How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

Background:
 Large island 160km from Florida.
 American ally.
 Americans owned most of the business and had a large naval base there.
 American recreation ground.
 1959 – after three year guerrilla campaign – Fidel Castro overthrow the American-backed
dictator Batista.
 Pro-Communist state – in its own ‘sphere of influence’ – test to containment.

Early Attempts:
 1959-1961:
- Cuba and USA avoided confrontation.
- Castro took over US owned businesses but let the USA keep naval base.
- Assured Americans in Cuba that they were safe.
- Said he wanted to run Cuba without interference.
- 1960 – receiving arms from Soviet Union – US spies knew this.
 January 1961:
- USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba.
- Cuba expected an invasion.
- US didn’t invade but it was clear they wouldn’t tolerate a Communist state in their
‘sphere of influence’.
 April 1961: Bay of Pigs:
- President Kennedy supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1400 anti-Castro Cuban
exiles to invade Cuba.
- Landed at the Bay of Pigs.
- Met by 20,000 Cuban troops armed with modern weapons – invasion failed disastrously.
- Castro captured and killed them all within days.
- Cuba and Soviet Union – failed invasion meant that the USA was unwilling to get directly
involved in Cuba – Khrushchev was scornful of Kennedy’s attempt to eradicate
Communism from Cuba.
- Encouraged spread of Communism – showed Kennedy’s weakness – also made Castro
and Khrushchev suspicious of US policy.

Soviet Union:
 1962 – after Bay of Pigs – announces it’s supplying Cuba with arms.
 Cuba has strong army – thousands of Soviet missiles, patrol boats, tanks, radar vans, missile
erectors, jet bombers, jet fighters, Soviet technicians to maintain weapons.
 USA – alarmed – ready to tolerate conventional arms but not nuclear missiles.
 US Intelligence Department believed that it was too risky for the USSR to dare to do this.
 September – Kennedy warned USSR that he would do whatever he had to to prevent Cuba
becoming an offensive military base – i.e. a nuclear missile base.
 USSR assured the USA it had no intention of doing so.
October Crisis:
 14th October 1962 – American U-2 spy plane flew over Cuba – photos of missile sites in Cuba.
 Evident that they were nuclear missile sites being built by the USSR.
 More photos confirmed this.
 Some were already supplied with missiles – others were waiting for them.
 Experts said that most of the sites would be ready to launch missiles in 7 days.
 American spy planes reported that 20 soviet ships were headed for Cuba carrying missiles.
 Kennedy’s options:
1. Do nothing – still had greater nuclear power and could destroy the Soviet Union so
they would probably never use the missiles in Cuba, but the USSR had lied about the
missiles – Kennedy had issued a warning and to do nothing would be seen as
weakness.
2. Surgical air attack (air attack to destroy the bases themselves) – it would destroy the
missiles but it may not destroy the sites completely which would risk a counter
attack, the attack would kill Soviet soldiers causing a retaliation and this would be
seen as immoral without a warning.
3. Invasion of Cuba by air and sea – this would get rid of the missiles and Castro and
the American forces were trained for this, but it would guarantee a Soviet response.
4. Diplomatic pressures (get the UN or other body to intervene) – it would avoid
conflict but if the USA was forced to back down it would be seen as weak.
5. Blockade – It would show the USA’s seriousness but wouldn’t be a direct act of war.
It would put the burden of war on Khrushchev and would make him the aggressor.
The USA had a strong navy and could take other options if this didn’t work.
However, it wouldn’t solve the main problem of the weapons already on Cuba which
could be used within a week and the Soviet Union might respond by blockading
Berlin.
 Kennedy decided to blockade Cuba. Called on Khrushchev to withdraw their missiles.
 Khrushchev sends a letter saying that Soviet ships won’t observe the blockade. He doesn’t
admit that there are nuclear weapons in Cuba.
 24th October – blockade begins – first missile carrying ships (accompanied by a Soviet
submarine) approach the blockade zone. Then, suddenly, the 20 Soviet ships closest to the
zone turn around. Photographs show that work on the missile bases is still proceeding
rapidly, though.
 Khrushchev admits to having weapons in Cuba (in a letter) for defensive purposes, and says
that if the US remove the blockade and assure that they won’t attack Cuba then the
destruction of the missile sites would be a different question.
 Khrushchev sends another letter saying that, in fact, the condition for removing the missiles
is that the US removes its missiles from Turkey. The US doesn’t accept this.
 An American U-2 plane is shot down over Cuba and the pilot is killed. Kennedy is advised to
launch a reprisal attack on Cuba.
 Kennedy decides to delay the attack and ignores the second Khrushchev letter, accepting the
terms suggested by Khrushchev originally. He says that if the Soviet union don’t withdraw an
attack will follow.

