at equal parts
● Derived from Monocytes ● Collagen fibers – predominates this
● They are called by different names depending
tissue
on where they are situated
● Other fibers also exist
● Phagocytic cells
● Fibroblasts - most abundant cells
● Second most numerous in loose
● Areolar connective tissue has a delicate
connective tissue
consistency and are Flexible
but not very
resistant to stress
1. Dust cells: If the macrophage is found in Function
the alveoli of the lungs
● Main function: Supports immune defense
2. Kupffer cells: if the macrophage is found
in the sinusoids of the liver
cells, microvasculature and nerves
3. Langerhans cells: if the macrophages Example
found in the epidermis of the skin ● Lamina propria beneath epithelial
4. Microglia: if the macrophage is found on a lining of digestive tract and even on the
tissue of the brain basement membrane
5. Monocytes: in circulating blood
6. Osteoclasts: if found in the bone
ADIPOSE CELLS
● AKA. FAT CELLS
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

TWO TYPES OF ADIPOSE TISSUE:

They differ based on location, structure, color, and
function
WHITE ADIPOSE
● More common type
● Widely distributed in the body compared to
brown adipose
● Generally function for Fat storage
● Triglycerides is the lipid stored
Equal parts of fibers, ground substance, and cells ● Insulation by forming fat pads around
different organs
RETICULAR TISSUE ● Unilocular which means that they contain
General Organization one large cytoplasmic droplet of whitish yellow
● Type III collagen (RETICULIN) fat

● Reticular cells BROWN ADIPOSE

● This reticulin is produced by fibroblasts called ● Limited distribution
reticular cells ● Cells – smaller
Function ● Multilocular (Store lipids in multiple small
● Provides a framework for cells in droplets)
hematopoietic tissue and some ● Supply heat through non-shivering
lymphoid organs. thermogenesis
Example ● Very abundant mitochondria
● Bone marrow
● Liver
● Pancreas
● Adrenal glands
● ALL lymphoid organs except thymus

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Less ground substance compared to loose connective
tissue
DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
General Organization
● Type I collagen fibers
● Arranged in Parallel that provides great
resistance
● Densely packed
ADIPOSE TISSUE ● Found in the body where great tensile strength
● Body weight of a man is approximately 15% is required
to 20% adipose tissue Function
● Unfortunately, it does a little bit more among ● Provide strong connections within the
women skeletal system.
● Fat storage ● Strong resistance to force.
● Fills spaces between other tissues
helping them to keep some organs in place
Example
● Cushion regions subject to repeated
● Ligaments
mechanical stress such as palms, heels,
● Tendons
and toe pads
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

● Aponeuroses HEMATOPOIETIC TISSUE

● Corneal stroma HEMATOPOIETIC TISSUE/ BLOOD
Tendons and ligaments are attached to the bones so TISSUE
they are always subjected to strong pulling forces. They Blood tissue is quite unique because the cells are
are packed with collagen fibers. suspended in a circulating fluid
● Circulating fluid
● Formed elements
○ RBC
○ WBC
○ Platelets
● Plasma
The formed elements are suspended in a liquid medium
called plasma

DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE

TISSUE
General Organization
● Type I collagen fibers
● No definite orientation – resistance to
stress from all direction
● Fibers are oriented randomly
Function ❏ Plasma (55%)
● Protects and supports organs ❏ White Blood Cells and Platelets (4%)
● Resists tearing ❏ Red Blood Cells (41%)
Example FUNCTION
● Dermis of skin ● Transport gases, nutrients, waste
● Organ capsules products, hormones, antibodies,
● Submucosa layer of digestive tract various chemicals, ions and other
substances to and from different cells,
tissues and organs
HEMATOPOIESIS
Since the blood cells have limited lifespan, they have to
be continuously replaced in a process called
hematopoiesis.

Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell production

that occurs in different sites of the body depending on
the stage of development of the individual.

● Yolk sac: hematopoiesis occurs here during

embryonic stage
● Red marrow: after birth it continues in the
red marrow of different bones
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

possible because of the protein

hemoglobin
● Lifespan: 120 days

It decreases in size as it matures and finally it is

extruded kaya siya matured non nucleated

If you see a nucleated RBC in the peripheral smear,

that is abnormal. Immature red blood cells should not
be in the circulation.

This is a schematic diagram illustrating the causes of

blood cell production.

The formed elements originate from a common stem

cell called MULTIPOTENTIAL HEMATOPOIETIC
STEM CELL. This stem cell produces two major cell
lines: the COMMON MYELOID PROGENITOR and the Microscopic image of red blood cells. They are
COMMON LYMPHOID PROGENITOR. anucleated, they have biconcave shape and they are
From the COMMON MYELOID PROGENITOR, arises the most numerous blood cells
the erythrocytes, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils WHITE BLOOD CELLS/ LEUKOCYTES
and monocytes and thrombocytes. ● Nucleated
● Divided into Granulocytes and
On the COMMON LYMPHOID PROGENITOR, they
Agranulocytes
also develop into bone marrow, some of the lymphoid
cells stays in the bone marrow, some they migrate in ● Main function: Defend the body
the spleen, lymph node, and thymus against invading foreign
microorganisms or material
Remember: before reaching maturation, all cell
● In order to perform this function, WBC
lineages undergo cell division. This process continues
in order to replace worn out cells.
migrate out of the blood vessel and go
into the site of infection and then they fight off
these invading microorganisms
FORMED ELEMENTS
GRANULOCYTES – NEUTROPHIL
● RBC
● Circulates in the blood vessels for 10 hours
● WBC divided into two based on the presence
● Migrate into the connective tissue and stays
of granules
there for 2 to 3 days
○
Granulocytes: Neutrophils,
● Phagocytes/ they are phagocytic cells
Eosinophils, and Basophils
which means that they engulf foreign
○ Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes microorganisms and then kills them
and Monocytes ● They are attracted to the site of infection
● PLATELETS because of the Chemotactic factors that
RED BLOOD CELL/ guides the neutrophils to go to the site of
infection
ERYTHROCYTES
● Once they reached the site of infection, they
● Most numerous will kill the invading microorganisms using the
blood cells Lysosomal enzymes found in their
● The mature RBCs granules
are said to be
non nucleated
● Main function:
Transport oxygen
and carbon
dioxide that is made
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC
Here is a picture of the neutrophil. It is bigger than red
blood cells, nucleated, and contains multiple lobe. This
is granulated, the granules of neutrophils are not as
visible, especially under a light microscope.
GRANULOCYTES – EOSINOPHIL
● 10 hours
● Stays longer in a connective tissue than
neutrophils for about 10 days
● Phagocytes / phagocytic cells
● Allergic responses
● Parasitic infection
They primary respond during allergic episodes and
parasitic infection
This is an example of eosinophil. The granules are
prominent compared to that of neutrophils
GRANULOCYTES – BASOPHIL
Their function is closely similar to that of mast cells
● Histamine
● Heparin
● Inflammatory responses
When basophils are exposed to allergens, they release
their granules containing histamine and heparine
Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F
This is an example of basophil. It contains blood??
Purple or blue granules that contains histamine and
heparine
AGRANULOCYTES – LYMPHOCYTE
● Life span variability from days to months
● Size variability (there are small and large
lymphocytes)
● Play an important role in Immunologic
defense
● B lymphocytes – plasma cells =
ANTIBODIES
For example:
B lymphocyte is a type of lymphocyte. It can develop
into a plasma cell and this plasma cell produces
antibodies that are specific to counteract certain
antigens
Here is a photo of a lymphocyte. The nucleus almost
occupies the entire cytoplasm
AGRANULOCYTES – MONOCYTE
● They can live in the circulation for 2 to 3
days
● Stay in the connective tissue for few months
● Precursor of mononuclear phagocyte
system
● After entering the connective tissue, they
become phagocytic cells/ Phagocytes
● Tissue macrophages
At the site of infection, they differentiate into
macrophages and destroy the invading agents
PLATELET/THROMBOCYTE
● Technically, they are NOT blood cells
● Membrane-bound cytoplasmic
fragments of MEGAKARYOCYTES.
They are cytoplasmic remnants of large cells called
megakaryocytes which is the largest cell in the bone
marrow
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

The first picture is the hematopoietic stem cell, 2nd is
the immature megakaryoblast, 3rd is the mature
megakaryocyte, 4th: the platelets are formed when
small portions of the cytoplasms separates from the
periphery of the megakaryocyte and then they are
released into the bloodstream or in the circulation.
● Promote blood clotting
● Repair minor tears in the blood vessel
wall
Like the RBCs, platelets perform their function inside
the blood vessels. They monitor the integrity of the
blood vessel wall and then detect any damage. If there
is any damage, they control the bleeding by promoting
blood clotting by adhering the damaged site.
As shown in the illustration, the first picture shows that
the blood vessel wall has an injury, the injury calls for
the platelet and the platelet will promote blood clotting
and the clot will be stabilized by a protein called Fibrin.
CARTILAGE
CARTILAGE
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
● Special form of supporting connective
tissue– rises from the mesenchymal cells
● Composed of extracellular matrix
(ECM) and cells
The only difference is that the extracellular matrix of the
cartilage contains:
○ High concentration of GAGs
and proteoglycans thus making
them suitable to their protective roles
within the adult’s skeleton
○ Most dominant cells:
Chondrocytes and
Chondroblasts
○ Lacunae
Chondrocytes are located within the lacunae and
they synthesize and maintains all the components
of ECM
● NO BLOOD SUPPLY – diffusion
In order to maintain the integrity of chondrocytes, the
nutrients are delivered to them by diffusion. They do not
have blood supply, they exhibit low metabolic activity
that lengthens the repair of cartilage whenever there
are injuries.
● NO NERVE SUPPLY
FUNCTION
● Provides firm structural support for
soft tissues.
● Allow flexibility without distortion and
is resilient to compression because of
the high water content of the cartilage
● Because of their lubricated surface, they
facilitate bone movement.
● Guides development and growth of
long bones both before and after birth

The proportion of protein fibers in the matrix

characterizes the cartilage into:
TYPES
● Hyaline
● Elastic
● Fibrocartilage
PERICHONDRIUM
● Special part of some cartilage
● Peripheral layer of vascularized,
dense, irregular connective tissue.
● Only found in Hyaline and elastic
cartilage
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

EXAMPLE
● External ear
● External acoustic meatus
● Auditory tube
● Epiglottis
● Other laryngeal cartilages

HYALINE CARTILAGE
GENERAL ORGANIZATION
● Most common of all the three types
● Temporary skeleton during embryonic
stage but eventually, this is your place by
bone in a process called endochondral
ossification
● GLASS LIKE/TRANSLUSCENT Mas madaming yung elastic fibers
FUNCTION
● Provides smooth, low friction FIBROCARTILAGE
surfaces in joints. GENERAL ORGANIZATION
● Provides structural support for the ● Remember: No perichondrium
respiratory tract. FUNCTION
EXAMPLE ● Provides cushioning, tensile strength,
● Articular ends and resistance to tearing and
● Epiphyseal plate of long bones compression
● Fetal skeleton EXAMPLE
● Many components of upper ● Intervertebral discs
respiratory tract ● Pubic symphysis
● Meniscus
● Insertion of tendons

ELASTIC CARTILAGE
GENERAL ORGANIZATION
● Abundant network of elastic fibers –
distributed unevenly
● More flexible
Almost similar to the hyaline cartilage except for the
abundance of elastic fibers which are distributed
unevenly. This network of elastic fibers renders the
elastic more flexible.
FUNCTION
● Provides flexible shape and support of
soft tissues
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

● Reservoirs for calcium and phosphate.

● About 99% of the calcium in the body is
stored in the bones
CELLS
There are basically four types of bone cells:
● Osteoprogenitor cells
● Osteoblasts
● Osteocytes
● Osteoclasts
Osteoprogenitor Cells
● Derived from the connective tissue
Mesenchyme
● They are undifferentiated Pluripotential
stem cells
● Found in Periosteum and in the single
layer of the internal endosteum
Periosteum and endosteum provides nutrition for the
bone
● Bone development – proliferate –
differentiate
During bone development, the osteoprogenitor cells
proliferate via mitosis and differentiate into cells that we
call osteoblast
This illustration shows the different location of cartilages.
Osteoblast
Blue: hyaline cartilage ● Surfaces of the bone
Red: fibrocartilage ● Derived from Osteoprogenitor cells
Purple: elastic cartilage ● Osteoid – organic components of the
The ear is flexible but provides support; it has elastic
new bone matrix
Their primary function is to synthesize, secrete, and
cartilage
deposit osteoid
Usually in the laboratory, the sample is from the trachea Osteocyte
if you want to see the hyaline cartilage ● Mature form of osteoblast
● Principal cells of the bone
Fibrocartilage can be found in the intervertebral discs ● Situated in a cave-like structure called
and pubic symphysis
Lacunae (1 Lacunae:1 Osteocyte)
● Since the bone matrix is highly calcified, you
OSSEOUS TISSUE cannot expect nutrients to diffuse within the
OSSEOUS TISSUE matrix just like with cartilage, that’s why they
OSTEO: Greek – osteon = bone are Highly vascular
A specialized type of connective tissue. ● Also contain tiny channels called Canaliculi
● Consists Cells, fibers, and ECM that serves as their nutrition system
● Its matrix is Calcified – hard and rigid The canaliculi together with the vascularization keeps
● That enables it to bear more weight compared or maintains osteocytes alive. Therefore the osteocytes
to other connective tissue types maintain the bone matrix and the blood concentration of
calcium and phosphate
FUNCTION
● Like the chondrocytes, the osteocytes are
● Protect some of the organs. trapped in the matrix formed by the osteoblast
○ Skull- Brain
○ Thorax- Heart and Lungs In bone tissue, one osteocyte per lacunae
○ Pelvic - Reproductive Organs
● Provide attachment sites for muscles
and organs.
● Site of blood production (Red Bone
Marrow)
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC
Osteoclast
When an osteocyte dies, they are reabsorbed by the
cells called osteoclast
● Originated from the Mononuclear
macrophage-monocyte cell line
● Primarily function is Bone resorption during
bone remodeling
● Found in tiny depressions called Howship
lacunae
BONE MATRIX
● Calcified or Mineralized
● Harder than the cartilage
● Highly vascularized
● The bones are surrounded by a dense
connective tissue called Periosteum
● Perforating canals (Volkmann canals)
The blood vessels from periosteum enters the
bone matrix via the perforating canals or the
Volkmann canal
● Primary consists of Organic and Inorganic
component
Inorganic
● Consists of minerals such as calcium and
phosphate
● They are present in the form of
Hydroxyapatite crystals
● Other inorganic components present in small
amounts are the Bicarbonate,
citrate,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium
ions
The mineral components of the bone render the bone
resistant to compression.
Organic
● 90% - primarily consists of Type I
collagen. Embedded in calcified
matrix
● Other organic components are:
○ Proteoglycans
○ Osteonectin
The organic components of the bone matrix enables the
bone to resist tension.
BONE FORMATION (Ossification)
● Endochondral
● Intramembranous
● Same histologic structure or
morphology
Begins at as early as embryonic stage either
endochondral and intramembranous ossification
Despite the difference in these two processes, the
resulting bones from either process exhibit the same
histologic structure or morphology
Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F
Endochondral
● “Within the cartilage”
● Takes place within the Hyaline cartilage
● Forms most of the bones
Hyaline cartilage serves as the skeleton during
embryonic stage and gradually it will be replaced by
bone is called endochondral ossification
Intramembranous
● The bones of the skull are produced
through this form of ossification
● Forms most of flat bones such as bones
in skull, jaws, scapula, and clavicle
● Mesenchyme – osteoblasts – osteoid
The osteoblasts arising directly from the mesenchyme
secrete the osteoid
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
First. You have the embryonic model made up of
hyaline cartilage. The ossification starts at bone color
produced by the osteoblast that differentiate within the
perichondrium. The color will prevent the diffusion of
nutrients within the cartilage, thereby, kapag wala ng
nutrients, the chondrocytes will start to swell up and
then the matrix will compress in shading calcification.
Since wala ng diffusion within the chondrocytes, they
will eventually die creating empty spaces within the
calcified matrix.
Next, the previously perichondrium will become
periosteum and then one or more blood vessels from
that periosteum will penetrate the bone colors., and
then, allowing the invasion of the osteoprogenitor cells,
thus producing the primary ossification center. This
primary ossification center begins in many embryonic
bones as early as the first trimester.
Take a look at the 4th bone, in here the bone will
undergo calcification into woven bone and remodeled
as a compact bone. The secondary ossification centers
will begin to develop in the epiphyses of the bone. This
time, this is around birth.
 MODULE 3: HUMAN HISTOLOGY LEC Histology Lecture
BSMT-2F

5th bone is around childhood. The primary and Compact Bone

secondary ossification becomes separated by the ● Aka. Cortical bone
epiphyseal plate.
● Represents at least 80% of the total bone
6th bone. When full stature is achieved, the plate will mass
disappear causing the merging of the two ossification ● Thick outer regions of bone
centers. Cancellous Bone
● Aka. Spongy, trabecular, medullary
Nice to know: the epiphyseal plate allows the growth in bone
length of the bone and then disappears upon
completion of the bone development probably at around
● 20% of the total bone mass
• So once the epiphyseal plate is closed, the growth ● Found in the deeper areas
in the bone also ceases or becomes impossible. ● Numerous interconnecting cavities
EPIPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATE ● Inner regions, adjacent to marrow
Has a distinct regions of cellular activity cavities
• Zone of reserve cartilage – or resting zone;
site where chondrocytes divide
• Proliferative zone – where we’ll see the
lengthening of cartilage model
• Zone of hypertrophy – mature chondrocytes
undergo hypertrophy, they contain vacuole
and continue to accumulate glycogen
• Zone of calcified cartilage – chondrocytes
start to degenerate and matrix between cells
becomes filled with hydroxy apatite
• Zone of Ossification – contains
differentiating osteoblast
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BONES
4 TYPES:
● Woven bone
● Lamellar bone
● Compact bone
● Cancellous bone
Woven Bone
● Aka. Immature, primary or bundle
bone
● First bone tissue to appear in embryonic
development and fracture repair
● Temporary
● Nonlamellar
● Characterized by the random
disposition
11 – Z Line
of Type I collagen fibers
12 – Myosin
● Has typically lower mineral content 13 – Actin
● Higher proportion of osteocytes 14 – A Band
Immature woven bone forms quickly but has less 15 – Sarcomere
strength
Major Location:
1. Developing or growing bones
2. Hard callus of bone fracture
Lamellar Bone
● Aka. Mature bone or secondary bone
● Made up of Lamellae of calcified matrix
● Compact or Cancellous known as
Lamellar Bone
Major location:
● All normal regions of adult bone
 HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4

MUSCLE TISSUE
● In all three types of muscles, contraction
INTRODUCTION is caused by the sliding interaction of
thick myosin filaments along thin actin
● The human body is a very mobile filaments.
machine.
● Its ability of locomotion enables it to Special terms used to refer to muscle cell
change position appropriately in organelles:
accordance with environmental stimuli. ● Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of muscle cells.
● It can transport various materials such as ● Sarcoplasmic reticulum – smooth
food, blood and waste products from endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells.
within for appropriate disposition. ● Sarcolemma – muscle cell membrane
● This mobility is provided by a special type and its external lamina.
of tissue – the muscle tissue.
● It is the fourth basic tissue type with
epithelia, connective and nervous tissue SKELETAL MUSCLES
● Muscle tissue are composed of cells
● Consists of muscle fibers – long, cylindrical
optimized for contraction.
multinucleated cells around 10-100
● Mesodermal in origin.
microns in diameter.
● Multinucleation results from the fusion of
Three types: (distinguished by morphologic and
embryonic mesenchymal cells called
functional characteristics, with a structure
myoblasts.
adapted to its physiologic role)
● Skeletal muscle - bundles of very long,
multinucleated cells with striations.
Voluntary, generates quick and forceful
contractions.
● Cardiac muscle - composed of
elongated, branched cells connected by
intercalated discs. Involuntary but
vigorous and rhythmic.
● Smooth muscle - collections of fusiform
cells or spindle-shaped cells, no striations,
slow and involuntary movements.

