2 AText

bookofMachi
neDesi
gn 4.For m andsi zeoft hepar ts.Thef orm ands izear ebasedonj udgement .The
smal l
estpr act i
cabl ecr os s- sect i
onmaybeus ed,butitmaybecheckedt hatt hes tresses
1.
2 Cl
ass
ifi
cat
ionsofMachi
neDesi
gn i
nduced i nt hedes igned cr os s-sect i
on ar ereas onablysaf e.I n or dert o des ign any
machi nepar tforf orm andsi z e,itisneces sarytoknow t hef orceswhi cht hepar tmus t
Themachi nedesi gnmaybecl as sif
iedasf ollows:
sust ain.I tisal soimpor tantt oant icipateanysuddenl yappl i
edori mpactl oadwhi chmay
1.Adapt ive desi gn.I n mostcases,t he desi gner’s wor ki s concer ned wi th caus ef ail
ure.
adaptati
onofexi st i
ngdesi gns .Thi st ypeofdesi gnneedsnospeci alknowl edgeorski l
l
5.Fr i
ctionalr esist anceandl ubr i
cation.Ther ei sal way sal ossofpowerduet o
andcanbeat t
empt edbydesi gner sofor di
naryt echnicaltraining.Thedesi gneronl y
fri
ctionalr esistanceandi tshoul dbenot edt hatthef r
ictionofst art i
ngi shi ghert hant hat
makesmi noral t
ernationormodi ficationi ntheexi stingdesignsoft hepr oduct .
ofr unni ngf r
iction.I tis,t her efore,essent ialthatacar efulattent i
onmustbegi vent ot he
2.Devel opmentdesi gn.Thi st ypeofdes i
gnneedsconsi der abl esci entifi
ct r
aining mat terofl ubr ication ofal ls ur f
aceswhi ch mov ein cont actwi th other s,whet heri n
anddesignabi l
i
tyi nor dert omodi f
yt heexi sti
ngdesi gnsi nt
oanew i deabyadopt inga rotating,sl iding,orr olli
ngbear i
ngs.
newmat er i
alordi ffer
entmet hodofmanuf acture.Int hiscase,t hought hedesi gnerst arts
6.Conveni entandeconomi calf eatures.Indesi gning,t heoper ati
ngf eaturesoft he
fr
om theexi stingdesi gn,butt hef inalpr oductmaydi ff
erqui t
emar kedl yf rom theor i
gi nal
machi nes houl dbecar ef ullyst udied.Thest arti
ng,cont roll
i
ngands toppi ngl ever ss hould
product.
bel ocat ed on t hebas isofconv enienthandl i
ng.Theadj us t
mentf orwearmus tbe
3.New desi gn.Thi st ypeofdesi gnneedsl otofr esearch,t echni calabi l
it
yand provi ded empl oying t he v arious t akeup devi ces and ar r
angi ng t hem s ot hatt he
creat
ivethinking.Onl yt hosedes igner swhohaveper sonalqual i
tiesofasuf fi
cientl
yhi gh ali
gnmentofpar t
si spr es erved.I fpar tsar et obechangedf ordi f
fer entpr oduct sor
ordercant akeupt hewor kofanewdesi gn. replacedonaccountofwearorbr eakage,eas yaccessshoul dbepr ov i
dedandt he
Thedesi gns ,dependi ngupont hemet hodsused,maybecl assifiedasf ollows: neces sityofr emovi ngot herpar tst oaccompl i
sht hi
sshoul dbeav oidedi fpos s i
ble.
a) Rat
( i
onaldesi gn.Thi st ypeofdesi gndependsuponmat hemat i
calf ormulaeof Theeconomi caloper ationofamachi newhi chist obeusedf orpr oduct ion,orf or
principleofmechani cs. the pr oces sing ofmat erials houl d be s tudied,i n ordert ol ear n whet heri thast he
b) Empi
( ri
caldesi gn.Thi st y peofdes i
gndependsuponempi ricalfor mul aebased maxi mum capaci ty consi stent
ont hepr acti
ceandpas texper i
ence. witht he pr oduct ion ofgood
c) I
( ndust ri
aldesi gn.Thi st ypeofdes igndependsupont hepr oduct ionaspect st o wor k.
