Chapter 1: Introduction

Department of Information and Communication Engineering

(ICE)
Bangladesh Army University of Engineering & Technology
(BAUET)

Lecture Note

on

Course Title: Electromagnetic Field and Antenna Engineering

Course Code: ICE-2241

Chapter 1: Introduction

Prepared by
Dr. Md. Rubel Basar
Asst. Prof., Dept. of ICE

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Course Objectives
1. To identify, analyze and interpret the fundamental parameters of antennas.
2. To formulate and analyze Friis transmission equation and radar range equation.
3. To formulate the radiation fields of an antenna, at both near- and far zone; and
identify the reciprocity principles.
4. To formulate and analyze the radiation from wire antennas (dipoles, monopoles, loop
antennas).
5. To formulate and analyze the antenna arrays and microstrip antennas.

Course Outcomes (CO):

1. Develop basic understanding and in depth knowledge on radiation mechanism and
fundamental parameters of antenna.
2. Analyze the Friis transmission equation and radar range equation and radiation
mechanism of single unit and array antenna.
3. Design microstrip antennas to meet the application specific requirements and
investigate the contemporary issues in antenna engineering field.

Reference Book
1. Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, by Constantine A. Balanis (3rd Edition).
2. Antennas And Wave Propagation, by John D Kraus (4th Edition)

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Course Outline
Chapter Tropics Week

Field Equations Vector, Coordinate system, Field equations based on laws of Coulomb, 1-2
Ampere and Faraday, Del Operator, Gradient, Divergence, Curl, Electrostatics,
Magneto-statics, Maxwell¢s equation, Units and dimensions of field vectors,
E-H symmetry.
Propagation of Wave equations; plane wave concept; Plane electromagnetic waves in free- 3-5
Electromagneti space, in conducting, dielectric and in ionized media, intrinsic impedance and
c Waves propagation constant.
Reflection and Boundary conditions; Reflection from dielectrics and conductors; Fresnel¢s 6-7
Refraction of equations; Total reflection; Skin effect; phase and group velocities, Reflection
Electromagneti and refraction in the ionosphere.
c Waves
Transmission Transmission Line Parameters, Transmission Line Equations, Input 8-9
Line Waveguide Impedance, SWR and Power Smith Chart, Waveguide, Antenna, Radiation
and Antenna mechanism, Current distribution on a thin wire antenna.
Fundamental Radiation patterns, Radiation power density, Radiation intensity, Directivity, 10-11
Parameters of Gain, Antenna efficiency, Half-power beam width, Beam efficiency,
Antenna Bandwidth, Polarization, Input impedance, Antenna radiation efficiency,
Vector effective length, Maximum directivity and maximum effective area,
Antenna temperature.
Other Types of Cylindrical Dipole, Folded Dipole, Broadband Dipoles, Matching Techniques, 12-13
Antenna Traveling Wave Antennas, Broadband Antennas, Log-Periodic Antennas,
Electrically Small Antennas, Aperture Antennas, Micro strip Antennas,
Reflector Antennas, Smart Antennas Array Antenna.

Lecture -1
1. What is antenna/Define Antenna (P1L1)
Antenna: An antenna is defined by Webster’s Dictionary as “a usually metallic device (as
a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves.” The IEEE Standard Definitions of
antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.” In other words the
antenna is A metallic device which is used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic
waves.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

2. What is antenna system? Sketch and indicate the different parts of

antenna system (P1L1)
The system which is consist of source, transmission line and Antenna for receiving or
radiating radio waves is knows as Antenna system.

Source Transmission line Antenna Radiated free-space wave

(CAB) Figure 1.1: Antenna as a transition device.

3. List the application of antenna (P1L1)

In the modern era , Antenna is serve as an eye or front device of any wireless
communication systems including radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way
radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, satellite communications,
military defense, biomedical and so on. The Physical significances are given below:
i. It is commonly used for the radiating and receiving radio waves.
ii. It is used as a directional device.
iii. It also use for probing the waves or information.
iv. It can relax the system requirements and improve the system performance.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