● For the medical application, the variation

in diameter of skeletal muscle fiber
depends on factors such as age, specific
muscle, sex,state of nutrition, and physical
traning of individual
● Exercise enlarges the musculature and
decreases fat deposits

1
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4

● Increase in muscle caused by formation

of new myofibrils and pronounced
growth in diameter of individual muscle
fiber
● Hypertrophy - increase in diameter of
muscle fiber or cell volume
● Hyperplasia - increase in the number of
cells
➔ Takes place more readily in
smooth muscle whose cells have
not loss the capacity to divide by
mitosis

SKELETAL MUSCLE ORGANIZATION

● Thin layers of connective tissue surround

and organize the contractile fibers in all
● Epimysium - outer layer with fascicles
three types of muscle but it is most
inside
prominent in skeletal muscles.
● Perimysium- covers the fascicles with
1. Epimysium – external sheath of
individual muscle fibers inside
dense irregular connective tissue,
● Endomysium - covers the individual
surrounds the entire muscle.
muscle fibers
2. Perimysium – thin layer of
connective tissue surrounding
each bundle of muscle fibers
called a fascicle.
3. Endomysium – surrounds the
external lamina of individual
muscle fibers. Contains Nerve
fibers and capillaries.
● Collagen in the connective tissue layers
serve to transmit the mechanical forces
generated by the contraction of muscle
fibers.
● These connective tissue layers, plus the ● All three of these tissues contain collagen
dense irregular connective tissue of the types I and III
deep fascia are continuous with the
tough connective tissue of a tendon at Organization Within Muscle Fibers
the myotendinous junction. ● Striations – appear in longitudinal sections
of skeletal muscle fibers. Light and dark
bands.

2
 HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
● Myofibrils – long cylindrical filaments
running parallel to the long axis of the
fiber.
● A bands – dark bands of the myofibrils.
● I bands – light bands
● Z disc – dark transverse line bisecting an I
band.
● Sarcomere – repetitive functional subunit
of the contractile apparatus, extends
from Z disc to Z disc.
Striated Skeletal Muscle in Longitudinal Section
Reveals striation which is a characteristics of
skeletal muscle
● 1st image - parts of three muscle fibers
separated by small amount of
endomysium
● 2nd image - higher magnification
showing striation slightly out of alignment
● 3rd image - shows more electron dense A
bands bisected by a narrow, less electron
dense region called the H zone and in
the I bands, the presence of sarcoplasm
with mitochondria
Organization Within Muscle Fibers
● The A and I banding pattern in the
sarcomeres result from the regular
arrangement of thick and thin
myofilaments.
● These myofilaments are composed of
myosin and F-actin.
● Myosin – large complex with two identical
heavy chains and two light chains.
● Myosin heavy chains – thin, rodlike motor
proteins twisted together as myosin tails.
● Myosin light chains – forms a head at one
end of each heavy chain, which binds
both actin and ATP.
● Actin filaments (F actin) – run between
the thick filaments. Comprises the thin
filaments, a polymer of globular actin
(G-actin).
➔ G-actin – contains a binding site
for myosin.
● Two regulatory proteins associated with
the thin filaments.
➔ Tropomyosin – 40nm-long coil of
two polypeptide chains located in
the groove between the two
twisted actin strands.
➔ Troponin – complex of three
subunits: TnT which attaches to the
tropomyosin, TnC which binds to
Ca2+, and TnI which regulates the
actin-myosin interaction.
● I bands consist of portions of the thin
filaments that do not overlap with the
thick filaments. You can see:
➔ Alpha-actinin – anchors actin
filaments to the z disc.
➔ Titin – supports myofilaments and
connects them to the Z disc.
➔ Nebulin – binds each thin
myofilament laterally, anchors
3
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
them to alpha-actinin and
specifies the length of the actin
polymers during embryogenesis.
● A bands contain both thick and thin
filaments.
➔ A lighter zone near the center (the
M line), the H zone contains only
myosin molecules.
● M line bisects the H zone, contains a
myosin-binding protein myomesin that
holds thick filaments in place, and
creatine kinase that helps regenerate ATP
during vigorous contraction.
Parts of Sarcomere
● Shows the molecules composing the thin
and thick filaments
● Contractile proteins within the myofibrils
➔ thick and thin filaments
● Thin filaments composed of:
➔ F-actin
➔ Tropomyosin-troponin complex
● Thick filaments consist of:
➔ Myosin heads
➔ Myosin heavy chain molecules
bundled together along their
Organization Within Muscle Fibers
rod-like tails with heads exposed
and directed toward neighboring
thin filaments
● Tropomyosin is located in the groove
between two twisted actin strands
● Troponin inhibits the actin-myosin
interaction
● Troponin complexes are attached at
specific sites at regular intervals along
tropomyosin molecule
● Myosin head
➔ actin-binding site
➔ ATP- and ATPase- binding site
● M line - cross connecting elements of
cytoskeleton located in the middle of
sarcomere
● H zone - thick filaments that has no actin
● Z disc - series of dark lines and acts as
anchors for actin filaments
● A band - composed of thick and thin
filaments
● I band - surrounds z disc; zone of thin
filaments not superimposed by thick
filaments
● Sarcoplasmic reticulum – modified
smooth ER containing Ca2+ pumps.
Release Ca2+ ions through its cisternae
4
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
upon stimulation by depolarization by a
motor nerve.
● Uniform contraction of all myofibrils is
facilitated by sarcolemmal infoldings
called transverse or t-tubules.
● Adjacent to each t-tubule are the
terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
➔ In longitudinal TEM sections, two
terminal cisternae sandwiching a
t-tubule is seen. This complex is
referred to as a triad.
MECHANISM OF CONTRACTION
● Muscle contraction depends on the
availability of calcium ions and muscle
relaxation is related to the absence of
calcium ions
● During muscle contraction, the thick and
thin filaments do not change their length.
● Contraction occurs as the result of the
overlapping of the thin and thick
filaments of each sarcomere as they slide
past one another resulting to a shorter
muscle length and the contraction
➔ Which is why muscle contraction is
also called as the sliding
mechanism theory
● Contraction is induced when an action
potential arrives at a synapse – the
neuromuscular junction.
● The impulse is transmitted via a
neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) to the
sarcolemma, where it generates local
potential then evolves into an action
potential.
● This action potential propagates along
the sarcolemma and into the t-tubules
and the terminal cisternae, triggering
calcium release.
● AT rest, the myosin heads cannot bind
actin because tropomyosin is blocking
the myosin-binding site at g-actin.
● Calcium ions uncovers the binding sites
by binding to troponin, causing
conformational change, moving
tropomyosin from the f-actin to expose
myosin-binding sites.
● Binding of the myosin head to f-actin
results in crossbridge formation, resulting
in a conformational change in myosin,
causing it to pivot, which pulls the thin
filaments farther into the A band.
● Energy for the myosin head pivot is
provided by hydrolysis of ATP, after which
myosin binds another ATP and detaches
from actin.
● In the continued presence of calcium
ions and ATP, this attach-pivot-detach
event occur in a repeating cycle, each
lasting 50ms, shortening the sarcomere.
● When the neural stimulation is withdrawn,
the wave of depolarization disappears
and Ca2+ is sequestered back to the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
● With decreasing sarcoplasmic calcium
ion levels, the tropomyosin is returned
back to its original position and covers
5
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
the myosin binding site, preventing further
contraction.
➔ Muscle contraction happens when the
synaptic knob releases ACh that will bind
to the ACh receptor.
➔ It will now produce muscle impulse that
will travel to t-tubules and will pass the
terminal cisternae connected to
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
➔ It will release calcium that will bind to
troponin, causing thin filament to
rearrange its position, exposing myosin
binding site.
➔ With the presence of ATP, myosin will go
to the contracted position to bind with
the exposed myosin binding site.
➔ The overall binding of myosin heads to
myosin binding site will cause sarcomere
shortening, causing the contraction.
➔ During muscle relaxation, calcium is
detached and will return to sarcomere.
➔ Thin filament will go to the original position
covering the myosin binding site.
➔ Myosin will then return back to its resting
position
● As you can see, sarcomere in contracted
shortened compared to relaxed
sarcomere
● The spaces within them is what changes
and not their length
Innervation
● Myelinated motor nerves branch out
within the perimysium, where each nerve
gives rise to several branches.
● Each axonal branch forms part of the
synapses termed the neuromuscular
junctions, or motor end plates (MEP).
● The axon terminal contains mitochondria
and numerous synaptic vesicles
containing acetylcholine.
● Between the axon and the muscle
sarcolemma is a space called the
synaptic cleft.
● The sarcolemma at the synaptic cleft
features numerous deep junctional folds
where acetylcholine receptor is located
● Acetylcholine release from the axon
terminal is triggered by a wave of nerve
action potential.
● It diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
binds to its receptors.
● Binding of acetylcholine to its receptors
causes opening of the associated cation
6
 HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
channels, allowing these ions to enter,
depolarizing the sarcolemma.
● The depolarization eventually generates
muscle action potential.
● The action of acetylcholine is terminated
by acetylcholinesterase.
● Autoimmune disorder
characterized by
progressive muscular
Myasthenia weakness caused by
gravis (MG) reduction in the number of
functional acetylcholine
receptors in the
sarcolemma of the
myoneural junction.
● It is caused by circulating
antibodies that bind to the
receptors in the junctional
folds and inhibit normal
nerve-muscle
communication.
● As the body attempts to
correct the condition, the
membrane segments with
affected receptors are
internalized, digested by
lysosomes, and replaced
by newly formed receptors.
These receptors, however,
are made unresponsive
again by the antibodies
and the disease follows its
progressive course
➔ Ach cannot bind to
receptor = no
muscle impulse = no
calcium released
from sarcoplasmic
reticulum = nothing
will bind to troponin
= myosin binding site
will not be exposed
= no cross bridge
formation cycle = no
shortening of
sarcomere = no
contraction
Feedback Mechanism of Skeletal Muscles – Role
of The Muscle Spindles and Tendon Organs.
● Muscle spindles – stretch detectors.
Senses changes in length and relays the
information to the spinal cord via the
afferent nerves.
● Golgi tendon organs – much smaller.
Detects changes in tension within
tendons. Inhibit motor nerve activity if
tension becomes excessive.
Feedback Mechanism of Skeletal Muscles – Role
of The Muscle Spindles and Tendon Organs.
● Muscle spindles – stretch detectors.
Senses changes in length and relays the
information to the spinal cord via the
afferent nerves.
● Golgi tendon organs – much smaller.
Detects changes in tension within
7
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4

tendons. Inhibit motor nerve activity if ➔ Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers

tension becomes excessive. (Type 2a)– many mitochondria
and much myoglobin with
considerable glycogen. Utilizes
both oxidative metabolism and
anaerobic glycolysis. Crossover
between the two types
(intermediate both in color and
metabolism). Adapted for rapid
contraction and short burst of
activity

SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES

● Classified into three types based on

physiological, biochemical, and
histochemical characteristics. All are
normally found throughout most muscles
● Different types of fibers can be identified
on the basis of (1) their maximal rate of
contraction (fast or slow fibers), and (2)
their major pathway for ATP synthesis
(oxidative or glycolytic).
➔ Slow oxidative fibers (Type 1) –
adapted for slow contractions
over long periods without fatigue, Nice to know (not part of exam)
many mitochondria and
surrounding capillaries and high
myoglobin content (red fibers).
➔ Fast glycolytic fibers (Type 2b) –
specialized for rapid, short-term
contraction, but they fatigue
quickly. Fewer mitochondria and
capillaries, lower myoglobin
content (white fibers) but
abundant on glycogen. Depend
largely on glycolysis for energy.
CARDIAC MUSCLES
Located in small muscles with a
relatively large number of ● Found in the myocardium of the heart.
neuromuscular junction

8
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
● Cells are 15-30 microns in diameter and
85-120 microns in length.
● Striated, uninuclear (mononucleated)
● Surrounded by a delicate sheath of
endomysium with a rich capillary network.
● A thicker perimysium separates bundles
and layers of muscle fibers. In specific
areas, it forms larger masses of fibrous
connective tissue comprising the cardiac
skeleton.
● Intercalated discs – represent interfaces
between adjacent cells, consisting of
many junctional complexes.
➔ Transverse regions consist of many
desmosomes and fascia adherens
junctions, providing strong
intercellular adhesions.
➔ At the longitudinal regions, gap
junctions provide ionic continuity
between the cells, promoting
rapid impulse conduction
simultaneously.
● Structure and function of the contractile
apparatus of the cardiac muscle cells are
essentially the same as in skeletal muscle.
● Mitochondria are numerous – occupy as
much as 40% of the cell volume.
● Cells also feature small lipid droplets and
glycogen granules for storing metabolic
fuels, as well as lipofuscin pigment
granules.
● Histologic features in the atria and
ventricles may vary.
● Muscle of the heart ventricles is much
thicker than that of the atria.
● T tubules are well-developed in the
ventricles than in the atria.
● Sarcoplasmic reticulum is less organized in
cardiac muscle compared to skeletal
muscle fibers.
➔ The junctions between the terminal
cisterns and t tubules typically
involve only one structure of each
type, forming dyads instead of
triads in TEM.
● Cardiac muscle fiber contraction is
intrinsic and spontaneous.
➔ Impulses for the rhythmic
contraction are initiated,
regulated, and coordinated
locally by nodes of modified
myocardial fibers specialized for
impulse generation and
conduction.
● Secretory granules can be found near
atrial muscle nuclei with small Golgi
complexes.
➔ Release peptide hormones such as
atrial natriuretic factor that acts on
the kidneys to influence Na+
excretion and water balance.
● A representation of cardiac muscle tissue
having fibers consists of separate cells
with an interdigitating process where they
are held together.
9
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4

