Internal Combustion Engines

This is heat engine since its power is derived from heat due to combustion of fuel. As the name
connotes, combustion occurs inside a confine and for this type of engine in cylinders.

Sketch of a basic four stroke cycle internal combustion engine

First - intake stroke, working substance enters the cylinder and piston moves until its reaches
the crank end point. During this stroke the intake valve is opens while the exhaust valve is closed

Second – the working substance is compressed until it reaches the cylinder end point
(compression stroke), after which combustion is started. In this stroke both the intake and exhaust
valves are closed.

Third - the working substance which receives heat energy from combustion of working
substance, pushes the piston to move up to the crank end point (expansion stroke or power stroke). The
intake and exhaust valves are both closed during this stroke

Fourth - products of combustion is released from the cylinder( exhaust stroke), and during this
stroke the exhaust valve is opens while the intake valve remains closed.

Types of internal combustion engine cycles

1. Otto cycle
2. Diesel cycle
3. Dual combustion cycle

A. Otto cycle (SVSV)

Another name is gasoline engine cycle, spark ignition cycle. This cycle got its name from it inventor. A
type of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) CYCLE where air and fuel are drawn at intake and compressed
for combustion. A spark or an igniter initiates combustion.

Sketch of the cycle on the PV and Ts planes are in the GC messenger

1-2 isentropic compression of air ( Wc )
2-3 isometric combustion (Qa)
3-4 isentropic expansion (We)
4-1 isometric heat rejection (Qr)

Cycle analysis
1. P,V and T at all corners of the cycle
1-2
T2/T1 =( P2/P1)K-1/K = (V1/V2)K-1
2-3
V2 =V3
P2/T2 =P3/T3
3-4
T4/T3 = (P4/P3)K-1/K = ( V3/V4)K-1
 4-1
V4 = V1
P4/T4 =P1/T1

2. Heat added (Qa) occurs in 2-3 (V=C)

Qa = (m) Cv (T3-T2)

3. Heat rejected (Qr) occurs in 4-1

Qr = (m) Cv (T1-t4) T4 is higher than T1 this is negative heat
= - (m) Cv (T4-T1)

4. Work of compression (Wc) at 1-2

Wc = (P2v2-p1v1)/1-k
= (m) R (T2-T1)/1-k

5. Work of expansion (We) at 3-4

We =( P4V4 -P3V3)/1-k
= (m) R (T4-T3)/1-k

6. Net work (W)

W = summation of heat in the cycle
= summation of heat in the cycle

W = (m) Cv (T3-t2) – (m) Cv ( T4-T1)

7. Cycle thermal efficiency (e)

e = W/Qa
=[ (T3-T2) – ( T4-T1)]/ (T3-T2)

= 1 - (T4-T1)/(T3-T2 equation 1
Simplifying
Compression ratio (r k ) = V1/V2

Taking process 1-2 (S=C)

T2/T1 = (V1/V2) K-1 then T1 = T2 ( V2/V1) K-1
= T2/(r k )k-1
Taking process 3-4 (S=C)
T4/T3 = (V3/V4) K-1 V3= V2 and V1=V4
K-1
T4 =T3 (V2/V1)
= T3/(r k)k-1

Substituting in equation 1

e = 1 - 1/(r k)k-1
 Another form of the equation of cycle thermal efficiency
e = (T2 – T1)/T2
The net work can also be derived using summation of works for the 4 processes
W = integral of Pdv (1-2) + integral of Pdv (2-3) + integral of pdv (3-4)
+ integral of Pdv (4-1)

The second and fou rth terms are zero

W = (m) R (T2-T1) 1-k + (m) R (T4 -T3)1-k
Considering Cv= r/k-1 and re-arranging terms
W = (m) Cv (T3-T2) – (m) Cv (T4-T1)
8. Clearance volume, displacement volume and clearance ratio