Why did the Soviet Union place nuclear missiles on Cuba?

 To Bargain with the USA – could remove them in return for American concessions.
 To trap the USA – wanted them to find them and be drawn into a nuclear war.
 To defend Cuba.
 To test the USA – see how strong they really were – whether or not they would stand up to
them.
  To get the upper hand in the arms race – concerned about the missile gap between the USSR
and USA.

Outcome:
 Cuba remained Communist and highly armed but nuclear missiles were withdrawn with UN
supervision.
 Khrushchev had an improved reputation in his country and claimed a personal victory – that
Cuba remained an ally so close the USA. The fact that he had been forced to back down was
soon forgotten as his role as a peacekeeper was highlighted.
 The Cuban missile crisis helped to thaw Cold War relations between the USA and the USSR.
Now they were more willing to take steps to reduce the risk of nuclear war. In 1963 they
signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty to limit tests of nuclear weapons.
 USA – crisis affected anti-Communist opinion – critics of containment wanted USA to invade
Cuba but the Cuban crisis highlighted the weakness of their case. Such intervention wasn’t
worth the high risk. Communist Cuba was an inconvenience but a nuclear war would be the
end of civilisation.

THE VIETNAM WAR

Origins of the conflict:

 Viet Minh – led by Ho Chi Minh who had studied Communism in the USSR – controlled the
north of the country by the end of WW2.
 Entered city of Hanoi in 1945 and declared Vietnamese independence.
 French tried to take control of Vietnam (it had been theirs previously) – most sympathised
with the Viet Minh (as Ho Chi Minh kept quiet about wanting a Communist Vietnam)
 However in 1949 Communists took over in China – helped Viet Minh.
 Americans saw Viet Minh as puppets of the Chinese Communists.
 Feared Communist plan to dominate South East Asia.
 Gave $500 million a year to French war effort and helped them set up a non-Communist
government in the south of the country.
 War lasted from 1946-54 – Viet Minh’s guerrilla tactics made them impossible to defeat.
 Tied up 190,000 French troops in hit-and-run raids, causing 90,000 French casualties.
 French raids against peasant villages raised support for Viet Minh.
 1954 – Dien Bien Phu – well armed force of French paratroopers defeated:
- 3000 French dead and 8000 died in captivity.
- Viet Minh forces defeated French in open battle with the help of weapons from the
USSR and China.
- A small state had defeated a rich European state with effective leadership, tactics and
determination.
- 1954 peace conference in Geneva – country effectively divided into North and South
Vietnam until elections could be held to decide its future.

Why did the USA become involved?

 USA prevented elections because they feared the Communists would win.
 Eisenhower convinced that the USSR and China were trying to spread communism
throughout Asia.
 Domino theory – if Vietnam fell to Communism others would follow.
 Determined to resist the spread of Communism.

What did they do?