● This region of contracts are called the ➔ Thick and thin filaments crisscross
intercalated discs and it crosses an entire the sarcoplasm obliquely.
fiber between two cells ➔ Less regular arrangement among
● Also shows gap junctions that forms thin filaments and fewer cross
electrical synapses, allowing contraction bridges than striated muscle.
signals to pass from cell to cell as a single ➔ Actin filaments are not associated
wave with troponin and tropomyosin,
● Desmosomes and other adherent instead calmodulin and
junctions hold the cells firmly together calcium-sensitive myosin
light-chain kinase (MLCK) produce
contraction.
SMOOTH MUSCLES ● The myofilaments are anchored at the
cytoplasmic and
● Smooth muscle is specialized for slow,
plasmalemma-associated dense bodies
steady contraction under the influence of
which contain alpha-actinin.
autonomic nerves and various hormones.
● Smooth muscle cells also have an
➔ Which is why its movement is
elaborate array of intermediate filaments
involuntary
composed of desmin, also attached to
● Major component of blood vessels and of
the dense bodies.
digestive, respiratory, urinary and
● The submembranous dense bodies
reproductive tracts and their associated
include cadherins of desmosomes linking
organs.
adjacent smooth muscle cells.
● Fibers are elongated, tapering and
● Dense bodies thus serves to transmit
unstriated.
contractile forces within the smooth
● Each of which is enclosed by a thin basal
muscle cell and also in between them.
lamina and fine networks of reticular
fibers
● Smooth muscle contraction is involuntary.
● Smooth muscle cell sizes ranges from 20
● Contraction is stimulated by autonomic
microns in small blood vessels to 500
nerves.
microns in the pregnant uterus.
➔ In the GI tract, contraction is
● Cells are linked by numerous gap
stimulated by paracrine secretions.
junctions.
➔ In the uterus, contraction is
stimulated by oxytocin from the
● Fibers have rudimentary sarcoplasmic
pituitary gland.
reticulum but lack t-tubules.
● In addition to contractile activity, smooth
● Plasmalemmal (cell membrane)
muscle cells also suplement fibroblast
invaginations called caveolae contain
activity, synthesizing collagen, elastin and
ion channels that control Ca2+ release
proteoglycans.
from the sarcoplasmic cisternae.
● Contractile activity is generated by
myofibrillar array of actin and myosin
organized differently from those of the
striated muscle cells.
10
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
● A representaion of smooth muscle tissue
from small intestine
● As you can see, you have your inner
circular and outer longitudinal
● This picture shows the presence of dense
bodies located at the cell membrane
and deep in the cytoplasm
● Serves as attachment for thin filament
● Also attachment for intermediate
filaments and for adhesive junctions
between the cells
● This arrangement allows the multicellular
tissue to contract as a unit providing
better efficient and force
MUSCLE REGENERATION
● The three types of muscle have different
potential for regeneration after injury
Skeletal ● Although nuclei can
muscle undergo mitosis, the tissue
can only undergo limited
regeneration
● The source of regenerating
cells are satellite cells
● Satellite cells are inactive,
persist after muscle
differentiation, and after
injury or other stimuli, this
normally quiescent cells
become active,
proliferating and fusing to
form new skeletal muscle
fibers
● displays limited
regenerative capacity,
after major muscle trauma
or degeneration, through
the sparse population of
mesenchymal satellite cells
lying in the external lamina
of each muscle fiber.
Cardiac ● Lacks satellite cells; thus
muscle has virtually no
regenerative capacity
beyond early childhood.
● very little regenerative
capacity beyond early
childhood. Any infarcted
cardiac muscle tissue is
replaced by fibroblast
proliferation and growth of
connective tissue forming
scar (myocardial scar)
Smooth ● Composed of simpler
muscle mononucleated cells
11
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4
● capable of more active
regenerative response.
● After injury, viable smooth
muscle cells undergo
mitosis and replace the
damaged tissue
● Pericytes from the walls of
blood vessels participate in
the repair of vascular
smooth muscle
12
HISTOLOGY LEC: MODULE 4

13
 Nervous Tissue ganglia and can be
Objectives formed part of the
• Review the structure of a neuron. autonomic nervous
• Enumerate and discuss the different types system (sympathetic
of neuroglia. and parasympathetic
• Discuss the histologic features of the ganglia).
following nervous tissue: cerebral • Sensory receptors and
cortex, cerebellar cortex, spinal cord, nerve endings
peripheral nerve and ganglia. o At the terminal
• Discuss the histologic features of the end of the nerves
supporting structures of the nervous Functional Divisions of the Nervous System
system: meninges and choroid plexus. • Under conscious voluntary
Introduction control, somatic sensory
Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System Somatic (receptors in the skin, pain,
Brain nervous temperature, proprioception,
o Which acts as the system stretch, pressure), and
command center of the somatic motor (sketal
entire nervous system muscles under voluntary
o Also responsible for control) innervation.
consciousness, • Efferent innervation to
memory, and allowing smooth muscle, cardiac
us to perceive whatever muscles and glands.
Central information is being sent • Divided into:
nervous from the sensory
system receptors. Autonomic Sympathetic Parasympa
Spinal cord nervous division thetic
o Connected to the brain system division
or the caudal end of the • Prepares the Allows the
brain is the spinal cord. body for fight- body to
o Consists of: neuronal or-flight conserve
fibers and going down • Prepares the energy (rest
and also going up. body for and digest).
o This serves as the emergencies
“information
superhighway.“ Afferent
• sensory
Peripheral nerve, which is innervation from viscera.
classified into: o Which connects to the
• Cranial and spinal efferent neurons and
nerves even in the higher
Peripheral o Cranial: have their centers going to the
nervous origins in the brain; brain
system then, they emerge to o Viscera: internal organs
innervate primarily the • Enteric division – network
structures of the head of neurons in the
and neck. gastrointestinal tract.
o Spinal: emerge from o Works independently of
the different segments the autonomic and
of the spinal cord to somatic nervous
innervate the rest of system. Controls the
the body. glands and the smooth
• Ganglia (neuronal cell muscles of the gut.
bodies) 2 Components of Nervous Tissue
o Are collections of • Functional unit of the
neuronal cell bodies Neuron nervous system
o Can be classified into: because they are the
sensory/dorsal root ones capable of
 transmitting impulse. neurons and glial cells.
• Consist of: cell body The Neuron
and processes Neuronal Structure
• Axon and dendrites • Neurons – the functional unit of the nervous
• Supporting cells system.
Neuroglia • They come in different • Consist of 3 major parts
forms
• contains the nucleus and
most of the cell’s
Soma organelles and serves as
or the synthetic or trophic
Perikaryon center for the entire neuron.
(Cell body)

• numerous short, small

processes extending from
Dendrites the soma and specialized to
receive stimuli from other
neurons.
o at unique sites called
synapses.
** encircled is neuron; they are very big
compared to neuroglia • single long process ending
** neurons: larger ; quiet easy to identify in at synapses specialized to
sections Axon generate and conduct
** neuroglia: smaller but more numerous (Gr. axon, nerve impulses to other
axis) cells (nerve, muscle, and
gland cells).
• Axons may also receive
information from other
neurons, information that
mainly modifies the
transmission of action
potentials to those neurons.
Additional info in ppt:

The functional unit in both the CNS and PNS is the neuron.
Some neuronal components have special names, such as
“neurolemma” for the cell membrane. Most neurons have
three main parts (Figure 9–3):
Additional ppt info notes:

(a) Most neuronal cell bodies (N) in the CNS are

larger than the much more numerous glial cells
(G) that surround them. The various types of glial
cells and their relationships with neurons are
difficult to distinguish by most routine light
microscopic methods. However, oligodendrocytes
have condensed, rounded nuclei and unstained
cytoplasm due to very abundant Golgi complexes,
which stain poorly and are very likely represented
by the cells with those properties seen here. The
other glial cells seen here similar in overall size,
but with very little cytoplasm and more elongated
or oval nuclei, are mostly astrocytes. Routine H&E
staining does not allow neuropil to stand out well.
(X200; H&E)
(b) With the use of gold staining for neurofibrils,
neuropil (Np) is more apparent. (X200; Gold
chloride and hematoxylin) (for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 164)
Neuropil – network of fine cellular processes emerging from
** the trophic center of the neuron is where you
will find the nucleus; it is where the important
cellular components of the neuron that will
sustain these processes are produced
** if you cut off a process from the nucleus, what
will happen is, the part that was cut off will
disintegrate because it already lost its
connection from the neuron.
** dendrites (projecting from the nucleus),
usually receive the information from other
neurons or from sensory receptors; they are
shorter compared to axon
** axon is one long process responsible for
transmitting the neuronal impulse from one
neuron to another
** at the terminal end of the axon, you will find
axon terminals or “terminal buttons or
synaptic knob” that will form component of
synapse — which are connections with another
neuron or an effector organ.
Additional ppt info notes:
Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)
• The neuronal cell body contains the nucleus and
surrounding cytoplasm, exclusive of the cell
processes. It acts as a trophic center, producing
most cytoplasm for the processes. Most cell
bodies are in contact with a great number of nerve
endings conveying excitatory or inhibitory stimuli
generated in other neurons. A typical neuron has
an unusually large, euchromatic nucleus with a
prominent nucleolus, indicating intense synthetic
activity.
• Cytoplasm of perikarya often contains numerous
free polyribosomes and highly developed RER,
indicating active production of both cytoskeletal
proteins and proteins for transport and secretion.
• Histologically these regions with concentrated
RER and other polysomes are basophilic and are
distinguished as chromatophilic substance (or
Nissl substance, Nissl bodies).
• The amount of this material varies with the type
and functional state of the neuron and is
particularly abundant in large nerve cells such as
motor neurons. The Golgi apparatus is located
only in the cell body, but mitochondria can be
found throughout the cell and are usually
abundant in the axon terminals.
• In both perikarya and processes microtubules,
actin filaments, and intermediate filaments are
abundant, with the latter formed by unique protein
subunits and called neurofilaments in this cell
type. Cross-linked with certain fixatives and
impregnated with silver stains, neurofilaments are
also referred to as neurofibrils by light
microscopists. Some nerve cell bodies also
contain inclusions of pigmented material, such as
lipofuscin, consisting of residual bodies left from
lysosomal digestion.
Dendrites
• Dendrites (Gr. dendron, tree) are typically short,
small processes emerging and branching of the
soma. Usually covered with many synapses,
dendrites are the principal signal reception and
processing sites on neurons. The large number
and extensive arborization of dendrites allow a
single neuron to receive and integrate signals from
many other nerve cells. For example, up to
200,000 axonal endings can make functional
contact with the dendrites of a single large
Purkinje cell of the cerebellum.
• Unlike axons, which maintain a nearly constant
diameter, dendrites become much thinner as they
branch, with cytoskeletal elements predominating
in these distal regions. In the CNS most synapses
on dendrites occur on dendritic spines, which are
dynamic membrane protrusions along the small
dendritic branches, visualized with silver staining
and studied by confocal or electron microscopy.
• Dendritic spines serve as the initial processing
sites for synaptic signals and occur in vast
numbers, estimated to be on the order of 1014 for
cells of the human cerebral cortex.
• Dendritic spine morphology depends on actin
filaments and changes continuously as synaptic
connections on neurons are modified. Changes in
dendritic spines are of key importance in the
constant changes of the neural plasticity that
occurs during embryonic brain development and
underlies adaptation, learning, and memory
postnatally.
Axons
• Most neurons have only one axon, typically longer
than its dendrites. Axonal processes vary in length
and diameter according to the type of neuron.
Axons of the motor neurons that innervate the foot
muscles have lengths of nearly a meter; large cell
bodies are required to maintain these axons,
which contain most of such neurons’ cytoplasm.
The plasma membrane of the axon is often called
the axolemma and its contents are known as
axoplasm.
• Axons originate from a pyramid-shaped region of
the perikaryon called the axon hillock, just
beyond which the axolemma has concentrated ion
channels which generate the action potential. At
this initial segment of the axon the various
excitatory and inhibitory stimuli impinging on the
neuron are algebraically summed, resulting in the
decision to propagate—or not to propagate—a
nerve impulse.
• Axons generally branch less profusely than
dendrites, but do undergo terminal arborization.
Axons of interneurons and some motor neurons
also have major branches called collaterals that
end at smaller branches with synapses influencing
the activity of many other neurons. Each small
axonal branch ends with a dilation called a
terminal bouton (Fr. bouton, button) that contacts
another neuron or non-nerve cell at a synapse to
initiate an impulse in that cell.
• Axoplasm contains mitochondria, microtubules,
neurofilaments, and transport vesicles, but very
few polyribosomes or cisternae of RER, features
which emphasize the dependence of axoplasm on
the perikaryon. If an axon is severed from its cell
body its distal part quickly degenerates and
undergoes phagocytosis.
• Lively bidirectional transport of molecules large
and small occurs within axons. Organelles and
macromolecules synthesized in the cell body
move by anterograde transport along axonal
microtubules via kinesin from the perikaryon to
 the synaptic terminals.
• Retrograde transport in the opposite direction
along microtubules via dynein carries certain
other macromolecules, such as material taken up
by endocytosis (including viruses and toxins), from
the periphery to the cell body. Retrograde
transport can be used to study the pathways of
neurons: if peroxidase or another marker is
injected into regions with axon terminals, its later
distribution throughout the neurons serving such
regions can be determined histochemically.
• Anterograde and retrograde transports both occur
fairly rapidly, at rates of 50-400 mm/d. A much
slower anterograde stream, moving only a few
millimeters per day, involves movement of the
axonal cytoskeleton itself. This slow axonal
transport corresponds roughly to the rate of axon
growth.
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 107)
** Fig. 1 is an image of neuron coming from
spinal cord. The cell body features highly
basophilic material which consists of mainly:
ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and
RNA.
** NS (Nissl substance)
** The nucleus is lightly stained at the periphery
but at the center, it is very dark. This dark center
is the nucleolus, which is eccentrically placed.
** This appearance of the nuclei of the neuron is
quiet prominent, referred to as “fish-eyed
nucleus”
** Near this neuron, since this is in the spinal
cord, you would see bundles of myelinated
axons in the form of white matter (Fig 2)
Additional ppt info notes:
Structure of a Neuron
• The neuron is a highly polarized cell that consists of a
soma, or cell body, from which cytoplasmic processes
arise. The processes, known as nerve fibers, vary
greatly in size, some being up to 1.5 m long.
• Processes conducting impulses toward cell bodies are
dendrites, whereas a single process conveying
impulses away from cell bodies is an axon. The soma
consists of a nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm,
known as the perikaryon.
• Soma sizes, which depend on cell type and function,
vary from 5 to 150 mm. Anterior motor neurons of the
spinal cord are among the largest in the CNS, whereas
granule cells in the cerebellar cortex are among the
smallest.
• Irregularly shaped masses of basophilic material known
as Nissl substance are scattered in the cytoplasm of
the body and the dendrites.
• Neurons are classified into three types on the basis of
the number of processes.
o Multipolar neurons are the most common and
characteristic and have one axon and several
dendrites.
o Bipolar neurons have two processes, an axon
and a dendrite, and are found in the visual,
auditory, and olfactory systems.
o Pseudounipolar neurons have one short
process, which bifurcates into an axon and a
dendrite.
Neuronal Structure
 sites where nerve impulses
are transmitted from one
neuron to another, or from
one neuron to an effector
Synapses cell.
• Composed of the following:
o Presynaptic axon
terminal
o Postsynaptic cell
membrane
o Synaptic cleft
(for clearer picture, you may refer to
Junqueira’s, page 167)
** this is where the impulses;
neurons communicate with each
other.
** how do they communicate?
The nerve impulse will simply
stimulate the release of a
neurotransmitter. Once
released, the neurotransmitter
will diffuse to the receptors
where they will bind and trigger
a change in membrane potential
which can develop into another
action potential, nerve impulse if
the quantity of neurotransmitters
is great enough.
Additional ppt info notes:
A. Diagram showing a synapse
releasing neurotransmitters by
exocytosis from the terminal bouton.
Presynaptic terminals always
contain a large number of synaptic
vesicles containing
neurotransmitters, numerous
mitochondria, and smooth ER as a
source of new membrane. Some
neurotransmitters are synthesized in
the cell body and then transported
in vesicles to the presynaptic
terminal. Upon arrival of a nerve
impulse, voltage-regulated Ca2+
channels permit Ca2+ entry, which
triggers neurotransmitter release
into the synaptic cleft. Excess
membrane accumulating at the
presynaptic region as a result of
exocytosis is recycled by clathrin
mediated endocytosis, which is not
depicted here.
B. The TEM shows a large presynaptic
terminal (T1) filled with synaptic
vesicles and asymmetric electron-
dense regions around 20- to 30-nm-
wide synaptic clefts (arrows). The
postsynaptic membrane contains
the neurotransmitter receptors and
mechanisms to initiate an impulse at
the postsynaptic neuron. The
postsynaptic membrane on the right
is part of a dendrite (D), associated
with fewer vesicles of any kind,
showing this to be an axodendritic
synapse. On the left is another
presynaptic terminal (T2),
suggesting an axoaxonic synapse
with a role in modulating activity of
the other terminal. (X35,000)
**********************************************
Synaptic Communication
 Synapses (Gr. synapsis, union) are
sites where nerve impulses are
transmitted from one neuron to
another, or from neurons and other
effector cells.
 The structure of a synapse ensures
that transmission is unidirectional.
Synapses convert an electrical
signal (nerve impulse) from the
presynaptic cell into a chemical
signal that affects the postsynaptic
cell. Most synapses act by
releasing neurotransmitters, which
are usually small molecules that
bind specific receptor proteins to
either open or close ion channels or
initiate second messenger
cascades. A synapse has the
following components:
o The presynaptic axon
terminal (terminal bouton)
contains mitochondria and
numerous synaptic vesicles
from which neurotransmitter is
released by exocytosis.
o The postsynaptic cell
membrane contains receptors
for the neurotransmitter, and
ion channels or other
mechanisms to initiate a new
impulse.
o A 20- to 30-nm-wide
intercellular space called the
synaptic cleft separates
these presynaptic and
postsynaptic membranes.
 At the presynaptic region the nerve
impulse briefly opens calcium
channels, promoting a Ca2+ influx
that triggers neurotransmitter
release by exocytosis or similar
mechanisms.
 Immediately the released
neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
across the synaptic cleft and bind
receptors at the postsynaptic region.
This produces either an excitatory
or an inhibitory effect at the
postsynaptic membrane, as follows:
o Neurotransmitters from
excitatory synapses cause
postsynaptic Na+ channels to
open, and the resulting Na+
influx initiates a depolarization
wave in the postsynaptic
neuron or effector cell as just
described.
o At inhibitory synapses
neurotransmitters open Cl- or
other anion channels, causing
influx of anions and
hyperpolarization of the
postsynaptic cell, making its
membrane potential more
negative and more resistant to
depolarization.
 Interplay between excitatory and
inhibitory effects on postsynaptic
cells allows synapses to process
neuronal input and fine-tune the
reaction of the effector cell.
 Impulses passing from presynaptic
neurons to postsynaptic cells are
usually modified at the synapse by
similar connections there with other
 neurons. The response in narrow synaptic cleft 12-30 nm
postsynaptic neurons is determined wide.
by the summation of activity at  Clusters of large numbers of
hundreds of synapses on that cell. synaptic vesicles in the
Three common morphological types presynaptic terminal contain
of synapses occur between neurons neurotransmitter that is released by
of the CNS and are shown in Figure exocytosis to mediate synaptic
9–7. transmission.
 By electron microscopy, synaptic
 The chemical transmitter used at vesicles are 4060 nm in diameter
neuromuscular junctions and some and are membrane-bound. Whether
synapses of the CNS is they have a clear center or an
acetylcholine. electron-dense core depends on the
 Within the CNS other major chemical nature of the
categories of neurotransmitters neurotransmitter.
include:  Pre- and postsynaptic membrane
o Certain amino acids (often specializations contain electron-
modified), such as glutamate dense material that extends into
and γ-aminobutyrate (GABA) underlying cytoplasm and is usually
o Monoamines, such as thicker in the postsynaptic area.
serotonin (5-  An action potential causes
hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) presynaptic vesicles to fuse with the
and catecholamines, such as presynaptic membrane and
dopamine, all of which are discharge neurotransmitter into the
synthesized from amino acids synaptic cleft.
o Small polypeptides, such as  Neurotransmitter then diffuses
endorphins and substance P. across the cleft to interact with
receptor molecules on the
 Diferent receptors and second postsynaptic membrane, which
messenger systems often occur for changes postsynaptic membrane
the same transmitter, greatly conductance.
multiplying the possible efects of
these molecules.  Mitochondria, sacs of smooth
 After their release transmitters are endoplasmic reticulum,
removed quickly by enzymatic microtubules, and neurofilaments
breakdown, by glial activity, or by are also seen in axon terminals.
endocytotic recycling involving Types of synapses
presynaptic membrane receptors.