4. Explain the Different Types of Antennas (P1L1)

In order to get different radiation characteristics we can use different types of the antenna.
Now, we explain their construction and feature’s:
a. Dipole/Monopole: Wires of half wavelengths are commonly termed as dipoles.
These are very frequently employed in various applications. Their radiation
resistance is about 73 ohms. If only half of this length is used, the wire is referred as
a quarter-wave monopole with a radiation resistance of 36.5 ohms. In this latter
case, it is to be located in the vicinity of a reflecting surface (termed as ground
plane) in order to allow the image formation as a substitute for the leftover half of the
dipole. Since the characteristic impedance of free space is about 377 ohms, there is
a gross mismatch between a dipole and the free space. In order to accomplish
matching, dipoles are normally folded which enhances their radiation resistance.
There are doubly or triply folded dipoles involving two, three and four wires.

b. Wire Antenna: Besides half-wave dipoles and quarter-wave monopoles, wires of

arbitrary length are very often used to form different types of antennas. Wire antennas
may be vertical, horizontal or sloppy with respect to the ground plane and may be fed
in the center, at an end or anywhere in between. These wires may be thin or thick.
Thickness of wire influences the characteristics of an antenna, particularly its
radiation resistance. However, wires used in these are only physically long but they
may be electrically short. Antennas with lengths greater than λ/2 are generally placed
in the category of long-wire antennas. There are various shapes of wire antenna which
are:

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Chapter 1: Introduction

i. Straight wire (monopole or dipole)

ii. Loop antenna
iii. Helix or Helical antenna

Dipole Circular Loop Helix

CAB: Figure 1.3 Wire antenna configurations.

c. Loop Antennas: Loops can be classified in various ways, viz., (a) small and large
loops, (b) circular and square loops, (c) loops having single or multi turns, and (d)
loops with turns wound using a single wire or multiple wires. The small circular
loop satisfies the condition d<<λ (generally d<λ/10), where d is the diameter of
the loop. Similarly, the small rectangular loop satisfies the condition A<λ 2/100,
where A is the area of the loop. Loop antennas in conjunction with sense (wire)
antennas are very frequently used as direction finders. Loops are also used in radio
receivers.
d. Slot Antennas: Slots too may have many versions. A slot or slots may be cut in a
flat sheet, along a cylinder, a waveguide wall of a circular or rectangular shape.
The shapes of slots in rectangular sheets may be rectangular, conical, circular or
annular. If required, these slots may be fed through a probe or a coaxial cable.
Besides, such a feed may be located in the center, at an end or in between. The
vertical slots may result in horizontal polarization, and horizontal slots in vertical
polarization. A slot cut at an edge of a sheet is referred as a notch antenna.
e. Horn Antennas/Aperture Antennas: This types of antenna are become more familiar
because of their use in the sophisticate applications and the utilization of higher
frequencies (in microwave). Some form of aperture antennas are:
i. Pyramidal horn
ii. Conical horn &
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Chapter 1: Introduction

iii. Rectangular wave guide

Pyramidal horn Conical horn Rectangular waveguide

CAB: Figure 1.4 Aperture antenna configurations.

f. Microstrip Antennas:- It is consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate .

The metallic patch can take many different configuration on which the antennas are
defined. The rectangular and circular patch are the most popular because of ease
of analysis and fabrication and their attractive radiation characteristics. Especially low
cross polarization radiation.
Feature:-
a. It has low profile.
b. Comfortable to planar and non-planar surface.
c. Simple and inexpensive to fabricate.
d. Mechanically robust.
e. Compatible with MIC design.
f. Very versatile in terms of resonant frequency polarization, pattern and
impedance.
Applications: - It is usually used in the aircraft, satellites, missiles, cars and mobile phones.

(a) Rectangular Patch (b) Circular Patch

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Chapter 1: Introduction

CAB: Figure 1.5 Rectangular and circular microstrip (patch) antennas.

g. Array Antenna: - When the radiation characteristics are not achieved by a single
element antenna then we use combination of radiation element in an electrical and
geometrical arrangement to get desired radiation characteristics. This type of antenna is
knows as array Antenna. For This type of antennas the radiation from the elements adds
up to give maximum radiation in a particular direction and minimum in others.

(a) Yagi-Uda array (d) Slotted-waveguide array

(c) Microstrip patch array (b) Aperture array

CAB: Figure 1.6 Typical wire, aperture, and microstrip array configurations.

h. Reflection Antennas:- When it is need to communicate over great distance,

sophisticated forms of antennas are used to transmit or receive signals. The diameter of
this of antenna is as large as 305 m. which is required to get high gain. High gain is
necessary to transmit or receive signals that had to travel millions of miles.
Examples:

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Chapter 1: Introduction

a. Parabolic reflection &

b. Corner reflection

(a) Parabolic reflector with front feed (b) Parabolic reflector with cassegrain feed

(c) Corner reflector

CAB: Figure 1.7 Typical reflector configurations.

i. Lens Antenna: It is used to climate incident divergent energy to prevent it from
speeding in undesired directions. By choosing proper geometrical configuration and
appropriate material we can transform various forms of divergent energy into plane
waves. They are also used for the communication over large or millions of distance.
Their dimensions and weight become exceedingly long at lower frequency.