  1955 – Americans helped Ngo Dinh Diem to set up the Republic of South Vietnam – he was
bitterly anti-Communist and was willing to imprison or exile Communists.
 Treated peasants with no respect – came from landlord class.
 Showed little respect for the Buddhist religion of most peasants – was Christian.
 His regime was corrupt.
 Appointed members of his family/supporters to positions of power – refused to hold
elections.
 Americans concerned by his actions – Dulles said ‘We know of no one better’.
 US gave around $1.6 billion to his regime in the 1950s.
 1963 – Diem overthrown by his own army leaders – governments that followed were equally
corrupt but still received US support.
 Increased support for the Communist-led Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (the Viet
Cong) – included South Vietnamese opponents of the government and large numbers of
Communist North Vietnamese taking orders from Ho Chi Minh.
 Peasants who didn’t support the Viet Cong faced intimidation and violence.
 Started guerrilla war against South Vietnamese government.
 Used Ho Chi Minh trail to send reinforcements and supplies to guerrilla fighters.
 Fighters attacked South Vietnamese government forces, officials and buildings, making the
countryside unsafe for the government, and also attacked American air force and supply
bases.
 1962 – Kennedy sending military personnel (calling them ‘advisers’) to fight the Viet Cong.
 1963-4 – tension between North and South increased as did American involvement.
 Kennedy said he wouldn’t enter war unsure of his aims and how to get out again.
 Assassinated in 1963 – successor Lyndon Johnson was more prepared to go to war.
 1964 – North Vietnamese patrol boats fired at US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin.
 Congress passes Tonkin Gulf Resolution – gave Johnson power to take whatever measures
needed to prevent further aggression.
 8th March 1965 – sent US marines and troops to Da Nang – they were at war.

Viet Cong and Guerrilla tactics:

 Early 1965 – had 170,000 troops supplied with weapons from China and the USSR.
 Outnumbered by South Vietnamese army and American allies.
 Viet Cong would fall in open warfare.
 Ho Chi Minh – veteran of Chinese guerrilla war and guerrilla war against the Japanese and
French in Vietnam
 Tactics:
- The enemy attacks, we retreat.
- The enemy camps, we raid.
- The enemy tires, we attack.
- The enemy retreats, we pursue.
 Guerrilla warfare – nightmare for Americans:
- Didn’t wear uniform – hard to distinguish from peasants.
- Worked in small groups.
- Didn’t have known bases/headquarters.
- Attacked then disappeared into jungle/villages/tunnels.
- Aimed to wear down the American troops both physically and mentally – very effective –
American troops in constant fear of ambush/booby traps.
 Viet Cong aimed to get peasants’ support.
 Polite and helpful – helped in the fields at busy times.
 Also ruthless and used intimidation and fear.
 Waged campaign of terror against employees of South Vietnamese government.
  1966-71 – 27,000 SV civilians killed by Viet Cong.
 Never gave up.

US Tactics:
 Bombing:
- 1965 – Operation Rolling Thunder – bombing raids on industrial and military targets –
trying to force Ho Chi Minh to negotiate – failed to do this.
- Continued until 1972 – bombed North and South Vietnam as well as targets in Cambodia
and Laos.
- US dropped more bombs on Vietnam than the allies did in the whole of WW2 on
Germany.
- Damaged NV war effort and disrupted supply lines.
- Could still attack even though they were reducing soldiers from 1969.
- 1970-2 – did help to persuade the North Vietnamese to negotiate.
BUT
Air power couldn’t defeat the communists.
- VC still operated supply lines – estimated that even when bombing was heaviest most
supplies could still get through.
- Very expensive – 14,000 US and SV planes shot down.
- Killed South Vietnamese as well as North Vietnamese.
 Chemical weapons:
- Agent Orange – defoliate jungles where guerrillas were hiding. Used 82 million litres –
very harmful to the body.
- Napalm – destroyed jungle – could burn right through to the bone.
- Agent Blue – sprayed on crops to stop VC growing food.
 Strategic Villages/Hamlet Project:
- Uproot village populations away from areas controlled by VC – deny them local support.
- Merely angered local population and increased the popularity of communists.
 Search and Destroy:
- Established secure bases in the countryside in the South and launched search and
destroy raids from helicopters.
- Raids killed VC.
BUT
- Often based on inadequate intelligence.
- Inexperienced US troops often walked into ambushes.
- Innocent villages were mistaken for VC strongholds.
- Civilian casualties were very high.
- Made US and S Vietnamese very unpopular – popularity of VC increased.

The Tet Offensive (1968):

 Tet – Vietnamese New Year.
 VC attack over 100 cities in SV including US embassy in Saigon.
 Failure – thought people would rise up and throw US out but didn’t.
 US pushed Viet Cong back – superior weapons and technology.
BUT
 Success for VC – cameras see US embassy taken over – US public (sending taxes/men) see
that they can never win the war and are losing.
 Public opinion against the war not just in America – anti-war protests, chant outside
Whitehouse, ‘Hey, Hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?’.
 US had gone into one of the VC towns and destroyed all the temples – turns public opinion.
  Demonstrations and sit-ins at universities – 4 shot dead in Kent State University (Ohio) at a
demonstration by the National Guard.