Axosomatic
synapse

(for clearer picture, you may refer to

Netter’s, page 111)

Additional ppt info notes:  Axon synapsing with

neuronal cell body
Ultrastructure of Synapses  Less frequent
 A typical synapse in the CNS
consists of three major components:
o presynaptic terminal
o synaptic cleft
o postsynaptic membrane
 The presynaptic terminal aligns
closely with the postsynaptic
membrane of the target cell. In the
area of membrane apposition,
presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes are separated by a
  The diagrams show three common morphologic types of
synapses. Branched axon terminals usually associate
with and transmit a nerve impulse to another neuron’s
cell body (or soma) or a dendritic spine. These types of
connections are termed an axosomatic synapse and an
axodendritic synapse, respectively.
 Less frequently, an axon terminal forms a synapse with
an axon terminal of another neuron; such an axoaxonic
synapse functions to modulate synaptic activity in the
Axodendritic other two types.
synapse  All three morphologic types of synapses have the
features of all true synapses:
o a presynaptic axon terminal that releases a
transmitter;
o a postsynaptic cell membrane with receptors for the
transmitter; and
o an intervening synaptic cleft.
 Most commonly depicted  Synaptic structure usually cannot be resolved by light
microscopy, although components such as dendritic
type of axon spines may be shown with special techniques (Figure 9–
 An axon synapsing with a 5).
dendritic spine Classifications of Neurons
(additional ppt info notes)

Neurons and their processes are extremely variable in size

and shape. Cell bodies can be very large, measuring up to
150 μm in diameter. Other neurons, such as the cerebellar
granule cells, are among the body’s smallest cells
 According to number of processes
Multipolar which have one axon and two
Axoaxonic neurons or more dendrites, most
synapse common.

 Axon synapsing with

other axon
 Very rare  E.g. motor neurons in the
 Usually functions to cerebral cortext
modulate the activity of with one dendrite and one
the other axon axon.
o comprise the sensory neurons
of the retina, cochlea, the
olfactory epithelium, and the
Bipolar inner ear. (ppt info notes)
neurons

 Usually innervate special

senses
single process that bifurcates
close to the soma, with the
longer branch extending to a
peripheral ending and the other
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 169)
toward the CNS.
o which include all other
Additional ppt info notes:
sensory neurons. (ppt info
 Unipolar or notes) muscle, glands).
pseudounipo integrate other neurons in

lar neurons the brain and spinal cord.
 establish relationships
among other neurons,
Interneurons forming complex functional
networks or circuits in the
 But short branch CNS.
connected to cell body  Interneurons are either
 Usually innervate somatic multipolar or anaxonic and
sensory receptors (pain, comprise 99% of all
touch, proprioception, etc.) neurons in adults.
with many dendrites but with no Neuroglia
true axons. • Supporting cells of the nervous system.
o do not produce action
potentials, but regulate • More numerous than neurons (10:1)
electrical changes of adjacent • Classified according to morphology.
CNS neurons. (ppt info
notes) (additional ppt info notes)

GLIAL CELLS & NEURONAL ACTIVITY

Anaxonic
neurons
 Modulates activity of the
other neurons.
 According to function
 Somatic afferent neuron
o Afferent: receiving
Sensory stimuli from receptors
throughout the body.
o touch, temperature,
pain, pressure,
proprioception – from
periphery.
 Somatic (voluntary)
efferent neurons
o Efferent: sending
impulses to effector
organs such as muscle
fibers and glands
Motor o innervate skeletal
muscles.
 Glial cells support neuronal survival and activities,
and are ten times more abundant than neurons in the
mammalian brain.
 Like neurons most glial cells develop from progenitor
cells of the embryonic neural plate. In the CNS glial
cells surround both the neuronal cell bodies, which are
often larger than the glial cells, and the processes of
axons and dendrites occupying the spaces between
neurons.
 Except around the larger blood vessels, the CNS has
only a very small amount of connective tissue and
collagen. Glial cells substitute for cells of connective
tissue in some respects, supporting neurons and
creating immediately around those cells
microenvironments that are optimal for neuronal
activity.
 The fibrous intercellular network of CNS tissue
superficially resembles collagen by light microscopy,
but is actually the network of fine cellular processes
emerging from neurons and glial cells. Such
processes are collectively called the neuropil.
 There are six major kinds of glial cells, as shown
schematically in Figure 9–9, four in the CNS, two in
the PNS. Their main functions, locations, and origins
are summarized in Table 9–2.
There are four major kinds of glial cells in the
CNS: oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
ependymal cells, and microglial cells. The
interrelationships and major functions of these
cells are shown diagrammatically here.

 Autonomic (visceral)
efferent neurons
o control the involuntary
or unconscious
activities
o innervate most smooth
muscles, cardiac
 Two glial cells occur in the PNS: Schwann
cells (sometimes called neurolemmocytes),
which surround peripheral nerve fibers, and
satellite cells, which surround the nerve cell
bodies and are thus found only in ganglia. Major
functions of these cells are indicated.

(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 172)

(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 172)

** astrocytes are the main cells that provides

structural support and organization to CNS ** ganglion cells

** cuboidal-like cells that line the fluid-filled

spaces
** common name: Schwann cell
Astrocytes

(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 173)

** Astrocytes appear like a “star” ; most
abundant glial cells of the CNS
** (a) Fibrous astrocyte (relatively few
processes) and protoplasmic astrocyte
(numerous branches)
** (b) astrocyte stained with immunostaining
technique targets a specific protein in the
astrocytic processes. This protein will help to
distinguish that the cells are astrocytic.
o protein: glial fibrillary acid protein
(GFAP) or glial fibrillary astrocytic
protein (GFAP)
(accdg to Junqueira book, pg 168, yung acid hehe
di ko naintindihan sinabi ni doc [astrocytic ??] :<<)
** GFAP serves as a unique marker for this glial
cell.
o For example, there is tumor in brain,
they would know that the cells of the
tumor originate from the astrocyte by
staining it with antibody/immunostaining
for GFAP
(additional ppt info notes)
 (a) Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells of
the CNS and are characterized by numerous
cytoplasmic processes (P) radiating from the glial cell
body or soma (S).
 Astrocytic processes are not seen with routine light
microscope staining but are easily seen after gold
staining.
 Morphology of the processes allows astrocytes to
be classified as fibrous (relatively few and straight
processes) or protoplasmic (numerous branching
processes), but functional differences between these
types are not clear. X500. Gold chloride.
 (b) All astrocytic processes contain intermediate
filamentsof GFAP, and antibodies against this protein
provide a simple method to stain these cells, as seen
here in a fibrous astrocyte (A) and its processes.
 The small pieces of other GFAP-positive processes in
the neuropil around this cell give an idea of the density
of this glial cell and its processes in the CNS.
 Astrocytes are an important part of the blood-brain
barrier (BBB), regulating entry of molecules and ions
from blood into CNS tissue. Capillaries at the extreme
upper right and lower left corners are enclosed by
GFAP-positive perivascular feet (PF) at the ends of
numerous astrocytic processes. X500.
 Anti-GFAP immunoperoxidase and hematoxylin
counterstain. (c) A length of capillary (C) is shown here
completely covered by silver-stained terminal processes
extending from astrocytes (A). X400. Rio Hortega silver.
*****************************************************************
Astrocytes
 Also unique to the CNS astrocytes (Gr. astro-, star +
kytos) have a large number of long radiating, branching
processes.
 Proximal regions of the astrocytic processes are
reinforced with bundles of intermediate filaments made
of glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP), which serves as a
unique marker for this glial cell.
 Distally the processes lack GFAP, are not readily seen
by microscopy, and form a vast network of delicate
terminals contacting synapses and other structures.
 Terminal processes of a single astrocyte typically
occupy a large volume and associate with over a million
synaptic sites.
 Astrocytes originate from progenitor cells in the
embryonic neural tube and are by far the most
numerous glial cells of the brain, as well as the most
diverse structurally and functionally.
 Fibrous astrocytes, with long delicate processes, are
abundant in white matter; those with many shorter
processes are called protoplasmic astrocytes and
predominate in the gray matter. The highly variable and
dynamic processes mediate most of these cells’ many
functions.
Functions attributed to astrocytes of various CNS regions
include the following:
o Extending processes that with expanded
perivascular feet associate with or cover
synapses, affecting the formation, function, and
plasticity of these structures.
o Regulating the extracellular ionic concentrations
around neurons, with particular importance in
buffering extracellular K+ levels.
o Guiding and physically supporting movements and
locations of differentiating neurons during CNS
development.
o Forming a barrier layer of expanded protoplasmic
processes, called the glial limiting membrane,
which lines meninges at the external CNS surface.
o Filling tissue defects after CNS injury by
proliferation to form an astrocytic scar.
Finally, astrocytes communicate directly with one another via
gap junctions, forming a very large cellular network for the
coordinated regulation of their various activities in different
brain regions.
Clinical Notes
Most brain tumors are astrocytomas derived from fibrous
astrocytes. These are distinguished pathologically by their
expression of GFAP.
** Functions of astrocytes:
 Provide support to the neuronal
tissue/neurons structure
 Regulate the substances coming to and
from the neural tissue; forming “Blood
Brain Barrier (BBB)”
o Astrocytic foot processes will
surround the capillaries
o To avoid giving access to
obnoxious substances and
pathogens to the CNS tissues,
BBB regulates the passage,
entry, and exit of materials.

(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 114)
 Components of BBB:
o Astrocytic foot processes
o Basement Membrane
o Capillary endothelial cells
connected with;
o Tight junctions
(additional ppt info notes) but this was skipped on the video
discussion
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 112)
Structure and Function of Glial Cells
 Glial cells outnumber neurons by at least 10:1 and make
up more than 50% of the total volume of the brain and
spinal cord. Their existence has been known for more
than 100 years.
 They are ubiquitous but are not easily detected by
conventional stains; special, improved techniques are
required to reveal them. The four types of cells bear
descriptive names: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes,
ependymal cells, and microglial cells.
 Except for microglia, which originate from blood
monocytes, glial cells are derived from neural ectoderm.
Smaller than neurons, with cell bodies 3-10 mm in
diameter, these nonconducting cells of the CNS have
diverse structural, protective, and nutritive roles, as they
ensure an interstitial milieu compatible for neuronal
function.
 Astrocytes, the most abundant glial cell, are stellate
cells with various critical functions in the CNS, such as
maintaining homeostasis.
 Their delicate processes terminate either on surfaces of
the brain and spinal cord or on walls of blood vessels.
 Main functions of oligodendrocytes are to provide
support to nerve fibers and produce myelin sheaths that
insulate them.
 Ependymal cells are remnants of embryonic
neuroepithelium and form a closely packed cuboidal or
columnar epithelium lining the ventricles of the brain and
central canal of the spinal cord.
 Microglia, as their name implies, are the smallest glial
cell. They act as phagocytes and remove CNS debris,
protect the brain from invading microorganisms, and
constitute the brain’s immune system.
 Unlike neurons, glia retain a postnatal ability to divide
and are the source of most intracranial tumors, known
as gliomas.
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 113)
Ultrastructure of the Blood-Brain Barrier
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 115)
(additional ppt info notes)
 The BBB restricts passage of large molecules from the
capillary lumen to the surrounding tissue, but it allows
free passage of gases and selected molecules such as
glucose.
 The barrier protects neurons in the CNS from toxins,
drugs, and other potentially harmful substances that
may be in the bloodstream.
 Most antibiotics such as penicillin do not cross the
barrier in sufficient quantities because of their large
molecular size and low degree of lipid solubility.
 A few brain regions—pineal gland, posterior pituitary,
and parts of the hypothalamus—lack this barrier and
contain capillaries that are highly permeable and
 fenestrated.
Microglia
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 174)
** of all the cells in CNS, this is the one that is
not native to the CNS; the cells here do not
originate from the neuroectoderm and instead,
they arise from the mesoderm.
** originate in the bone marrow, developed into
monocyte in the blood, and then they migrate
out and move to the CNS tissue, where they
become microglial.
** functions for immunologic defense,
immunologic surveillance in the CNS; they
phagocytose pathogens and other substances.
(additional ppt info notes)
Microglia
 Microglia are monocyte-derived, antigen-presenting
cells of the CNS, less numerous than astrocytes but
nearly as common as neurons and evenly distributed
in both gray and white matter.
 By immunohistochemistry, here using a monoclonal
antibody against human leukocyte antigens (HLA) of
immune-related cells, the short branching processes
of microglia can be seen. Routine staining
demonstrates only the small dark nuclei of the cells.
 Unlike other glia of the CNS, microglia are not
interconnected; they are motile cells, constantly used
in immune surveillance of CNS tissues.
 When activated by products of cell damage or by
invading microorganisms, the cells retract their
processes, begin phagocytosing the damage- or
danger-related material, and behave as antigen
presenting cells. X500. Antibody against HLA-DR and
peroxidase.
*****************************************************
 Less numerous than oligodendrocytes or astrocytes
but nearly as common as neurons in some CNS
regions, microglia are small cells with actively mobile
processes evenly distributed throughout gray and
white matter.
 Unlike other glial cells microglia migrate, with their
processes scanning the neuropil and removing
damaged or effete synapses or other fibrous
components.
 Microglial cells also constitute the major mechanism of
immune defense in the CNS, removing any microbial
invaders and secreting a number of immunoregulatory
cytokines.
 Microglia do not originate from neural progenitor cells
like other glia, but from circulating blood monocytes,
belonging to the same family as macrophages and
other antigen-presenting cells.
Oligodendrocytes
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 117)
** Each of the processes will wrap around
repeatedly around a portion of a nearby CNS
axon.
** During this wrapping, most of the cytoplasm,
gradually moves out of the growing extension
leaving multiple compacted layers of cell
membrane called myelin.
** The resulting myelin sheath electrically
insulates the axon and facilitates rapid
transmission of nerve impulses.
** Found only in the CNS oligodendrocytes are
the predominant glial cells in white matter
o White matter: because of the lipid
concentrated in the wrapped membrane
sheaths.
** The processes and sheaths are not visible by
routine light microscope staining, in which
oligodendrocytes usually appear as small cells
with rounded, condensed nuclei and unstained
cytoplasm
(additional ppt info notes)
Oligodendrocytes
 An axon’s full length is covered by the action of many
oligodendrocytes.
Ependymal Cells
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 174)
** Ependymal cells are epithelial-like cells that
form a single layer lining the fluid-filled ventricles
and central canal of the CNS.
** Helps circulate and monitor CSF content. support these cells in various ways.
(a) Nuclei of the many satellite cells (S) surrounding
the perikarya of neurons (N) in an autonomic
(additional ppt info notes)
ganglion can be seen by light microscopy, but their
cytoplasmic extensions are too thin to see with
(a) Lining the ventricles of the cerebrum, columnar H&E staining. These long-lived neurons commonly
ependymal cells (E) extend cilia and microvilli from the accumulate brown lipofuscin (L). (X560; H&E)
apical surfaces into the ventricle (V). These (b) Immunofluorescent staining of satellite cells (S)
modifications help circulate the CSF and monitor its reveals the cytoplasmic sheets extending from
contents. these cells and surrounding the neuronal cell
o Ependymal cells have junctional complexes at bodies (N). The layer of satellite cells around each
their apical ends like those of epithelial cells but soma is continuous with the myelin sheath around
lack a basal lamina. the axon. Like the effect of Schwann cells on
o The cells’ basal ends are tapered, extending axons, satellite glial cells insulate, nourish, and
processes that branch and penetrate some regulate the microenvironment of the neuronal cell
distance into the adjacent neuropil (N). Other bodies. (X600; Rhodamine red-labeled antibody
areas of ependyma are responsible for production against glutamine synthetase)
of CSF. (X100; H&E) *****************************************************
(b) Ependymal cells (E) lining the central canal (C) of the
spinal cord help move CSF in that CNS region. (X200;
 Also derived from the embryonic neural crest, small
satellite cells form a thin, intimate glial layer around
H&E)
each large neuronal cell body in the ganglia of the
*****************************************************
PNS. Satellite cells exert a trophic or supportive effect
 Ependymal cells are columnar or cuboidal cells that
on these neurons, insulating, nourishing, and
line the fluid-filled ventricles of the brain and the central
canal of the spinal cord. regulating their microenvironments.
 In some CNS locations, the apical ends of ependymal Schwann Cells or Neurolemmocyte
cells have cilia, which facilitate the movement of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and long microvilli, which are
likely involved in absorption.
 Ependymal cells are joined apically by apical junctional
complexes similar to those of epithelial cells. However,
unlike a true epithelium there is no basal lamina.
Instead, the basal ends of ependymal cells are
elongated and extend branching processes into the
adjacent neuropil.
Satellite cells

(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, page 116)

** functions to myelinate axons in the PNS

(additional ppt info notes)

 Schwann cells (named for 19th century German

histologist Theodor Schwann), sometimes called
neurolemmocytes, are found only in the PNS and
differentiate from precursors in the neural crest.
 Schwann cells are the counterparts to oligodendrocytes
of the CNS, having trophic interactions with axons and
most importantly forming their myelin sheathes.
 However unlike an oligodendrocyte, a Schwann cell
forms myelin around a portion of only one axon.
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Junqueira’s, page 175)

** closely associated with the neuronal cell Origin, location, and principal functions of
bodies in the PNS; ganglion cells neuroglial cells
** surrounding the cell bodies are the satellite Glial cell Origin Locatio Main
cells; thereby supports the cell bodies n fxns
(additional ppt info notes)
Neural CNS Myelin
Oligodend tube productio
Satellite cells are very closely associated with neuronal cell ro n,
bodies in sensory and autonomic ganglia of the PNS and cyte electrical
 insulation (additional ppt info notes)
Astrocyte Neural CNS Structural
 The major structures comprising the CNS are the
tube and
cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord.
metabolic  The CNS is completely covered by connective tissue
support of layers, the meninges, but CNS tissue contains very little
neurons, collagen or similar material, making it relatively soft and
especially easily damaged by injuries affecting the protective skull
or vertebral bones.
at  Most CNS neurons and their functional organization are
synapses more appropriately covered in neuroscience rather than
; repair histology courses.
processe  Many structural features of CNS tissues can be seen in
unstained, freshly dissected specimens. Many regions
s show organized areas of white matter and gray matter,
Ependym Neural tube Line Aid differences caused by the differential distribution of lipid-
al cells ventricle productio rich myelin.
and n and  The main components of white matter are myelinated
axons, often grouped together as tracts, and the
central movemen myelin-producing oligodendrocytes.
canal of t of CSF  Astrocytes and microglia are also present, but very few
CNS neuronal cell bodies.
Microglia Bone CNS Defense  Gray matter contains abundant neuronal cell bodies,
dendrites, astrocytes, and microglial cells, and is where
marrow and
most synapses occur.
(monocytes immune-  Gray matter makes up the thick cortex or surface layer
) related of both the cerebrum and the cerebellum; most white
activities matter is found in deeper regions. Deep within the brain
are localized, variously shaped darker areas called the
Schwann Neural crest Peripher Myelin
cerebral nuclei, each containing large numbers of
cell al nerves productio aggregated neuronal cell bodies.
n, Cerebral Cortex
electrical
insulation
Satellite Neural crest Peripher Structural
cells (of al and
ganglia) ganglia metabolic
support
for
neuronal
cell
bodies

Central Nervous System .