(a) Lens antennas with index of reflection n>1

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Chapter 1: Introduction

(b) Lens antennas with index of refraction n<1

CAB: Figure 1.8 Typical lens antenna configurations.

5. Explain why the Antenna System Design Need to be Proper and How the
Losses of the Antenna Can be Removed?
If the antenna system is not properly designed then: i) the transmission line could act as
an energy storage element instead of as a wave guiding or energy transporting device.
On the other hand, ii) if there is a large mismatch at the junction of the transmission
line and antenna then the maximum filed intensities reflect back and creates standing
wave in the transmission line. In addition to this, for the improper design of Antenna
system we cannot extract and transport of maximum waves.

Recover the Antenna loss:-

Usually the antenna losses are occurred for the transmission line, antenna and the standing
waves. Which are undesirable. These losses are removed by this following steps:
i. The line loss can be minimized by selecting low loss line.
ii. Antenna loss can be reduced by decreasing the magnitude of the load resistance
iii. The standing wave can be reduced and energy capacity of the line can be
minimized by matching the impedance of the antenna with the characteristic
impedance.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

6. Explain the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit of the Antenna System.

Ans:- The transmission line Thevenin equivalent circuit of the Antenna system can be used
both in the transmitting and receiving mode as below:

The equivalent circuit in TX mode:

CAB Figure 1.2 Transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of antenna in transmitting mode.

A transmission-line Thevenin equivalent circuit of the antenna system is shown in Figure

where the source is represented by an ideal generator, the transmission line is represented
by a line with characteristic impedance Zc, and the antenna is represented by a load ZA
[ZA=(RL+Rr)+jXA] connected to the transmission line.
Where,
RL= Load resistance which represent the conduction and dielectric loss of the Antenna.
Rr= Radiating resistance which represent the radiation of the Antenna.
XA= Imaginary part of the impedance associated with the radiation.
In ideal condition, energy generated by the source totally transferred to the radiating
resistance. But in practical system it is not possible due to the conduction –dielectric losses
and reflection losses at the interface of transmission line and antenna.

If there is a mismatch at the point of transmission line and antenna then the waves are
reflected from this interface and produce constructive and destructive interference
patterns which is knows as standing waves. It usually causes for the energy concentration
and storage.
Maximum power is delivered from the source to the antenna under conjugate
matching.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit of Receiving Antenna

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure. Thevenin equivalent circuit of receiving antenna

Where,
 he = effective length
 E = incident field strength
 Voc= he E open circuit voltage
 Zload= Input impedance of the receiver.

7. How Does Radiation Occurs in a Single Wire Antenna

Ans. The prominent characteristics of any conductor is the motion of electric charges and
the creation of current flow.

Let us assume that, an electric volume charge density (q v) is uniformly distributed in a

circular wire of cross sectional area (A) and volume (V) the total charge Q within volume V
is moving in the Z direction with a uniform velocity vz.

Now, the current density Jz (A/m2) over the cross section of the wire is given as

Jz=qvvz (i)

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Chapter 1: Introduction

If the wire is mode of an ideal electric conduction then, the current density Js (A/m) resides
on the surface of the wire is given by

Js=qsvz (ii)

Where, qs is the surface charge density.

Again, if the wire is very thin then the current in the wire is given by
Iz=qlvz (iii)
When, ql is the line charge density.
Now, if the current is the time varying then the current of equn (iii) can be written as:
dI z dv
=ql z =q l a z
dt dt
dI z
=ql a z (iv)
dt

If the wire length is l, then the equn (iv) can be written as follow
dI z
l =l ql q z (v)
dt
Equation (v) is the fundamental relation of electromagnetic radiation and shows the
relationship between current and charge. It also states that, to create radiation there must
be a time varying current or an acceleration or deceleration of charges.