manuf actureanymachi necomponenti nt heindust r
y. 7.Useofst andar d par ts.
d) Opt
( i
mum desi gn.I tist hebestdesi gnf ort hegivenobj ectivef unctionundert he The use ofst andar d par tsi s
speci fi
edconst raints.Itmaybeachi evedbymi nimisi
ngt heundesi rableeffect s. clos elyr elatedt ocost ,becaus e
e) Syst
( em desi gn.I tist hedesi gnofanycompl exmechani calsyst em likeamot or the cos tofst andar d orst ock
car. partsi sonl yaf ract i
on oft he
(
f) El ementdesi gn.I tist hedesi gnofanyel ementoft hemechani calsyst em l i
ke costofs i
mi larpar tsmade t o
piston,cr anks haft,connect ingr od,etc. order .
g) Comput
( eraideddesi gn.Thi stypeofdesi gndependsupont heuseofcomput er The st andar d or s tock
systemst oas s i
sti nt hecr eat i
on,modi fi
cation,analysi sandopt i
misat i
onofa partsshoul dbeus edwhenever
design. pos sible ; par t
s f or whi ch
patter ns ar e al ready i n
1.
3 Gener
alCons
ider
ati
onsi
nMachi
neDesi
gn existences uchasgear s ,pul l
ey sandbear ingsandpar tswhi chmaybes electedf rom
Followi ngar ethegener alconsi der ati
onsi ndesi gningamachi necomponent: regul ars hopst ocks uchass crews ,nut sandpi ns.Bol t
sands t udss houl dbeasf ew
1.Type ofl oad and st resses caused by t he load.The l oad,on a machi ne asposs iblet oavoi dt hedel aycausedbychangi ngDesi gnconsiderationsplayi mportantrolei
n
component ,mayacti ns everalwaysduet owhi cht hei nt ernalstr
essesar esetup.The t
hesuccessf
ulpr
oduct
ionofmachi
nes.
vari
ousty pesofl oadands t
ressesar edi scussedi nchapt er s4and5. dri
ll
s,reamer s and taps and al s ot o
2.Mot i
onoft hepar tsorki nemat icsoft hemachi ne.Thesuccessf uloperati
onof decrease t he number of wr enches
anymachi nedependsl argelyupont hesi mplestar r
angementoft hepar t swhichwi l
lgive requi
red.
themot i
onr equired.Themot i
onoft hepar t
smaybe: 8.Saf etyofoper at i
on.Somemachi nesar edangeroust ooper ate,especi all
yt hose
(a)Rect ili
nearmot ionwhi chi ncl udesuni direct
ionalandr eciprocatingmot i
ons . whichar espeededupt oinsurepr oduct ionatamaxi mum r ate.Ther efore,anymov i
ng
(b)Cur v i
li
nearmot ionwhi chi ncl udesr otary,oscil
lat oryandsi mpl ehar monic. partofamachi newhi chi swithi
nt hez oneofawor kerisconsi deredanacci denthaz ard
(c)Const antvel oci ty. andmaybet hecauseofani nj
ur y.Iti s,theref
ore,neces saryt hatades i
gners hould
(d)Const antorv ar i
ableaccel er ation. alwayspr ovides af
et ydev icesf ort hesaf etyoftheoper ator.Thes afet yappl i
ances
3.Sel ect i
onofmat eri
als.Itisessent i
alt hatadesi gnershoul dhaveat horough shouldinnowayi nterferewithoper ationoft hemachi ne.
knowledge oft he pr oper ti
es oft he mat erials and t heirbehavi ourunderwor king 9.Wor kshopfaci li
ti
es.Adesi gnengi neershouldbef ami l
iarwi ththel imitat
ionsof
condit
ions .Someoft hei mpor t
antchar act
eristi
csofmat erial
sar e:st rength,durabil
ity
, hisemployer ’
swor kshop,i nor dert oavoi dthenecess i
tyofhavi ngwor kdonei ns ome
fl
exi
bil
ity,wei ght,res i
st ancet oheatandcor rosion,abi l
ityt ocast ,wel dedorhar dened, otherwor kshop.I ti s somet imes necess aryto plan and s uper vi
se t he wor ks hop
machinabi l
ity,elect r
icalconduct i
vity,et c.Thev ari
oust ypesofengi neeringmat eri
alsand operati
onsandt odraftmet hodsf orcas ti
ng,handli
ngandmachi nings pecial parts
.