Clearance volume = V2
Displacement volume VD = V1-V2
Compression ratio rk = V1/V2
Expansion ratio re = V4/V3
=V1/V2
Clearance ratio (c) = clearance volume/displacement volume
= V2/Vd
= V2/V1-V2
Clearance volume (V2) in terms of clearance ratio and displacement volume
V2= V3 = CVd
Clearance ratio in terms of compression ratio
R k = V1/V2
= (Vdisp + V2)/V2
=( Vdisp + cVdisp)/cVdisp
= (1 + c)/c where c is in ratio digit not percent
9. Mean effective pressure (Pm) some reference termed it Mep
Pm = W/ v disp
= W/ V1-V2

Air standard analysis

When the standard of analysis is cold air, the value of k= 1.4
When the standard of analysis is hot air, the value of k is less than 1.4

Example
A spark ignition ideal cycle operates on 0.45 kg/sec mass rate of air from a pressure of 97 KPa and
temperature of 55 C at the start of compression. The temperature at the end of combustion is 2,780 K
and the compression ratio is 5.5. Using hot air standard with k=1.3, calculate a) P, V and T at all corners
of the cycle b) Heat added c) heat rejected d) mean effective pressure e) net work (W) in horsepower

Solution
Sketch the cycle on PV Plane
m = 0.5 kgs/sec of air
 k= 1.3
R –= 0.287 KJ/kg K
P1 = 97 KPa
T1 = 328 k
T3 = 2,780 K
Rk = 5.5
a) P,V and T at all corners of the cycle
point 1
V1 = (m) R T1/P1
=
Point 2, take process 1-2 (S=C) and using compression ratio
V2 = V1/5.5
=
( P2/P1)K-1/K = (V1/V2)K-1 = T2/T1
P2 =
T2 =
Point 3 take process 2-3 an isobaric process
P2/T2 = P3/T3
P3 =
V3 = V2
=
Point 4 take process 3-4 (S=C)
V4= V1
=
T4/T3 =( V3/V4) K-1 = (P4/P3)K-1/K

T4 =
P4 =
b) Heat added Qa
Qa = mCv (T2-T1)
where
Cv = R/k-1
=
therefore
Qa =
c) Heat rejected Qr
Qr = (m) Cv (T1-T4)
=
d) Mean effective pressure (Pm)
= W/Vdisp
= (Qa -Qr)/V1-V2
=
e) W in horsepower
1 hp = 0.746 kw
B. Diesel cycle (SPSV)
This type of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) cycle draws only air at intake and compresses
to a higher pressure enough to ignite the fuel being injected at the end of the compression
process. Other name for this Compression ignition engine cuycle.

Sketch of the cycle on PV and Ts planes in GC messenger

1-2 isentropic compression of air (Wc)

2-3 isobaric heat addition (Qa)
3-4 isentropic expansion (We)
4-1 isometric heat rejection (Qr)

1. P,V and T relationship ar each corner of the cycle

1-2
T2/T1 = (P2/P1)K-1/K = (V1/V2)K-1

2-3
P2= P3
V2/T2 = V3/T3

3-4
T4/T3 = (P4/P3)K-1/K = (V3/V4)K-1

4-1
V4 =V1
P4/T4 = P1/T1

2. Heat added (Qa) occurs in process 2-3

Qa = (m) Cp (T3-T2) positive, heat into the system

3. Heat rejected (Qr) occurs in process 4-1

Qr = (m) Cv (T1-T4)
= - (m) Cv (T4 -T1) this is negative heat, going out from the system

4. Work of compression Wc occurs in process 1-2

Wc = (m) R (T2-T1)/ 1-k negative, work done on the substance

5. Work of expansion We occurs in process 3-4

We = (m) R ( T4-T1)/1-k positive, work done by the substance

6. Cycle thermal efficiency ( e )

= W/Qa
=( Qa -Qr)/Qa
 e = [ (m) Cp (T3-T2) - (m) Cv (T4-T1) ]/ (m) Cp (T3-T2)

= 1 - (T4 – T1)/k(T3 – T2)