CAB: Figure 1.9 Charge uniformly distributed in a circular cross section cylinder wire.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

8. State the Mandatory Condition for radiation of EM Energy.

Ans. The reasons which are necessary to produce electromagnetic radiation are given
below:
i. If a charge is not moving , current is not created and there is no radiation
ii. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
a. There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
b. There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated or
truncated, as shown in Figure below.
iii. If charge is oscillating in a time motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.

9. Explain the radiation mechanism of two wire antenna.

Ans: Let us, consider a sinusoidal voltage source which is connected to a two conduction
transmission line which is connected to an antenna. This is shown in figure below:

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Chapter 1: Introduction

CAB: Figure 1.11 Source, transmission line, antenna, and detachment of electric field lines.

 Applying a sinusoidal voltage across the two conductor transmission line creates an
electric field between the conductors. The electric field has associated with it electric
lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at each point and their strength is
proportional to the electric field intensity.
 The electric lines of force have a tendency to act on the free electrons (easily
detachable from the atoms) associated with each conductor and force them to be
displaced.
 The movement of the charges creates a current that in turn creates a magnetic field
intensity. Associated with the magnetic field intensity are magnetic lines of force
which are tangent to the magnetic field.

We have accepted that electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges. They also
can start on a positive charge and end at infinity, start at infinity and end on a negative charge, or form
closed loops neither starting nor ending on any charge. Magnetic field lines always form closed loops
encircling current-carrying

 The creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields between the conductors forms
electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission line, as shown in Figure
1.11(a).
 The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated with them electric
charges and corresponding currents. If we remove part of the antenna structure, as
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Chapter 1: Introduction

shown in Figure 1.11(b), free-space waves can be formed by “connecting” the open
ends of the electric lines (shown dashed)
 The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant phase point P0 moves outwardly
with the speed of light and travels a distance of λ/2 (to P 1) in the time of one-half of a
period.
 This leads us to conclude that electric charges are required to excite the fields but
are not needed to sustain them and may exist in their absence. This is in direct
analogy with water waves.

10. Explain the Current Distribution and radiation on a (1) Two wire
transmission line (2) Flared & (3) Various Linear Dipole Antenna

Ans. To explain the current distribution on a thin wire antenna we may consider three
geometry which are given below:

a. Two wire transmission line:

The movement of the charges creates a traveling wave current along each of the
wires as shown in Figure 1.15(a). When the currents arrive at the end of the wires it
undergoes a complete refection with equal magnitude but 1800 phase reversal. Now
the, the reflected and incident wave are combined together and form a pure standing
wave pattern of sinusoidal form in each ware. If the spacing between the two wire is
very small (S<<λ) then the fields radiated by the current of each wire are essentially
cancelled by those of the other. As a result it shows an ideal or desired non redialing
transmission line. In this case maximum reflection is happened which results
minimum radiation.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

CAB: Figure 1.15 Current distribution on a lossless two-wire transmission line, flared
transmission line, and linear dipole.

b. Now, if we consider a portion of the transmission line become flared as shown in

Figure 1.15(b) then the current distribution in each wire is assumed as unaltered.
Because of the two wires of the flared section are not necessarily close to each other,
the fields radiated by one do not necessarily cancel those of the other. Therefore
ideally there is a net radiation by the transmission-line system. As we increase flaring
the reflection will decrease. Hence, incident and reflected wave will not get
cancelled completely.
c. Ultimately the flared section of the transmission line can take the form shown in
Figure 1.15(c). This is the geometry of the widely used dipole antenna. Flaring in

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Chapter 1: Introduction

transmission line is dipole antenna. At maximum flaring, maximum radiation

happens.

If the diameter of each wire is very small (d<<λ), the ideal standing wave pattern of the
current along the arms of the dipole is sinusoidal with a null at the end. However, its
overall form depends on the length of each arm. For center-fed dipoles with l<<λ, l=λ/2,
λ/2 <l <λ and λ< l <3λ/2, the current patterns are illustrated in Figures 1.16(a – d).

CAB: Figure 1.16 Current distribution on linear dipoles.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

For General Knowledge

JDK Table 1–1 Metric prefixes, symbols and pronunciation

JDK 1–7 The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Radio Frequency Band

According to an American military general, the third World War (if ever fought) will be
won by the side who will have a better command over the electromagnetic spectrum (given
in Table 1–3). Theoretically, the spectrum encompasses all frequencies ranging from 0+ to
infinity. The spectrum shown, however, includes a limited (finite) range along with relevant
known objects to fit into the human imagination.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

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