thei
rproper tiesar edi scus sedinchapt er2. 10. Numberofmachi nest obemanuf act
ured.Thenumberofar ti
clesor
I
ntr
oduct
ion  3 machinest obemanuf acturedaffect st hedesigninanumberofway s.Theengi neer i
ng
andshopcost swhi char ecal l
edf i
xedchar gesorov erheadexpensesar edi st
ri
but ed

overthenumberofar
ti
clestobemanuf
act
ured.Ifonl
yaf ew ar
ti
cl
esar
etobemade, assemblyoft hemachinewithcomplet
especi
fi
cat
ionforthemanufact
uringprocesses
extr
aexpensesar
enotjusti
fi
edunl
esst
hemachineislar
georofsomespeci
aldesi
gn. suggested.
Anordercal
l
ingforsmal
lnumberoft
hepr
oductwi
l
lnotper
mitanyundue4  A 8.Pr oduct
ion.The component,as perthe dr
awing,is manufactured i
nthe
Text
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn workshop.Thef l
owchartforthegener
alpr
ocedur
einmachi nedesi
gniss howninFig.
1.1.
expens ei nt he wor kshop pr ocesses,so t hat the desi gner should r estr
ict hi
s I
ntr
oduct
ion  5
speci fi
cati
ont ost andar dpar tsasmuchasposs i
ble.
11. Costofconst r
uction.Thecostofconst ructionofanar ti
cl
ei sthemost Note:Whent herearenumberofcomponentsinthemar kethavi
ngthesamequali
ti
esofef
fi
ciency,
i
mpor t
antcons i
derati
oni nvolvedi ndesign.Insomecases,i ti
squi t
epossi blethatthe dur
abil
i
tyandcos t
,thenthecustomerwil
lnatur
allyat
tracttowardsthemostappeal
ingpr
oduct.
highcos tofanar t
icl
emayi mmedi atel
ybari tfrom furtherconsi der
ati
ons .Ifanar t
icl
e Theaestheti
cander gonomicsar
everyi
mportantfeat
ureswhi chgiv
esgraceandl
ustr
etoproduct
hasbeeni nvent edandt estsofhandmadesampl eshaveshownt hatithascommer cial anddomi nat
esthemar ket
.
value,i ti
st henposs i
blet ojus t
if
yt heexpendi t
ureofaconsi derablesum ofmoneyi nthe
desi gn and devel opment of
1.
5 Fundament
alUni
ts
aut omat i
cmachi nestopr oduce Themeasurementofphysi
calquant
it
iesisoneoft
hemosti
mportantoperat
ionsi
n
thear ti
cl
e,es peciall
yi fi tcan engi
neeri
ng.Everyquanti
tyi
smeasuredint er
msofsomearbi
tr
ary,butint
ernat
ional
l
y
bes oldi nl argenumber s.The accept
edunit
s,caledf
l undament
aluni
ts.
aim ofdes ignengi neerunderal l
condi ti
ons,s houldbet or educe 1.
6 Der
ivedUni
ts
themanuf act uri
ng cos tt ot he Some uni t
s are expr
essed i
nt er
ms ofotheruni
ts,whi
ch are deri
ved fr
om
mi nimum. fundamentaluni
t eknownasder
s,ar iveduni
tse.
g.t
heuni
tofar
ea,vel
oci
ty,accel
erat
ion,
12. Assembl ing. pressur
e,etc.
Ev ery machi ne or s tructure
mustbe as sembl ed asa uni t 1.
7 Sys
tem ofUni
ts
bef orei tcan f uncti
on.Lar ge Therear eonlyfoursy st
emsofuni t
s,whichar ecommonlyus edanduniversal
ly
unitsmus tof tenbeas sembl ed r
ecogni
sed.Thesear eknownas:
i
nt hes hop,t estedandt hent akent obet ransportedtot heirplaceofser vi
ce.Thef inal 1.C.G.S.unit
s,2.F.P.