3 tissues:  The important structure to remember is:
 Cerebral cortex pyramidal cells.
 Cerebellar cortex  They have dendrites extending in the
 Spinal cord direction going to the cortical surface
CNS comprises of:
Brain (additional ppt info notes)
 Cerebrum Spinal cord
Cerebral Cortex
 Cerebellum (a) Important neurons of the cerebrum are the
pyramidal neurons (P), which are arranged
vertically and interspersed with numerous smaller
glial cells, mostly astrocytes, in the eosinophilic
Meninges Completely covered by
neuropil. (X200; H&E)
connective tissue layers. (b) From the apical ends of pyramidal neurons (P),
Very little collagen Within the CNS’ long dendrites extend in the direction of the
parenchyma, it has very cortical surface, which can be best seen in thick
silver-stained sections in which only a few other
little collagen making it
protoplasmic astrocytes (A) cells are seen.
very susceptible to injury (X200; Silver)
 In the folded cerebral cortex neuroscientists recognize
six layers of neurons with different sizes and shapes.
The most conspicuous of these cells are the efferent
pyramidal neurons (Figure 9–15). Neurons of the
cerebral cortex function in the integration of sensory
information and the initiation of voluntary motor
responses.
(additional ppt info notes) but this was skipped on the video
discussion
Cytoarchitechture of the Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebrum consists of two hemispheres with an
outer cortex of gray matter and a central region of
white matter.
 The cerebral cortex, 1.5-4.5 mm thick and with more
than 15 billion neurons, constitutes 40% of the weight
of the human brain. The outer surface is highly folded
to increase the surface area, estimated at about 2000
cm2.
 The convolutions are known as sulci and the
intervening grooves, gyri. Different types of neurons
and fibers are arranged in horizontal layers, so the
cortex appears laminated. Despite regional variations,
the cortex typically consists of six ill-defined layers,
which differ in neuronal population density.
 As many as five types of cortical neurons exist, but
pyramidal cells and stellate cells are most
numerous. Nerve fibers are oriented tangentially and
radially, establish complex intracortical circuits, and
transmit impulses at multiple synaptic sites.
 Many neurons make connections with other cortical
neurons or project to other areas of the brain and
spinal cord. Pyramidal cell bodies, shaped like
isosceles triangles, range from 10 to 50 mm in
diameter. A large dendrite projects apically, is oriented
at right angles to the surface, and branches
repeatedly as it climbs to the surface.
 Emerging from the base of each cell is a single axon
that penetrates to deeper cortical layers and enters
the medullary white matter. In certain cortical regions,
giant pyramidal neurons, called Betz cells, have
diameters up to 100 μm.
6 layers of cerebral cortex
(for clearer picture, you may refer to diFiore’s, page 185)
I. Molecular layer
II. External granular layer
III. External pyramidal layer
IV. Internal granular layer
V. Internal pyramidal layer
VI. Multiform layer
Cerebral Cortex: Gray Matter
 The different cell types that constitute the
gray matter of the cerebral cortex are
distributed in six layers, with one or more
cell types predominant in each layer.
 Although there are variations in the
arrangement of cells in different parts of the
cerebral cortex, distinct layers are
recognized in most regions.
 Horizontal and radial axons associated with
neuronal cells in different layers give the
cerebral cortex a laminated appearance.
 The most superficial is the molecular layer
(I). Overlying and covering the molecular
cell layer (I) is the delicate connective
tissue of the brain, the pia mater (1). The
peripheral portion of molecular layer (I) is
composed predominantly of neuroglial
cells (2) and horizontal cells of Cajal.
Their axons contribute to the horizontal
fibers that are seen in the molecular layer
(I).
 The external granular layer (II) contains
mainly different types of neuroglial cells
and small pyramidal cells (3). Note that
the pyramidal cells get progressively larger
in successively deeper layers of the cortex.
 The apical dendrites of the pyramidal
cells (4, 7) are directed toward the
periphery of the cortex, whereas their
axons extend from the cell bases [see
Figure 7.9 (4, 10) below].
 In the external pyramidal layer (III),
medium-sized pyramidal cells (5)
predominate.
 The internal granular layer (IV) is a thin
layer and contains mainly small granule
cells (6), some pyramidal cells, and
different neuroglia that form numerous
complex connections with the pyramidal
cells.
 The internal pyramidal layer (V) contains
numerous neuroglial cells and the largest
pyramidal cells (8), especially in the motor
area of the cerebral cortex (the axons in
the motor area will have to travel a very
long distance from the motor cortext; the
farthest of them would even reach the
lumbar area of the spinal cord).
o In order for neuron to sustain its
very long axon, they have to
contain larger amount of
organelles. Hence, their size.
 The deepest layer is the multiform layer
(VI). This layer is adjacent to the white
matter (10) of the cerebral cortex. The
multiform layer (VI) contains intermixed
cells of varying shapes and sizes, such as
the fusiform cells, granule cells, stellate
cells, and cells of Martinotti. Bundles of
axons (9) enter and leave the white matter
(10).
Cerebellum / Cerebellar cortex
Cerebellum
(a) The cerebellar cortex is convoluted with
many distinctive small folds, each
supported at its center by tracts of white
matter in the cerebellar medulla (M).
Each fold has distinct molecular layers
(ML) and granular layers (GL). (X6;
Cresyl violet)
(b) Higher magnification shows that the
granular layer (GL) immediately
surrounding the medulla (M) is densely
packed with several diferent types of
very small rounded neuronal cell bodies.
The outer molecular layer (ML) consists
of neuropil with fewer, much more
scattered small neurons. At the interface
of these two regions a layer of large
Purkinje neuron (P) perikarya can be
seen. (X20; H&E)
o Neurophil: processes of thre
neurons and glial cells
o Purkinje: large neurons in
between molecular and granular
layer
(c) A single intervening layer contains the
very large cell bodies of unique Purkinje
neurons (P), whose axons pass through
the granular layer (GL) to join tracts in
the medulla and whose multiple
branching dendrites ramify or projecting
throughout the molecular layer (ML).
Dendrites are not seen well with H&E
staining. (X40; H&E)
(d) With appropriate silver staining
dendrites from each large Purkinje cell
(P) are shown to have hundreds of small
branches, each covered with hundreds
of dendritic spines. Axons from the small
neurons of the granular layer are
unmyelinated and run together into the
molecular layer where they form
synapses with the dendritic spines of
Purkinje cells. (X40; Silver)
 (for clearer picture, you may refer to diFiore’s, pages 187
and 189)
(additional ppt info notes)
Cerebellar Cortex: Molecular Layer, Purkinje Cell Layer,
and Granular Cell Layer
This illustration shows a small section of cerebellar cortex
above the white matter at a higher magnification. The
Purkinje cells (3) comprising the Purkinje cell layer (7),
with their prominent nuclei and nucleoli, are arranged in a
single row between the molecular cell layer (6) and the
granular cell layer (4). The large “flask-shaped’’ bodies of
the Purkinje cells (3, 7) give off thick dendrites (2) that
branch extensively throughout the molecular cell layer (6) to
the cerebellar surface. Thin axons (not shown) leave the
base of the Purkinje cells, pass through the granular cell
layer (4), become myelinated, and enter the white matter (5,
11). The molecular cell layer (6) contains scattered basket
cells (1) whose unmyelinated axons normally course
horizontally. Descending collaterals of more deeply placed
basket cells (1) arborize around the Purkinje cells (3, 7).
Axons of the granule cells (9) in the granular cell layer (4)
extend into the molecular layer (6) and also course
horizontally as unmyelinated axons. In the granular cell layer
(4) are numerous small granule cells (9) with dark-staining
nuclei and a small amount of cytoplasm. Also scattered in
the granular cell layer (4) are larger Golgi type II cells (8)
with typical vesicular nuclei and more cytoplasm. Throughout
the granular layer are small, irregularly dispersed, clear
spaces called the glomeruli (10). These regions contain
only synaptic complexes.
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, pages 121)
(additional ppt info notes)
Cytoarchitecture of the Cerebellum
 The cerebellum is a bilaterally symmetric part of the
brain with an extensively folded surface that has thin
transverse folds known as folia, which resemble
leaves of a tree. It consists of a surface layer of cortex
of gray matter and a medullary center of white
matter. Its name is misleading as it implies that it is a
small part of the brain, but the cerebellar cortex is
three-fourths the size of the cerebral cortex.
 Also, the cerebellar cortex most likely contains more
neurons than the cerebral cortex. The cerebellar
cortex has a remarkably uniform trilaminar
organization: an outer molecular layer, an inner layer
of granule cells, and a middle monolayer of large
pear-shaped neurons known as Purkinje cells. The
molecular layer is a pale-stained zone with relatively
few neuron bodies. It contains a network of profusely
branching dendrites of Purkinje cells and represents
mainly a synaptic field. These dendritic branches are
not readily seen in conventional preparations; more
specialized techniques, such as metal impregnation or
immunocytochemistry, are required for elucidation.
(for clearer picture, you may refer to Netter’s, pages 122)
(additional ppt info notes)
Histology and Ultrastructure of the Cerebellum
 Cerebellar Purkinje cells have a very large unique
flask-like shape and, with soma diameters of 50-80
mm, are one of the largest neurons in the CNS. At 15-30
million, they are also among the most numerous in the
brain. They form a single row of uniformly arranged,
large neuron bodies on the outer surface of the granule
cell layer.
 Light microscopy shows a single, vesicular nucleus with
prominent Nissl substance in surrounding cytoplasm. By
electron microscopy, primary and secondary
dendrites are smooth surfaced; small tertiary branches
have short, stubby spines.
 Each Purkinje cell has more than 100,000 dendritic
spines that markedly increase its surface area for
synaptic contact. A single myelinated axon projects from
the base of each Purkinje cell and descends to the
underlying medullary white region.
 Granule cells are densely packed, round to oval, small
neurons, about 5 mm in diameter. Only the nucleus is
readily seen, as there is very little surrounding
cytoplasm. Several short dendrites project from the base
of each granule cell, and one apical axon extends into
the molecular layer, loses its myelin sheath, and
bifurcates up to 3 mm in each direction. Because of their
orientation parallel to the surface, unmyelinated axons
are known as parallel fibers. They establish multiple
synaptic contacts with dendritic spines of Purkinje cells.
Clinical Notes
Medulloblastoma—the most common malignant brain
tumor in children—is a fast-growing, invasive embryonal
tumor derived from primitive stem cells residing in two
germinal zones of cerebellum. It belongs to the family of
primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs), reflecting its
origin, undifferentiated histologic appearance, and potential
for neuronal and glial neoplasia. It tends to invade the
subarachnoid space in the midline, often obstructing CSF
flow in the fourth ventricle, which leads to hydrocephalus.
CSF analysis shows elevated protein and low glucose levels
along with metastatic tumor cells. Biopsy samples show
rosettes of mitotically active tumor cells and immunostaining
for neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and GFAP. Abnormal
activation of several signal transduction pathways may lead
to tumor formation. Treatment combines surgical resection,
craniosacral radiation, and intrathecal chemotherapy.
Spinal Cord
Anatomy and Histology of the Spinal Cord
 Specific spinal cord anatomy varies
according to the cord level, but in cross
section the cord is roughly oval to
cylindrical with a ventral fissure.
 The white matter of the spinal cord, unlike
that in other CNS areas, is peripherally
located; the gray matter occupies an H-
shaped central region or butterfly-
shaped.
o PNS: Outer white matter ; inner
gray matter
o CNS: (it is reversed) outer gray
matter ; inner white matter
 Gray matter consist of primarily cell bodies
and unmyelinated nerve fibers
 White matter consist of anything that is
myelinated fibers
(additional ppt info notes)
 White matter is so named because of large amounts
of myelin, the fatty insulating substance that forms
sheaths around individual nerve fibers. White matter
consists of ascending and descending tracts of
myelinated nerve fibers.
 Gray matter consists chiefly of cell bodies and
unmyelinated nerve fibers, so to the naked eye they
appear pinkish gray compared with myelinated fibers
of the white matter.
 Gray matter has two ventral horns and two dorsal
horns connected at the center by an isthmus of gray
commissures surrounding a small central canal, which
is lined by ependymal epithelium.
 Sensory nerve fibers enter the spinal cord via the
dorsal horns, and motor nerve fibers exit from the
ventral horns in discrete bundles known as spinal
nerves.
 The PNS comprises 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which
are divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and
coccygeal groups. Two enlargements of the ventral
horns—in the cervical and the lumbar regions—
provide motor innervation to upper and lower limbs,
respectively.
 A unique feature of the thoracic and upper lumbar
levels of the spinal cord is small lateral horns of gray
matter, which are the source of efferent sympathetic
neurons of the autonomic nervous system. The spinal
cord is covered by connective tissue meninges—an
outer dura, middle arachnoid, and inner pia mater.
Clinical Notes
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou
Gehrig disease, is a progressive neuromuscular disorder
caused by destruction of specific neurons in the brain and
spinal cord. ALS belongs to a class of disorders known as
motor neuron diseases and results in loss of nervous control
of skeletal muscles, which leads to degeneration and
atrophy of muscle fibers. Respiratory muscles are ultimately
affected; death is thus due to an inability to breathe. ALS
mostly affects men, although women also get the disorder,
with the progression rate varying among individuals. Its
cause is uncertain, but several proposed hypotheses include
glutamate toxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and
autoimmune mechanisms.
Spinal Cord: Midthoracic Region (Transverse
Section)