My Lai Massacre (1968):

 Search and destroy mission in My Lai – told there was a VC HQ there with 200 VC guerrillas.
 Told that the villagers would have left for the market as it was a Saturday – many under the
impression that they had to kill everyone in the village.
 16th March – arrive in My Lai – in four hours 300-400 civilians were killed – old men, women,
children.
 Officers and men praised – said that all but 20 killed had been VC guerrillas.
 12 months later – letter arrived at Washington saying that this was wrong.
 Investigation – photos of the massacre published.
 Lieutenant Calley – officer in the company – on trial for the murder of 109 people.
 Charged with murder of 22 civilians and in 1969 was sentenced to 20 years hard labour but
was released in 1974.
 Army placed all responsibility on him – claimed he wasn’t acting under orders.
 His senior officers were cleared.
 Shocked US public – Nov. 1969 almost 700,000 anti-war protesters demonstrated in
Washington DC – largest political protest in American history.

Ending the war:

 Tet Offensive – Johnson saw that the war couldn’t be won militarily.
 Reduced bombing campaign – instructed officers to being negotiating for peace.
 March 1968 – peace conference in Paris began.
 Johnson didn’t stand for re-election – admission of failure.
 Republicans and Democrats both promising to end the war.
 Trying to get out of it without it looking like defeat.
 Nov. 1968 – Nixon elected.
 1969-73 – he and his National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger worked to end US
involvement in Vietnam.
 Not easy – question of how to contain Communism hadn’t gone away (what had got them
into the war in the first place).
 Didn’t want to be seen to hand Vietnam to Communists.
 Used range of strategies:
- Pressure on the USSR and China – seemed there would be war between USSR and China
so both tried to improve relations with USA. 1970 – Nixon began Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT) with the USSR to limit nuclear weapons. Tried to get Moscow to
persuade NV to end the war. Started to improve relations with China – asked them to
encourage NV to end the war too.
- Peace negotiations with NV – early 1969 – regularly negotiated with NV peace
negotiator, Le Duc Tho.
- Vienamisation of the war effort – replacing his troops as he withdrew with SV troops.
- Bombing – increased bombing campaigns against NV to show strength. Invaded VC
bases in Cambodia (caused worldwide outrage, even in USA).
 1972 – NV launched major offensive but didn’t conquer SV.
 1973 – all Americans left Vietnam. Made peace with them.
 April 1975 – SV taken over by NV – still Communist today.

Consequences of the War:

 Environmental: Chemical warfare:
 - Damaged crops – food shortages.
- Destroyed 5.4 million acres of forest areas and the species living there.
- Poisoned streams/rivers.
 US Troops:
- Drug addiction – Hard drugs available easily in Vietnam – heroin use by US troops at
30%.
- Confusion and bitterness – not welcomed home like after WW2 – difficulty adjusting to
civilian life.
- Stress – post traumatic stress.
- Cancer – some soldiers who handled Agent Orange developed cancer.
 Vietnamese citizens:
- SV citizens had levels of dioxin (poison) from chemical warfare – 3x as high as US
citizens.
- Unexploded mines and bombs – death of adults and children for years after.
- Napalm – horrific burns, disfigurements – often civilians caught in crossfire affected.
 Vietnamese society:
- Morals:
 Fighting – peasants driven into shanty towns near US bases – poverty,
prostitution and drug abuse common.
 US forces supplied with luxuries – created huge black market with SV govn.
officials.
 Buddhist priests protested about the effects of American presence in Vietnam in
the late 1960s.
- Refugees:
 5 million SV displaced from their homes. Towns and villages in N and SV
devastated by bombing and ground fighting.
 Vietnam took over 20 years to start recovering from the war.
 Poverty, Communist policies and the hope of a better life led thousands of
Vietnamese to become ‘boat people’ in the late 1970s onwards.
 Tried to sail to Malaysia and Hong Kong in makeshift boats.
 Many went to the west (mainly US).
 At least 50,000 drowned or were murdered by pirates.
 Mid 1990s – USA ends trade ban with Vietnam and the World Bank was finally
allowed to invest in the country.