Expressing thew cycle thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio and cut off ratio
Compression ratio = r k

Cut off ratio rc = the volume at cut off (where fuel injection stops thus divided
By the volume at the start of combustion
= V3/V2
Expressing all temperatures in other corners in term of T1
1-2 (S=C)
T2 = T1 ( r k)k-1

2-3 (P=C)
V2/T2 = V3/T3
T3 = T2 ( r C )
= T1 (r k )k-1 (rc )

3-4 (S=C)
T4 = T3 ( V3/V4) K-1
= T3 ( r c V2/V1)K-1
= T3 ( r c / rk )k-1

= T1 (r c )k
Substituting in the equation for cycle thermal efficiency

e = 1 - 1/(r k )k-1 [ ( rck -1)/(krc – 1) ]

7. Mean effective pressure (Pm)

= W/(V1-V2)

8. Clearance ratio (c ) = V2/Vdisp

= V2/(V1 -V2)

Compression ratio (rk ) = V1/V2

= (V2 + Vdisp)/V2
=( cVdisp + Vdisp)/cVdisp
=( 1 + c )/c

Example
In an ideal Diesel engine cycle , air at the beginning of the compression process is at 15 psia, 140 F and
the compression ratio is 5.The maximum temperature is 2,540 F. For one pound mass of air calculate a)
the pressure, volume and temperatures at all corners of the cycle b) heat supplied to the engine c) cut
off ratio d) cycle thermal efficiency e) mean effective pressure

Solution
Draw the cycle on the PV and TS planes

P1 = 15 psia
T1 = 600 R
Rk = 5
T3 = 3,000 R
R = 53.342 ft-lbs/lb R
K = 1.4

a) Properties at all corners of the cycle

V1 = (m1) R T1/P1
=

At point 2, taking process 1-2

Vi/V2 = 5 then V2 =

T2/T1 = (P2/P1)K-1/K = (V1/V2)K-1

T2 =
P2 =

At point 3, taking process 2-3

P3 = P2
T3 = 3,000 R given

V2/T2 = V3/T3 then V3 =

At point 4, taking process 3-4

V4 =V1
T4/T3 = (P4/P3) K-1/K = (V3/V4)K-1
T4 =
P4 =

b) Heat added Qa
Qa = (m) Cp (T3-T2) where Cp is taken from gas table for air
=

c) Cut off ratio ( rc )

= V3/v2
=
 d) Cycle thermal efficiency ( e )
e = 1 – 1/( rk )k-1[ (rck-1 -1)/k(rc – 1)
=
Cycle thermal efficiency can also be computed using the equation
e = W/Qa
= (Qa -Qr)/Qa
Where
Qr = (m) Cv (T1-T4) Cv value taken from gas table for air

Hence e=

e) Mean effective pressure (Pm)

= W/Vdisp where Vdisplacement = V1 -V2
=

C. Dual combustion cycle (SVPSV)

An actual indicator card ( a diagram that draws the actual relationship of pressure and volume in
an engine cycle, similar to the cycle drawing on the PV plane) of Otto and Diesel engines shows a
rounded top with a shape that suggests that the fuel burns partly at constant pressure and
partly at constant pressure.

This actual observation led to a design proposal of the so- called Dual combustion cycle or mixed
cycle for internal combustion engine. Simply said, this ICE cycle is a theoretical cycle full of
potential since thermal efficiency is higher compared to Otto and Diesel cycles.