 Between the arachnoid (3) and the pia mater (4) is the
Spinal Cord: Anterior Gray Horn, Motor
Neurons, and Adjacent Anterior White Matter
 A transverse section of a spinal cord cut in
the midthoracic region and stained with
hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) is illustrated.
 Although a basic structural pattern is seen
throughout the spinal cord, the shape and
structure of the cord vary at different levels
(cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral).
o Gray matter inside; white matter
outside
o And a butterfly-shaped
o Appearance vary depending on the
level of the spinal cord
 Gray matter would be prominent in the lower
cervical, upper thoracic, and upper lumbar
segments because you will find a lot of
sensory axons entering the spinal cord and
synapsing with the second order neuronal
cell bodies unlike in torso.
(additional ppt info notes)
(additional ppt info notes)
 The thoracic region of the spinal cord differs from the
cervical region illustrated in Figure 7.3.
 The thoracic spinal cord exhibits slender posterior gray
horns (6) and smaller anterior gray horns (10, 20) with
fewer motor neurons (10, 20). The lateral gray horns (8,
19), on the other hand, are well developed in the
thoracic region of the spinal cord. These contain the
motor neurons (8, 19) of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system.
 The remaining structures in the midthoracic region of the
spinal cord closely correspond to the structures
illustrated in the cervical cord region in Figure 7.3.
These are the posterior median sulcus (15), anterior
median fissure (22), fasciculus gracilis (16) and
fasciculus cuneatus (17) (seen in the mid to upper
thoracic region of the spinal cord) of the posterior white
column (16, 17), lateral white column (7), central canal
(9), and the gray commissure (18).
 Associated with the posterior gray horns (6) are axons
of the posterior roots (5), and leaving the anterior gray
horns (10, 20) are the axons (11, 21) of the anterior
roots (11).
 Surrounding the spinal cord are the connective tissue
layers of the meninges. These are the thick and fibrous
outer dura mater (2), the thinner and middle arachnoid
mater (3), and the delicate inner pia mater (4), which
closely adheres to the surface of the spinal cord.
Located in the pia mater (4) are numerous anterior and
posterior spinal blood vessels (1, 12) of various sizes.
subarachnoid space (14). Fine trabeculae located in the
subarachnoid space (14) connect the pia mater (4) with
the arachnoid mater (3). In life, the subarachnoid space
(14) is filled with circulating CSF. Between the arachnoid
mater (3) and the dura mater (2) is the subdural space
(13). In this preparation, the subdural space (13)
appears unusually large because of the artifactual
retraction of the arachnoid during the specimen
preparation.
 In gray matter, you will see neuronal cell
bodies called “Anterior Horn Cells”
o These are the neurons that would
actually innervate skeletal muscles
 At the white matter, you would find
myelinated axons
 A higher magnification of a small section of the spinal
cord illustrates the appearance of gray matter,white
matter, neurons, neuroglia, and axons stained with
hematoxylin and eosin.
 The cells in the anterior gray horn of the thoracic
region of the spinal cord are multipolar motor
neurons (2, 6). Their cytoplasm is characterized by a
prominent vesicular nucleus (7), a distinct nucleolus
(7), and coarse clumps of basophilic material called
the Nissl substance (3).
 The Nissl substance extends into the dendrites (5)
but not into the axons. One such neuron exhibits the
root of an axon and the axon hillock (4), which is
devoid of the Nissl substance and characterizes the
axon
hillock.
 The nonneural neuroglia (8), seen here only as
basophilic nuclei, are small in comparison to the
prominent multipolar neurons (2, 4).
 The neuroglia (8) occupy the spaces between the
neurons.
 The anterior white matter of the spinal cord contains
myelinated axons of various sizes. Because of the
chemicals used in histologic preparation of this
section, the myelin sheaths appear as clear spaces
around the dark-staining axons (1).
 In certain neurons (2), the plane of section did not
include the nucleus, and the cytoplasm appears
 enucleated (without nucleus).
The Meninges
• Membranes of connective tissue covering
the CNS.
• Three layers (from outermost to innermost)
Dura mater outermost layer, consists of
dense irregular connective
tissue
o Mater = mother
o Dura = tough
o Hence, tough mother
consists of 2 components: a sheet
Arachnoid of connective tissue and a system
mater of loosely arranged trabeculae.
o Double-layered
consists of flattened cells closely
Pia mater applied to the surface of CNS
tissues
(additional ppt info notes)
Meninges Around the Brain
 The dura, arachnoid, and pia maters also surround
the brain and as shown here the relationships among
the cranial meninges are similar to those of the spinal
cord. The diagram includes arachnoid villi, which are
outpocketings of arachnoid away from the brain, which
penetrate the dura mater and enter blood-filled
venous sinuses located within that layer.
The arachnoid villi function in releasing excess CSF

into the blood. Blood vessels from the arachnoid
branch into smaller arteries and veins that enter brain
tissue carrying oxygen and nutrients. These small
vessels are initially covered with pia mater, but as
capillaries they are covered only by the perivascular
feet of astrocytes.
Meninges
 The skull and the vertebral column protect the CNS,
but between the bone and nervous tissue are
membranes of connective tissue called the meninges.
 Three meningeal layers are distinguished: the dura,
arachnoid, and pia maters.
Dura Mater
 The thick external dura mater (L. dura mater, tough
mother) consists of dense irregular connective tissue
organized as an outer periosteal layer continuous with
the periosteum of the skull, and an inner meningeal
layer.
 These two layers are usually fused, but along the
superior sagittal surface and other specific areas
around the brain they separate to form the blood-filled
dural venous sinuses.
 Around the spinal cord the dura mater is separated
from the periosteum of the vertebrae by the epidural
space, which contains a plexus of thin-walled veins
and loose connective tissue. The dura mater may be
separated from the arachnoid by formation of a thin
subdural space.
Arachnoid
 The arachnoid (Gr. arachnoeides, spider web-like)
has two components: (1) a sheet of connective tissue
in contact with the dura mater and (2) a system of
loosely arranged trabeculae composed of collagen
and fibroblasts, continuous with the underlying pia
mater layer.
 Surrounding these trabeculae is a large, sponge-like
cavity, the subarachnoid space, filled with CSF. This
fluid-filled space helps cushion and protect the CNS
from minor trauma. The subarachnoid space
communicates with the ventricles of the brain where
the CSF is produced.
 The connective tissue of the arachnoid is said to be
avascular because it lacks nutritive capillaries, but
larger blood vessels run through it. Because the
arachnoid has fewer trabeculae in the spinal cord, it
can be more clearly distinguished from the pia mater
in that area.
 The arachnoid and the pia mater are intimately
associated and are often considered a single
membrane called the pia-arachnoid.
 In some areas, the arachnoid penetrates the dura
mater and protrudes into blood-filled dural venous
sinuses located there. These CSF-filled protrusions,
which are covered by the vascular endothelial cells
lining the sinuses, are called arachnoid villi and
function as sites for absorption of CSF into the blood
of the venous sinuses.
Pia Mater
 The innermost pia mater (L. pia mater, tender mother)
consists of flattened, mesenchymally derived cells
closely applied to the entire surface of the CNS tissue.
 The pia does not directly contact nerve cells or fibers,
being separated from the neural elements by the very
thin superficial layer of astrocytic processes (the glial
limiting membrane, or glia limitans), which adheres
firmly to the pia mater.
 Together, the pia mater and the layer of astrocytic end
feet form a physical barrier separating CNS tissue
from CSF in the subarachnoid space.
Blood vessels penetrate CNS tissue through long
perivascular spaces covered by pia mater, although the pia
disappears when the blood vessels branch to form the small
capillaries. However, these capillaries remain completely
covered by the perivascular layer of astrocytic processes.
Spinal Cord and the Meninges
 Choroid Plexus
• A highly vascular structure responsible for
the production of CSF.
• Elaborately folded and projects into the
large ventricles of the brain.
• Found in the the roofs of the third and
fourth ventricles and in the lateral ventricle
walls.

(additional ppt info notes)

A. A diagram of the spinal cord indicates the relationship

of the three meningeal layers of connective tissue: the
innermost pia mater, the arachnoid, and the dura
mater. Also depicted are the blood vessels coursing
through the subarachnoid space and the nerve
rootlets that fuse to form the posterior and anterior
roots of the spinal nerves. The posterior root ganglia
contain the cell bodies of sensory nerve fibers and are
located in intervertebral foramina.
B. Section of an area near the anterior median fissure
showing the tough dura mater (D). Surrounding the
dura, the epidural space (not shown) contains
cushioning adipose tissue and vascular plexuses. The
subdural space (SD) is an artifact created by
separation of the dura from underlying tissue. The
middle meningeal layer is the thicker weblike
arachnoid mater (A) containing the large subarachnoid
space (SA) and connective tissue trabeculae (T).The
subarachnoid space is filled with CSF and the
arachnoid acts as a shock-absorbing pad between the
CNS and bone. Fairly large blood vessels (BV) course
through the arachnoid. The innermost pia mater (P) is
thin and is not clearly separate from the arachnoid;
together, they are sometimes referred to as the pia-
arachnoid or the leptomeninges. The space between
the pia and the white matter (WM) of the spinal cord
here is an artifact created during dissection; normally
the pia is very closely applied to a layer of astrocytic
processes at the surface of the CNS tissue. (X100;
H&E)
 It is a highly vascular structure as expected
in tissues that are producing fluid (CSF)
 At higher magnification, each fold of the
choroid plexus has a well vascularized
capillaries and covered by continuous layer
of cuboidal cells
 This tissue is specialized for water
 transport across the capillary endothelium
 This fluid is elaborated in CSF.

(additional ppt info notes)

Choroid Plexus
 The choroid plexus consists of highly vascular
tissue, elaborately folded and projecting into the large
ventricles of the brain.
 It is found in the roofs of the third and fourth ventricles
and in parts of the two lateral ventricular walls, all
regions in which the ependymal lining directly contacts
the pia mater.
 Each villus of the choroid plexus contains a thin layer
of well-vascularized pia mater covered by cuboidal
ependymal cells (Figure 9–20b).
 The function of the choroid plexus is to remove water
from blood and release it as the CSF. CSF is clear,
contains Na+, K+, and Cl- ions but very little protein,
and its only cells are normally very sparse
lymphocytes.
 It is produced continuously and it completely fills the
ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord, the
subarachnoid and perivascular spaces.
 It provides the ions required for CNS neuronal activity
and in the arachnoid serves to help absorb
mechanical shocks. Arachnoid villi provide the main
pathway for absorption of CSF back into the venous
circulation. There are very few lymphatic vessels in
CNS tissue.

Clinical Notes
A decrease in the absorption of CSF or a blockage of outflow
from the ventricles during fetal or postnatal development
results in the condition known as hydrocephalus (Gr. hydro,
water + kephale, head), which promotes a progressive
enlargement of the head followed by mental impairment.
Peripheral Nerves
 Composed of nerves, ganglia, and nerve
endings
 Nerve fibers can be myelinated or
unmyelinated.
o Schwann cells myelinates nerve
fibers in the PNS.
(additional ppt info notes)
 The Schawnn cells would wrap around the
 Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) axon several times up to hundred lamella
surrounded by Schwann cells and layers of connective
tissue. (additional ppt info notes)

 Nerve fibers are analogous to tracts in the CNS,
containing axons enclosed within sheaths of glial cells
specialized to facilitate axonal function. In peripheral
nerve fibers, axons are sheathed by Schwann cells,
or neurolemmocytes. The sheath may or may not
form myelin around the axons, depending on their
diameter.
 A Schwann cell (neurolemmocyte) engulfs one portion
along the length of a large-diameter axon.
 The Schwann cell membrane fuses around the axon
and one thin extension of the Schwann cell elongates
greatly and wraps itself repeatedly around the axon to
form multiple, compacted layers.
 The Schwann cell membrane wrappings constitute the
myelin sheath, with the Schwann cell body always on its
outer surface.
 The myelin layers are very rich in lipid, and provide
insulation and facilitate formation of action potentials
along the axolemma.

(The entire nerve is covered by a connective
tissue covering called “Epineurium.” The nerve
fascicles are groups of individual nerve
fiber/bundles grouped together covered by
connective tissue covering called
“Perineurium.” An individual nerve fiber would
be covered by a “Endoneurium.”)
Nerve fibers  fascicle  peripheral nerve
Connective tissue covering:
 binds all fascicles together.
Epineurium Consists of dense irregular
connective tissue.
 Covers the entire nerve.
 surrounds one or more
individual nerve fascicles.
 Covers nerve fascicles.
Perineurium  Acts as a selective,
metabolically active
diffusion barrier.
o Forms part of the
blood nerve barrier
akin to BBB in the
brain.
o Controls the
materials going into
the nerve fibers
 Surrounds the nerve
Endoneurium axon.
 Composed of loose
connective tissue.
(additional ppt info notes)
Organization of Nerves
 In the PNS nerve fibers are grouped into bundles to
form nerves. Except for very thin nerves containing
only unmyelinated fibers, nerves have a whitish,
glistening appearance because of their myelin and
collagen content.
 Axons and Schwann cells are enclosed within layers of
connective tissue. Immediately around the external
lamina of the Schwann cells is a thin layer called the
endoneurium, consisting of reticular fibers, scattered
fibroblasts, and capillaries.
 Groups of axons with Schwann cells and endoneurium
are bundled together as fascicles by a sleeve of
perineurium, containing flat fibrocytes with their edges
sealed together by tight junctions.
 From two to six layers of these unique connective tissue
cells regulate diffusion into the fascicle and make up the
blood-nerve barrier that helps maintain the fibers’
microenvironment.
 Externally, peripheral nerves have a dense, irregular
fibrous coat called the epineurium, which extends
deeply to fill the space between fascicles.
 Very small nerves consist of one fascicle. Small nerves
can be found in sections of many organs and often show
a winding disposition in connective tissue.
 Peripheral nerves establish communication between
centers in the CNS and the sense organs and effectors
(muscles, glands, etc). They generally contain both
afferent and efferent fibers.
 Afferent fibers carry information from internal body
regions and the environment to the CNS.
 Efferent fibers carry impulses from the CNS to effector
organs commanded by these centers.
 Nerves possessing only sensory fibers are called
sensory nerves; those composed only of fibers carrying
impulses to the effectors are called motor nerves.
 Most nerves have both sensory and motor fibers and
are called mixed nerves, usually also with both
myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
(additional ppt info notes)
Histology of Peripheral Nerves
 A peripheral nerve consists of one or more bundles of
nerve fibers. Each bundle, or fascicle, contains a
mixture of fibers, either efferent (motor) or afferent
(sensory).
 In peripheral nerves consisting of more than one
fascicle, an outer layer of dense irregular connective
tissue, the epineurium, binds the fascicles together and
forms a strong cylindrical sheath around the whole
nerve.
 Surrounding each fascicle is a very condensed layer of
specialized connective tissue called the perineurium,
which is made of multiple concentric layers of flattened
perineurial cells with intervening, longitudinal collagen
fibrils. The perineurium acts as a selective,
metabolically active diffusion barrier.
 It restricts passage of many macromolecular
substances, thereby regulating the internal
microenvironment of the nerve. Perineurial cells are
modified fibroblasts, most likely of mesenchymal
origin, which are linked together by tight junctions and
 help contribute to a blood-nerve barrier between highly
permeable blood vessels in the exterior of each
fascicle and the interior tight capillaries.
 Individual nerve fibers and their support cells within
each fascicle are firmly embedded in a delicate packing
of loose connective tissue called endoneurium.

(additional ppt info notes)

Ultrastructure of Myelinated and Unmyelinated Nerve

Fibers in the Peripheral Nervous System

 Schwann cells, the principal supporting cells of the

(additional ppt info notes)
(a) The diagram shows the relationship among these
three connective tissue layers in large peripheral
nerves. The epineurium (E) consists of a dense
superficial region and a looser deep region that
contains the larger blood vessels.
(b) The micrograph shows a small vein (V) and artery
(A) in the deep epineurium (E). Nerve fibers (N)
are bundled in fascicles. Each fascicle is
surrounded by the perineurium (P), consisting of a
few layers of unusual squamous fibroblastic cells
that are all joined at the peripheries by tight
junctions. The resulting blood-nerve barrier helps
regulate the microenvironment inside the fascicle.
Axons and Schwann cells are in turn surrounded
by a thin layer of endoneurium. (X140; H&E)
(c) As shown here and in the diagram, septa (S) of
connective t sue often extend from the
perineurium into larger fascicles. The
endoneurium (En) and lamellar nature of the
perineurium (P) are also shown at this
magnification, along with some adjacent
epineurium (E). (X200; PT)
(d) SEM of transverse sections of a large peripheral
nerve showing several fascicles, each surrounded
by perineurium and packed with endoneurium
around the individual myelin sheaths. Each
fascicle contains at least one capillary. Endothelial
cells of these capillaries are tightly joined as part
of the blood-nerve barrier and regulate the kinds of
plasma substances released to the endoneurium.
Larger blood vessels course through the deep
epineurium that fills the space around the
perineurium and fascicles. (X450)
(additional ppt info notes)
PNS, surround all nerve fibers, myelinated and
unmyelinated.
 Myelin acts as an electrical insulator and permits
nerve impulses to be transmitted rapidly by saltatory
conductance along nodes of Ranvier.
 A direct relationship exists among speed of nerve
conduction, axon size, and thickness of the myelin
sheath (number of concentric myelin lamellae).
 In myelinated fibers, the speed of conduction may
vary from 5 to 100 m/s, which is much higher than that
in smaller unmyelinated fibers, with conduction
speeds of 0.2-2 m/s.
 The association of Schwann cells to nerve fibers
differs for myelinated and unmyelinated fibers. Small-
diameter nerve fibers composed of both axons and
dendrites are grouped together by a Schwann cell that
either completely or partly envelops them in groove-
like invaginations that open to the surface.
 Schwann cells associated with unmyelinated nerve
fibers may invest up to 20 fibers, and the outer surface
of the Schwann cell is covered by a basal lamina.
The narrow cleft from the external surface of the
Schwann cell to the nerve fiber is the mesaxon.
Ganglia
 Ovoid structures containing neuronal cell
bodies and their surrounding glial satellite
cells.
o Supported by a delicate connective
tissue and surrounded by a denser
capsule.
o Serve as relay stations for nerve
impulse transmission.
 This is where the cell bodies
of the sensory neurons are
found.
 Two types:
Sensory (dorsal Autonomic ganglia
root) ganglia

Because they serve as relay stations to transmit nerve

impulses, at least one nerve enters and another exits from
each ganglion. The direction of the nerve impulse
determines whether the ganglion will be a sensory or an
autonomic ganglion.

Sensory Ganglia
 Sensory ganglia receive afferent impulses that go to the
CNS. Sensory ganglia are associated with both cranial
nerves (cranial ganglia) and the dorsal roots of the
spinal nerves (spinal ganglia).
 The large neuronal cell bodies of ganglia are associated
with thin, sheet-like extensions of small glial satellite
cells.
 Sensory ganglia are supported by a distinct connective
tissue capsule and an internal framework continuous
with the connective tissue layers of the nerves.
 The neurons of these ganglia are pseudounipolar and
relay information from the ganglion’s nerve endings to
the gray matter of the spinal cord via synapses with
local neurons.

Autonomic Ganglia
 Autonomic (Gr. autos, self + nomos, law) nerves effect
the activity of smooth muscle, the secretion of some
glands, heart rate, and many other involuntary activities
by which the body maintains a constant internal
environment (homeostasis). A. A sensory ganglion (G) has a distinct connective
 Autonomic ganglia are small bulbous dilations in tissue capsule (C) and internal framework
autonomic nerves, usually with multipolar neurons. continuous with the epineurium and other
Some are located within certain organs, especially in the components of peripheral nerves, except that no
walls of the digestive tract, where they constitute the perineurium is present and that there is no blood-
intramural ganglia. nerve barrier function. Fascicles of nerve fibers (F)
 The capsules of these ganglia may be poorly defined enter and leave these ganglia.(X56; Kluver-Barrera
among the the local connective tissue. A layer of stain)
satellite cells also envelops the neurons of autonomic B. Higher magnification shows the small, rounded
ganglia, although these may also be inconspicuous in nuclei of glia cells called satellite cells (S) that
intramural ganglia. produce thin, sheet-like cytoplasmic extensions that
 Autonomic nerves use two-neuron circuits. The first completely envelop each large neuronal perikaryon.
neuron of the chain, with the preganglionic fiber, is (X400; H&E)
located in the CNS. C. Sympathetic ganglia are smaller than most sensory
 Its axon forms a synapse with postganglionic fibers of ganglia but similar in having large neuronal cell
the second multipolar neuron in the chain located in a bodies (N), some containing lipofuscin (L). Sheets
peripheral ganglion system. The chemical mediator from satellite cells (S) enclose each neuronal cell
present in the synaptic vesicles of all preganglionic body with morphology slightly different from that of
axons is acetylcholine. sensory ganglia. Autonomic ganglia generally have
 As indicated earlier autonomic nerves make up the less well-developed connective tissue capsules (C)
autonomic nervous system. than sensory ganglia. (X400; H&E)
o This has two parts: the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic divisions.
o Neuronal cell bodies of preganglionic
sympathetic nerves are located in the thoracic
and lumbar segments of the spinal cord and
those of the parasympathetic division are in
the medulla and midbrain and in sacral portion
of the spinal cord.
o Sympathetic second neurons are located in
small ganglia along the vertebral column,
while second neurons of the parasympathetic
series are found in very small ganglia always
located near or within the effector organs, for
example in the walls of the stomach and
intestines.
o Parasympathetic ganglia may lack distinct
capsules altogether, perikarya and associated
satellite cells simply forming a loosely
organized plexus within the surrounding
connective tissue.
To distinguish sympathetic and sensory/dorsal root ganglion. In
sensory, ganglion cells are larger; more centrally located nuclei. In
sympathetic, some of the nuclei, are eccentrically located.
Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology 2 (Pekson & Sunglao)

MODULE 5: Circulatory System

oxygenation. After that, it goes back
to the left side of the heart.
OVERVIEW ▪ Pulmonary circulation where blood
• Introduction from the heart is carried to the lungs
• The Heart for gaseous exchange.
• The Vascular Wall o Systemic Circulation
• Vasculature ▪ where blood brings nutrients and
• Lymphatic Vascular System removes wastes in tissues
throughout the body
▪ larger systemic circulation pumps
INTRODUCTION blood from the left side of the heart
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM through vessels supply either head
• Pumps and directs blood cells and substances or arms or the lower body
carried in blood to all tissues of the body ▪ then back to the right side of the
• 2 major systems: heart
1. Cardiovascular System ▪ the oxygenated blood from the heart
2. Lymphatic Vascular System is distributed via systemic
circulation where blood brings
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM nutrients and remove waste and
tissues throughout the body
• Also known as the blood vascular system
• COMPOSITION:
o HEART
▪ propels/pump blood through the system
o ARTERIES
▪ a series of vessels efferent from the heart
- Efferent: carry oxygenated blood
AWAY from the heart, to the tissues
▪ branch into various organs where they
become smaller in size carrying blood to
different tissues
▪ Arterioles: smallest artery
o CAPILLARIES
▪ the smallest vessels
▪ the sites of gas exchange (O2, CO2),
nutrient, and waste product exchange
between blood and tissues
▪ Microvasculature/Microvascular bed
- complex
network of thin,
SUMMARY
anastomosing
tubules, made up Oxygenated blood is carried away from the
of capillaries, heart by arteries which branch into smaller
together with the arterioles until they reach the capillaries where
smallest arterial actual gas exchange occurs. Then,
and venous branches that carry deoxygenated blood from the capillaries will be
blood towards and from capillaries carried by the venules which convergence or
o VEINS merge to form veins, a system of larger
▪ the convergence of venules channels that continue to enlarge as they
▪ a system of larger channels that continue approach the heart. Once the blood is
enlarging as they approach the heart oxygenated, the cycle begins again and the
▪ carry blood TOWARD the heart, to be heart pumps the blood into the arteries
pumped again
• 2 MAJOR DIVISIONS: LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM
o Pulmonary Circulation
• begins with the lymphatic capillaries (thin-
▪ where blood is oxygenated in the lungs
walled, closed-ended tubules carrying
▪ the right side of the heart pumps blood
lymph) that merge to form vessels of steadily
through pulmonary vessels (pulmonary
increasing size
arteries) through the lungs for

|1
• the largest lymph vessels connect with the blood
vascular system and empty into large veins near
the heart
• this returns fluid from tissue stasis all over the
body to the blood
THE HEART
4 Chambers of the heart
• Right atrium
• Left atrium
• Right ventricle
• Left ventricle
The cardiac muscle in these 4 chambers of the heart wall
contracts rhythmically pumping the blood to the
circulatory system. The right and the left ventricle propel
blood to the pulmonary and the systemic circulation
respectively. On the other hand, the function of the right
and left atria is to receive blood from the body and
pulmonary veins respectively.
3 Major Layers of the Heart Wall
• Internal endocardium
• Middle myocardium
• External epicardium
LAYERS OF THE HEART
EPICARDIUM
• Aka the visceral layer of the pericardium, the
membrane surrounding the heart
• It is a simple squamous mesothelium with a
subepicardial layer of loose connective tissue
with coronary blood vessels and nerves
• During heart movements, underlying structures
are cushioned by deposits of adipose tissue in the
epicardium
• Prevents friction by producing lubricant fluid
o Lubricant fluid is produced by both layers of
serous mesothelial cells
MYOCARDIUM
• Thickest layer
• Consists mainly of cardiac muscle with its fibers
(spirally arranged) around each heart chamber
• Because strong force is required to pump blood
through the systemic and pulmonary
circulations, the myocardium is much thicker in
the walls of the ventricles, particularly the left
ventricle compared to the atria walls
ENDOCARDIUM
• Innermost layer of the heart
• Consists of a:
o Thin layer of endothelium and
supporting connective tissue
o Myoelastic layer of smooth muscle fiber
and connective tissue layer
o Deeper to the endocardium is the
Subendocardial layer of connective
tissue that merges with the endocardium
▪ In this image, we can observe that
located below the endothelium and
myoelastic layer, the subendocardial
layer are the SEN in the ventricles
contains the Purkinje fibers
→ this is the part of the heart’s
impulse conductive network. These
fibers are modified cardiac muscle
cells and are specialized for impulse
conduction rather than contraction
→ Purkinje fibers typically are paler
staining compared to contractile
cardiac muscle fibers
CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF THE HEART
• The heart also contains other structures
found within its major layers that are
important for its overall function of moving
blood
• CARDIAC SKELETON
o contains dense fibrous connective
tissue:
▪ part of interventricular and
interatrial septa (tissues that
separates the ventricles and atria
respectively)
▪ surrounds heart valves (called flaps
of connective tissue in histology that
can be seen as the white region in
the figure shown in the image); these
are anchored endocardiac skeleton
▪ the fibrous tissue also extends to
valve cusps and chordae tendineae
(cords that extend from the cusps of
both atrioventricular valves and
attach to papillary muscles; prevent
the valves from turning inside-out or
prevent prolapse during ventricular
contraction). In short, they allow a
one way or one directional flow of
blood
|2