Sketch of the cycle in GC messenger-

1-2 isentropic compression of working substance (Wc)
2-3 isometric heat addition (Qav)
3-4 isobaric heat addition (Qap)
4-5 isentropic expansion (We)
5-1 isometric heat rejection (Qr)

1. Heat added ( Qa)

= Qav + Qap
where
Qav = (m) Cv (T3-T2)
Qap = (m) Cp (T4-T3)

2. Heat rejected (Qr)

= (m) Cv ( T1 – T5)
= - (m) Cv (T5 -T1)

3. Net work (W)

= summation of heat
 = (m) Cv (T3 – T2) + (m) Cp (T4 – T3) – (m) Cv (T5 - T1)

Note Net work can also be solved by summation of integral of Pdv in the 5 processes

4. Cycle thermal efficiency ( e )

= W/Qa

= [ (m) Cv(T3-T2) + (m)Cp(T4-T3) – (m)Cv(T5-T1)]/[(m) Cv(T3-T2) + (m) Cp(T4-T3)]

c

= 1 - T5-T1/[(T3-T2) +k(T4-T3)

e=1 - [1(/r x )k-1 ] [ rp rc k-1 - 1]/[(rp -1) + rp k (rc -1)]

Where
Compression ratio = r k
=V1/v2

Cut off ratio = r c

= V4/V3

Pressure ratio = r p
= P3/P2

To derive the above equation of the cycle thermal efficiency is to express all corner temperatures in
terms of T1 and substitute to the ( e) equation.

Take processes
1-2
T2 = T1 ( r k )k-1

2-3
P2/T2 =P3/T3 P3/P2 is the pressure ratio
T3 = T2 r p
= T1( r k )k-1 rp

3-4
V3/T3 = V4/T4 V4/V3 is the cut off ratio
T4 = T1( r k )k-1 rp rc

4-5
T5/t4 = (V4/V5) K-1 v5=V1 ; V4= rc V3 ; V3=V2
T5 = T1 r p rc
Substituting this in the cycle thermal efficiency describe above, it will give the expression of the cycle
thermal efficiency in terms of the ratios.

5. Mean effective pressure Pm

= W/Vdisp
= W/ V1-V2

6. Clearance ratio in terms of compression ratio

Rk = ( 1 + c)/c c= clearance ratio =(V2/Vdisp

Example
An ideal dual combustion engine cycle 0perates on 1 pound mass of air. At the start of the compression
process, the conditions of air are 14.2 psia, 110 F. Pressure ratio is 1.5, cut off ratio equals 1.6 and
compression ratio is 11. Determine a) percentage clearance b) P,V and T at all corners of the cycle c)
heat added d) cycle thermal efficiency e) mean effective pressure

Solution
Draw the sketch of the cycle on PV and TS planes
m = 1 lb mass r p = 1.5
P1 = 14.2 psia r k = 11
T1 = 570 R r c = 1.6
R = 53.342 ft-lbs/lb R
Cv = 0.1714 Btu/lb R
Cp = 0.24 Btu/lb R
K =1.4

a) Percentage clearance ( c)
Rk = ( 1 + c )/c
c=

b) P,V, T at all corners of the cycle

At point 1
V1 = (m) R T1/P1
=

At point 2, taking process 1-2

T2/T1 = (P2/P1) K-1/K = (V1/V2)K-1 where VI/V2 = rk
V2 =
T2 =
P2 =

At point 3
V3 =V2
 P3/P2 = 1.6 then P3 =

P2/T2 = P3/T3 taking process 2-3 relationship

Where
P3/P2 = 1.5 then P3 =
And
T3 =

At point 4
P4 =P3
V4/V3 = 1.6 then V4 =
V3/T3 = V4/T4 process 3-4 relationship
T4 =

At point 5, taking process 4-5

T5/T4 =(P5/P4) K-1/K = (V4/V5)K-1
Where
V5=V1
Then
T5 =
P5 =

c) Heat added (Qa)

QaV = (m) Cv (T3-T2) where Cp and Cv are taken from gas table
=
Qap = (m) Cp (T4-T3)
=
Qa = Summation of the 2 Qas
=
Solving for the amount of heat rejected
Qr = (m) R (T1-T5)
=

e = (Qa -Qr)/Qa x 100

=
The cycle thermal efficiency can also be solved using the equation where the ratios are invove
e=

d) Mean effective pressure (Pm)

= W/Vdisp
= W/ V1-V2