The micrograft shows a section through a cusp of an AV
valve and attached chordae tendineae
• These regions of dense irregular connective
tissue perform the following functions:
o Anchors and supports the heart valves
o Provides firm points of insertion for cardiac
muscle
o Helps coordinate the heartbeat by acting as
electrical insolation between the atria and the
ventricles
• Conducting system of the heart – modified
cardiac muscle cells that generate and propagate
waves of depolarization that spread through the
myocardium to stimulate rhythmic contractions.
o As mentioned, modified cardiac cells found
within subendocardial layer and adjacent
myocardium. This makeup the impulse
conducting system of the heart, which
generates and propagates to waves of
depolarization that spreads to the
myocardium in order to stimulate rhythmic
contractions.
o This system consists of two nodes of
specialized myocardial tissue found in the
right atrium
▪ Sinoatrial node (SA node) - pacemaker
▪ Atrioventricular node (AV node) -
continuous with the AV bundle
▪ AV bundle (of His) - a specialized bundle
of cardiac muscle fibers; gives rise to
right and left bundle branches that run
along the interventricular septum to the
apex of the heart
▪ Purkinje fibers – pale-staining, thicker
and larger than the adjacent contractile
muscle fibers, with much glycogen;
connected via desmosomes and gap
junctions
- Thicker and larger than the typical
cardiac muscle fibers
- They also contain fewer
contractile filaments
- Purkinje fibers are located
beneath the endocardium on
either side of the interventricular
septum and are recognized as
separate tracks.
- Also, the reason of its pale
appearance is because of the
glycogen. It fills much of its
cytoplasm
IMAGE EXPLAIN
In the image, shown in yellow are parts of the cardiac
conducting system which initiates the electrical impulse
for contraction for the heart beat and spreads it through
the ventricular myocardium. Both the SA node in the right
atrial wall and the AV node, the floor of the right atrium,
consist of myocardial tissue. It is quite difficult distinguish
histologically from surrounding cardiac muscle but the AV
node is continuous with its specialized bundle of cardiac
muscle fibers, the AV bundle. This gives rise to the right
and the left bundle branches that run along
interventricular septum to the apex of the heart.
At the apex, the bundle branches subdivide further as
conducting purkinje fibers and extends into the
myocardium of the ventricles.
CAN YOU REMEMBER THAT...
• These fibers are generally located below the
endocardium.
• Intercalated discs serve to connect cardiac muscle
fibers. However, these are not seen in purkinje fibers
instead, they are connected to one another via
desmosomes and gap junctions.
HOW DOES THE HEART’S CONDUCTING
SYSTEM WORK?
Spontaneous
Modified cardiac rhythmic
muscle fibers stimulates
depolarization
myocardium
(SA and AV node) / impulse
conduction
• Cardiac muscle is involuntary and that
contracts rhythmically and automatically.
o Now the impulse generating and the
impulse conducting portions of the
heart are specialized or modified
cardiac muscle fibers located in the
|3
 SA node and the AV node in the wall of
the right atrium
o These modified cardiac muscle fibers
exhibit continuous rhythmic
depolarization or impulse conduction
and this would then send away a wave of
stimulation throughout the myocardium
or the middle layer of the heart
• SA node: “PACEMAKER” → Fibers in SA node
depolarizes and repolarize FASTER than the
AV node
o Because the fibers in the SA node
depolarize and repolarize faster than
those in the AV node, the SA node sets
the pace for the heart beat and that’s why
it’s called the PACEMAKER
• Gap junctions – allow rapid spread of stimuli
throughout the heart muscle and cardiac
muscle fiber contraction
o As said earlier, intercalated discs bind to
all cardiac muscle fibers, while stimulatory
impulses from the SA node are conducted
via gap junctions to the atrial musculature.
This allows the rapid spread of stimuli
throughout the entire heart muscle and
the cardiac muscle fiber contraction
• Impulses from SA node to AV node →
Internodal pathways
o Impulses from the SA node travel through
the heart musculature via internodal
pathways to stimulate the AV node that
lies in the interatrial septum
• From the AV node, impulses spread along the
AV bundle which branch to become
Purkinje fibers and transmit stimulation to
heart musculature
= systole + eject blood
o From the AV node, the impulses spread
along a bundle of specialized conducting
cardiac fibers or the AV bundle located in
the interventricular septum. The AV
bundle would then divide into the left and
right bundle branches and approximately
half way down the septum, the AV bundle
branches become the Purkinje fibers
which branch throughout the myocardium
further in order to transmit and deliver
continuous waves of stimulations from the
two atrial nodes to the rest of the heart
musculature.
o The stimulations produce ventricular
contractions or systole and the ejection of
blood from both ventricular chambers
• Autonomic Nervous System & Hormones
→ influence heart rate
o Sympathetic nerves: accelerate heart rate
o Parasympathetic nerves: decrease heart rate
▪ The pacemaker activities of the heart
are also influenced by axons from the
autonomic nervous system and by
certain hormones
▪ Axons from both the parasympathetic
division and sympathetic division
innervate the heart but they do
not affect the initiation of the
rhythmic of the nodes, instead,
they effect the heart rate
▪ Stimulation by the sympathetic
nerves accelerates the heart rate
whereas stimulation by the
parasympathetic nerves produces
the opposite effect and decreases
the heart rate
THE VASCULAR WALL
• Except for the capillaries, the walls of all
blood vessels contain smooth muscle and
connective tissue in addition to the
endothelial lining
• Their differences lie in the amount and the
arrangement of these tissues in vessels
• This is influenced by mechanical factors
such as blood pressure and some metabolic
factors that reflect the local needs of tissues
• Walls of both arteries and veins have three
main tunics or layers:
o Tunica intima
o Tunica media
o Tunica adventitia/tunica externa
These somehow correspond to the heart’s endocardium,
myocardium, and epicardium.
• From the given figure, looking at the 2 given
blood vessels, we can observe that the artery
has a thicker media and a relatively narrow
lumen.
• On the other hand, we can clearly see that the
vein has a larger lumen and its adventitia (blue-
colored outer layer) is its thickest layer. Aside
from that, there’s a structure present in the
intima of the vein that is not seen in the artery.
So, the intima of veins is often folded to form
valves.
• In contrast to these blood vessels, capillaries
only have an endothelium with no
subendothelial layer or other tunics.
|4
 ARTERY VEIN
- Thicker media - larger lumen
- Relatively narrow - adventitia is the
lumen thickest layer
(blue-colored
outer layer)
- intima of veins is
often folded to
form valves,
which are not
seen in arteries
COMPONENTS SEEN IN THE VASCULAR WALL
• The endothelium
• Growth factors
• Smooth muscle fibers
• Connective tissue
TISSUES OF THE VASCULAR WALL
ENDOTHELIUM
• A specialized epithelium that acts as a
semipermeable barrier between two major
internal compartments: the blood and the
interstitial tissue fluid
o Highly differentiated to mediate and actively
monitor the bidirectional exchange of
molecules
▪ Endothelial cells anchored to the basal
lamina are highly differentiated in order
to mediate and actively monitor the
bidirectional exchange or movement of
molecules. This can occur by simple and
active diffusion, receptor-mediated
endocytosis, transcytosis, and other
mechanisms
▪ Aside from their important role in
metabolite exchanges between blood
and tissues, endothelial cells also have
other functions.
FUNCTIONS
✓ Non-thrombogenic surface on which blood will
not clot and actively secretes agents that control
local clot formation
▪ thrombo: refers to the clotting of blood
▪ a non-thrombogenic surface therefore
ensures that the blood will not clot; actively
secretes certain agents that will control local
clot formation if any. It secrets agents such
as:
- Heparin (anti-coagulant)
- TPA or tissue plasminogen activator
(a protein that dissolves blood clots)
- von Willebrand factor or vWF
✓ Regulates local vascular tone and blood flow by
secreting various factors that stimulate smooth
muscle contraction and vasoconstriction
(endothelin 1, ACE or angiotensin converting
enzyme) or those that stimulate relaxation or
vasodilation (NO or nitric oxide, Prostacyclin)
▪ Vascular tone is basically the degree of
constriction of a blood vessel compared
to its maximally dilated state
▪ This is important to regulate blood
pressure
✓ Endothelium has several roles in
Inflammation and local immune
responses
▪ In venules endothelial cells stimulate
specific white blood cells to migrate at
sites of tissue injury or infection.
▪ The cytoplasm of the endothelial cells
also contains small membrane-bound,
electron dense structures called the
Weibel-Palade bodies, which store the
glycoprotein, von Willebrand factor.
▪ When the endothelium is damaged, the
von Willebrand factor is released into
the blood to induce platelet adhesion
and eventually clot formation
▪ Endothelial cells also secrete
interleukins that affect the activity of
local white blood cells during
inflammation
✓ Under various conditions, endothelial cells
secrete different growth factors, including
proteins that promote proliferation of
specific WBC lineages and cells that make up
the vascular wall. Growth factors such as:
▪ Vascular endothelial growth factor
(VEGF)
- stimulates formation of the vascular
system from embryonic mesenchyme
(VASCULOGENESIS)
- help maintain the vasculature in
adults
- promote capillary sprouting and
outgrowth from small existing vessels
(ANGIOGENESIS), occurs during
normal growth, tissue repair and
regeneration, and in tumors and
other pathological conditions
▪ Angiopoietins
- In both processes’ other growth
factors, called angiopoietins,
stimulate endothelial cells to recruit
smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts
to form the other tissues of the
vascular wall.
SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER
• Occurs in walls of all vessels larger than
capillaries
• Arranged helically in layers or spiral
arrangement
• In Arterioles & Small arteries: smooth
muscle cells are connected by many gap
junctions and permit vasoconstriction and
vasodilation (regulate blood pressure)
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Present in vascular walls in variable amounts
based on functional requirements
|5
 o Collagen fibers – in subendothelial layer,
between the smooth muscle layers and in
the outer covering of the vessels
o Elastic fibers – provide the resiliency
required for the vascular wall to expand
under pressure
▪ Elastin – major component in large
arteries where it forms parallel lamellae;
regularly distributed between the muscle
layers
o Proteoglycans & Hyaluronate
- Variations in the amount and
composition of ground substance
components such as proteoglycans and
hyaluronate also contribute to the
physical and metabolic properties of the
wall in different vessels, especially
affecting their permeability
LAYERS OF THE VASCULAR WALL
1. TUNICA ADVENTITIA
• Aka Tunica externa
• Outermost layer
• Connective tissue that consists principally
of collagen type I fibers and elastic fibers
• Just like the heart wall is supplied with its
own coronary vasculature for the nutrients
and oxygen, large vessels usually have Vasa
Vasorum.
 Vasa Vasorum
o “Vessels of the vessel”
o Consist of Arterioles, capillaries, and
venules in the adventitia and the outer part
of the media
o Required to provide metabolites/nutrients
to cells in those tunics in larger vessels
because the wall is too thick to be
nourished solely by diffusion from the
blood in the lumen.
o Because they carry deoxygenated blood,
large veins commonly have more vasa
vasorum than arteries.
- More common in veins than arteries
❖ Vasomotor nerves – release norepinephrine
- The adventitia of larger vessels also
contains a network of unmyelinated
autonomic nerve fibers, the vasomotor
nerves, which release the vasoconstrictor
norepinephrine. The density of this
innervation is greater in arteries than in
veins.
2. TUNICA MEDIA
• Middle layer
• Consists chiefly of concentric layers of
helically arranged smooth muscle cells
• Among the muscle fibers are variable
amounts of elastic fibers and elastic
lamellae, reticular fibers, proteoglycans
and some collagen fibers, all of which are
produced by the smooth muscle cells.
o Collagen fibers → tensile strength
o Elastic fibers → distention and
recoil of the vessel walls during
heart contraction and blood ejection
• Arteries: may have external elastic
lamina (EEL) separating it from the
outermost tunic.
3. TUNICA INTIMA
• Innermost layer
• Consists of the endothelium and a thin
underlying subendothelial layer of
loose connective tissue sometimes
containing smooth muscle fibers
• Arteries: includes internal elastic
lamina (IEL), composed of elastin,
with holes allowing better diffusion of
substances from blood deeper into the
wall.
VASCULATURE
• Refers to the network of blood vessels and
their arrangement
• Elastic arteries, arterial sensory structures,
muscular arteries, arterioles, capillary beds,
venules, veins
ELASTIC ARTERIES
• Aorta, the pulmonary artery, and their largest
branches
• Other name for these large branches is
conducting arteries (carry blood toward the
smaller arteries)
• Tunica Intima: well-developed, many
smooth muscle cells in the subendothelial
connective tissue layer
o In a cross section, it is observed with
folds which is a result of low/loss of BP
and contraction of the vessel at death
▪ Folds: loss of BP and contraction of
the vessel at death
• Internal elastic lamina: more well-defined
than the elastic laminae of TM; between
intima and media
• Tunica media: most prominent feature
(thick TM), with elastic lamellae alternating
with layers of SM fibers
• Elastic lamellae
o The adult aorta has 50 elastic lamellae,
and if a person has high BP or is
|6
 hypertensive, the elastic lamellae increases
in number to compensate
• Elastic laminae functions
o Ensures uniform blood flow
o Helps maintain arterial pressure
• During ventricular contraction (Systole) that is
moved through the arteries forcefully and the
elastin is stretched, it expands the wall within the
limit that is allowed by the wall’s collagen
content. When the ventricles relaxed (Diastole),
ventricular pressure drops to a lower level, but
because of the elastin, the vessel recoils or
rebounds passively, and this helps maintain the
arterial pressure
• The aortic and pulmonary valves prevent the
back flow of blood into the heart, so the rebound
continuous the blood flow away from the heart
• Tunica Adventitia: thinner than TM
ARTERIAL SENSORY STRUCTURES
• Carotid sinuses
o Structures that appear as slight dilation of the
bilateral internal carotid arteries where they
branched from the elastic or common carotid
arteries
o Important baroreceptors monitoring arterial
blood pressure
o Tunica media: thinner; allows greater
distention and expansions when BP rises
o Tunica Adventitia: Contains many sensory
nerve endings from cranial nerve IX (CN IX),
the glossopharyngeal nerve.
o The vasomotor sensors of the brain will
process afferent impulses that it receives and
regulate the vasoconstriction which will
maintain the normal blood pressure
o Functionally similar baroreceptors found in
the aortic arc also transmit signals pertaining
to blood pressure via the CN X (vagus nerve)
• Aside from the carotid sinuses, there are more
complex chemoreceptors that monitors blood
CO2, O2 levels and pH. These are found in
carotid and aortic bodies, which are located in
the walls of carotid sinuses and the aortic arc
respectively
o Chemoreceptors - monitor blood CO2, O2
levels and pH → in carotid and aortic bodies
(parts of the autonomic NS: paraganglia)
o Paraganglia – with rich capillary networks
• Glomus cells
o large, neural crest-derived cells that closely
surround the capillaries
o these cells are filled with dense-core vesicles
containing dopamine, acetylcholine, and other
neurotransmitters
o Also supported by smaller satellite cells
o There are ion channels in the glomus cell
membranes that respond to stimuli in the
arterial blood, they will then activate the
release of neurotransmitters to respond
to hypoxia (low oxygen levels),
hypercapnia (excess carbon dioxide
content), acidosis
o Sensory fibers that branch from the
glossopharyngeal or CN IX form
synapses with the glomus cells and signal
the brain centers to initiate cardiovascular
and respiratory adjustments that correct
the condition
MUSCULAR ARTERIES
• Aka distributing arteries
• Distribute blood to the
organs and help regulate
BP by contracting or
relaxing the smooth
muscles in the tunica
media
• Tunica Intima: thin
subendothelial layer and
a prominent internal
elastic lamina
• Tunica Media: contain up to 40 layers of
large smooth muscle cells that intersperse
with a variable number of elastic lamellae
o This depends on the size of the vessel, a
smaller vessel would have fewer elastic
lamellae
• External elastic lamina: present only in
larger muscular arteries
• Tunica Adventitia: connective tissue found
in TA contains lymphatic capillaries, vasa
vasorum, and nerves and all of which may
penetrate to the outer part of the media
• Muscular arteries will continue to branch
until they become smaller arteries reaching a
size of about 3 or 4 layers medial smooth
muscle.
ARTERIOLES
• Smallest arteries; with only 1 or 2 smooth
muscle layers
• Indicate the beginning of an organ’s
microvasculature where exchanges
between blood and tissue fluid occur
• Arterioles are <0.1 mm (diameter), with
lumens approximately as wide as the wall is
thick
|7
• Very thin subendothelial layer, no elastic laminae
• Tunica Media: circularly arranged smooth
muscle cells
• Tunica Adventitia: very thin and inconspicuous
in both arteries and arterioles
• Almost always branch in order to form →
anastomosing networks of capillaries that
surround the parenchymal cells of the organ
• At the end of arterioles, Smooth muscle fibers
→ act as sphincters and produce periodic blood
flow into capillaries
• Muscle tone or the resistance of muscle that is
addressed to stretching normally keeps the
arterioles partially closed resisting blood flow
and makes arterioles the major determinants of
systemic BP
• ARTERIOLES (PATHWAYS)
o In certain tissues and organs, arterioles
deviate from their normal or simple path in
order to accommodate other specialized
functions
o Involved in thermoregulation by the skin
(involves arterioles that can bypass capillary
networks and connect directly to venules)
o TM & TA: thicker in arteriovenous
shunts/anastomosis and are richly innervated
by sympathetic and para sympathetic nerve
fibers
o Autonomic fibers - control the degree of
vasoconstriction that occurs in the shunts,
regulate blood flow through the capillary beds
▪ ↑ capillary blood flow: more heat
dissipation/evaporate from the body
▪ ↓ capillary blood flow: conserves heat
▪ *Both are important functions when the
environmental temperature is hot or cold
respectively
o Venous portal system (important alternative
microvascular pathway): blood flows through
2 successive capillary beds separated by a
portal vein; this arrangement allows
hormones or nutrients picked up by the blood
in the first capillary network to be delivered
most efficiently to cells around the second
capillary bed before the blood is finally
returned to the heart for general distribution
(ex: hepatic portal system of the liver,
hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system in
the anterior pituitary gland and both of which
have physiologic importance
CAPILLARY BED
• Capillaries
o smallest blood vessels, permit and
regulate metabolic exchange between
blood and surrounding tissues
o function in networks called capillary
beds whose size and overall shape
conforms or adapts to the structure
supplied
• The density of the capillary bed is related to
the metabolic activity of the tissues
o Tissues with ↑ metabolic rates:
abundant capillaries (kidney, liver, cardiac
and skeletal muscle)
o Tissues with ↓ metabolic rates: less
capillaries (smooth muscle, dense
connective tissue)
• Capillary beds: supplied by 1 or more
terminal arteriole branches called
metarterioles → continuous with
thoroughfare channels connected with the
postcapillary venules
• Metarteriole muscle cells: act as precapillary
sphincters that serve to control blood flow
into the capillaries (contract and relax
cyclically 5-10 cycles per min), causing blood
to pass through capillaries in a pulsatile
manner
• When the sphincter are closed blood flows
directly from the metarteriole and
thoroughfare channels into the postcapillary
venules
• Capillaries
o are composed of simple layer of
endothelial cells rolled up as a tube,
surrounded by basement membrane
o average diameter is 4-10um which allow
transit of blood cells one at a time
o their thin walls, extensive surface area
and slow pulsatile blood flow optimize
capillaries for the exchange of water and
solutes between blood and tissues
• Capillary cells
o Have many features specialized for
molecular transfer by mechanisms that
range from simple diffusions to
transcytosis
o Average thickness: 0.25um
o Nuclei: distinctly curved to
accommodate the very small tubular
structure
o Cytoplasm: contains mitochondria,
other organelles, and large number of
membranous vesicles typically
o Along with basal lamina, Junctional
complexes between the cells maintain
tubular structure with variable numbers
of tight junctions with important role
capillary permeability
o 3 histologic types: (depending on the
continuity on endothelial cells and their
basement membrane)
▪ CONTINUOUS CAPILLARIES:
✓ Most common
|8
 ✓ With many tight, well-developed
occluding junctions between slightly
overlapping endothelial cells which
provide continuity and well-regulated
metabolic exchange across the cells
✓ Ultrastructural studies show numerous
vesicles indicating transcytosis of
macromolecules in both directions
across the endothelial cell cytoplasm
✓ Location: muscle, connective tissue,
lungs, exocrine glands, and nervous
tissue
▪ FENESTRATED CAPILLARIES:
✓ sieve-like allowing extensive exchange of
molecules across the endothelium
✓ Endothelial cells are penetrated by
numerous small circular openings
(fenestrations) approximately 18nm in
diameter
✓ Basement membrane is continuous and
covers the fenestrations
✓ Location: Organs with rapid interchange
between the tissues and blood such as the
kidneys, intestine, choroid plexus, and
endocrine glands
▪ DISCONTINUOUS CAPILLARIES:
✓ aka sinusoids
✓ allow maximal exchange of molecules and
easier cell movement between tissues
and blood
✓ Endothelium has large perforations
without diaphragms and irregular
intercellular cliffs forming a
discontinuous layer with spaces between
and through the cells
✓ Unlike other capillaries, sinusoids also
have highly discontinuous basement
membranes and much large diameters
often 30-40mm that slows the blood flow
✓ Location: liver, spleen, some endocrine
organs, and bone marrow
• Pericytes
o Mesenchymal cells along continuous
capillaries and postcapillary venules
o Have long cytoplasmic processes partly
surrounding the endothelial layer
o Secrete many extracellular membrane
components and form their own basal
lamina which fuses with the basement
membrane of the endothelial cells
o Well-developed cytoskeletal networks or
myosin, actin and tropomyosin indicate that
pericytes also dilate or constrict capillaries;
helps regulate blood flow in some organs
o Maintain endothelial blood brain barrier
o After injuries, pericytes proliferate and
differentiate to form smooth muscle cells in
new vessels as the microvasculature is re-
established
o In many organs, the pericyte population
also includes mesenchymal stem cells that
are important for regeneration of other
tissues
VENULES
• Postcapillary venules
o The transition of
capillary to
venules occurs
gradually
o Similar to
capillaries with
pericytes but
larger; 15-20um
(diameter)
o Primary site at
which WBCs
adhere to
endothelium and
leave the circulation at sites of infection or
tissue damage
o These vessels gradually converge to larger
collecting venules that have more distinct
contractile cells
o Muscular venules: larger venules with 2-3
smooth muscle layers with recognizable
tunica media
o Characteristic feature of all venules:
Large diameter of the lumen compared to
the overall thinness of the wall
|9
VEINS • Valves:
o important feature of large and medium veins
are valves which consists of thin paired folds
of the tunica intima projecting across the
lumen
o thin, paired folds of the TI projecting across
the lumen
o Especially numerous in the veins of the legs
help keep the flow of venous blood directed
toward the heart
o Even small sized and medium sized veins
particularly veins in the extremities the arms
or the legs and those that convey blood
• Carry blood back to the heart from against gravity have valves, because of the
microvasculature all over the body low blood pressure in the veins blood flow to
• The blood that enters the vein is under very low the heart in the veins is quite slow and can
pressure and it moves towards the heart via even back up the presence of valves in the
contraction of smooth muscle fibers in the media veins assist venous blood flow toward the
and external compressions from surrounding heart by preventing back flow
skeletal muscles
• Small to medium veins with diameters of 10mm or
less; located close and parallel to muscular arteries
o Tunica intima: usually thin
o Tunica media: small bundles of smooth muscle
cells mixed with reticular and delicate elastic
fibers
o *Tunica adventitia: thick and well developed
• Large veins: big venous trunks, paired with elastic
arteries close to the heart
o Tunica intima: well developed and IEL may be
present
o Tunica media: think with alternating smooth
muscle and connective tissue
o *Tunica adventitia: thicker than the media,
contained longitudinal bundles of smooth muscle
* both media and adventitia contain elastic fibers

SUMMARY
Type of Artery Outer Intima Media Adventitia Roles in Circulatory
Diamater System
(Approx.
Range)
Elastic >10mm Endothelium Many elastic Connective Conduct blood from
arteries connective tissue lamellae tissue thinner heart and with elastic
with smooth alternating with than media recoil help move
muscle smooth muscle with vasa blood forward under
vasorum steady pressure

| 10
 Muscular 10-1mm Endothelium; Many smooth Connective Distribute blood to all
arteries connective tissue muscle layers, tissue, organs and maintain
with smooth with much less thinner than steady blood pressure
muscle, internal elastic material media: vasa and flow with
elastic lamina vasorum vasodilation and
prominent maybe constriction
present
Small arteries 1-0.1mm Endothelium; 3-10 layers of Connective Distribute blood
connective tissue smooth muscle tissue, to arterioles.
less smooth thinner than adjusting flow with
muscle media: vasodilation and
no vasa constriction
vasorum
Arterioles 100-10µm Endothelium; no 1-3 layers of Very thin Resist and control
connective tissue smooth muscle connective blood flow to
or smooth muscle tissue layer capillaries; major
determinant of
systemic blood
pressure
Capillaries 10-4µm Endothelium only A few pericytes None Exchange metabolites
only by diffusion to and
from cells

Venules 10-100µm Endothelium; no Pericytes and None Drain capillary beds;

(postcapillary, valves scattered site of leukocyte exits
collecting, and smooth muscle from vasculature
muscular) cells

Small veins 0.1-1mm Endothelium; Thin, 2-3 loose Connective Collect blood from
connective tissue layers of smooth tissue, thicker venules
with scattered muscle cells than media
smooth muscle
fibers
Medium veins 1-10mm Endothelium; 3-5 more distinct Carry blood to larger
connective tissue, layers of smooth veins, with no
with valves muscle backflow

Large veins > 10mm Endothelium; > 5 layers of Thickest Return blood to heart
connective tissue, smooth muscle, layer, with
smooth muscle with much bundled
cells; prominent collagen longitudinal
valves smooth
muscle

components which are carried through many

organs to and from the lymph nodes and
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM other lymphoid tissues
RECALL • Lymphatic capillaries
functions: o a system of very thin walled channels that
a) gaseous exchange collect excess interstitial fluid from the
b) temperature control tissue spaces as lymph and return it to the
c) transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, blood
nutrients, hormones, metabolic products, and o Tubes of thin endothelial cells which lack
other essential products tight junctions and rest on a
discontinuous basal lamina. They collect
excess interstitial fluid called lymph from
LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM the tissue spaces and return it to the
• Second major component of the circulatory blood
system o Interstitial fluid enters lymphatic
• Other functions: major distributor of capillaries by flowing between endothelial
lymphocytes, antibodies, and other immune cells and by transcytosis
• Lymph
| 11
 o rich in lightly staining proteins, no RBCs
o lymphocytes and WBCs maybe normally
present
• Aside from the bone marrow and most of the CNS
most tissues with blood microvasculature also
contains lymphatic capillaries or lymphatics
• Lymphatic vessels
o Lymphatic capillaries converge into larger
lymphatic vessels with thin walls and
increasing amount of connective tissues and
smooth muscles but never really form outer
tunics or layers
o have valves comprises of complete intimal
folds
• Lymph nodes
o where lymph is processed by cells of the
immune system
o interposed in the path of larger vessels
• In histologic sections, lymphatic vessels are often
dilated with lymph. As in veins the lymphatic
circulation is aided by external forces such as
contraction of surrounding skeletal muscle with
the valves keeping the lymph flow unidirectional
• Lymphatic vessels converge as two large trunks
the Thoracic duct and Right lymphatic duct
which empty lymph back into the blood
o Thoracic duct connects with the blood
circulatory system near the junction of the left
internal jugular vein with the left subclavian
vein
o Right lymphatic duct enters near the
confluence of the right subclavian vein and
right internal jugular vein
• The structure of these largest lymphatic vessels
is similar to the small veins
• TA: underdeveloped; contains vasa vasorum and
a neural network
Besides gathering interstitial fluid as lymph, and returning it
in blood the lymphatic vascular system is a major
distributor of lymphocytes, antibodies, and other immune
components which are carried to many organs to and from
the lymph nodes & other lymphoid tissues

References:
 Eroschenko, Victor P. (2013). Di Fiore’s Atlas
of Histology with Functional Correlations.
12th Ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams.
 Mesher, Anthony I. (2016). Junquiera’s Basic
Histology. 14th Ed. NY: McGraw-Hill
Education.

| 12