S.unit
s,3.M.K.S.uni
ts,and4.S.
I.uni
ts.
l
ocat i
onofanymachi nei simpor tantandt hedesi gnengi neermustant ici
patet heexact Sincethepresentcourseofstudi
esareconductedinS.I
.syst
em ofuni
ts,t
heref
ore,
Carassembl
yli
ne. weshal
ldiscussthi
ssy st
em ofuni
tonly.
l
ocat i
onandt helocal facili
ti
es f
orer ect
ion.

1.
4 Gener
alPr
ocedur
einMachi
neDesi
gn 1.
8 S.
I.Uni
ts(
Int
ernat
ionalSys
tem ofUni
ts)
Indes igningamachi necomponent ,t herei snor i
gid The11thGener alConf erence*ofWei ghtsandMeas ur
eshave r ecommendeda
rule.The pr obl em may be at tempt ed in sever always. uni
fi
ed and s ystemat i
call
ycons ti
tut
ed system offundamentaland der i
ved unit
sf or
Howev er,thegener alpr ocedur et osol veadesi gnpr oblem is i
nternati
onaluse.Thi ss ystem isnow bei ng used in manycount r
ies.InIndia,the
asf oll
ows: st
andar dsofWei ghtsandMeasur esAct1956( vi
dewhichweswi tchedov ertoM. K.S.
1.Recogni t
ionofneed.Fi rstofal l,makeacompl ete uni
ts)hasbeenr evisedt orecogniseallt
heS. I.uni
tsi
nindustr
yandcommer ce.
statementoft he pr oblem,i ndi cat i
ng t he need,ai m or I
nt hi
ssystem ofuni ts,therearesevenf undamentaluni
tsandt wos uppl
ement ary
pur posef orwhi cht hemachi nei st obedesi gned. uni
ts,whi chcovertheent i
refiel
dofs ci
enceandengi neeri
ng.Theseunitsares howni n
2.Synt hesi s ( Mechani sms) . Sel ect t he pos si
ble Table1.1
mechani sm orgr oup ofmechani smswhi ch wi l
lgi ve the
Tabl
e1.
1.Fundament
alandsuppl
ement
aryuni
ts.
desi r
edmot ion.
3.Anal ysisoff orces.Findt hef orcesact i
ngoneach
memberoft hemachi neandt heener gyt ransmi tt
edbyeach S.
No. Physi
calquant
it
y Uni
t
member . Fundament
aluni
ts
4.Mat erialsel ect i
on.Sel ectt hemat erialbes tsui tedfor
eachmemberoft hemachi ne. 1. Lengt
h(l
) Met
re(
m)
5.Desi gnofel ement s(SizeandSt r
esses) .Findt hesi ze 2. Mas m)
s( Ki
l
ogr
am (
kg)
ofeachmemberoft hemachi nebycons ideringthef orceact i
ngonthememberandt he 3. Ti t
me() Second(
s)
per missibles t
res sesf orthemat erialused.I tshoul dbekepti nmi ndthateachmember 4. Temper
atur
e(T) Kel
vi
n(K)
shoul dnotdef lectordef ormt hant heper missiblelimi t
.
5. El
ect
ri
ccur
r I
ent() Amper
e(A)
6.Modi f
icat i
on.Modi fyt he si ze oft he membert o agr
ee witht he past
exper i
enceandj udgmentt of aci l
itat emanuf acture.The Machi
neDesign. 6. Lumi
nousi
ntensi
tyI
(v) Candel
a(cd)
modi fi
cat i
on may al so be neces sary by consi der ation of 7. Amountofsubst n)
ance( Mol
e(mol
)
manuf acturi
ngt or educeov erallcost . Suppl
ement
aryuni
ts
7.Det ail
ed dr awi ng.Dr aw t he det ai
led dr awi ng ofeach componentand t he
 2.
2Cl
ass
ifi
cat
ionofEngi
neer
ingMat
eri
al
s
16  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn
Theengineer
ingmat er
ial
saremainl
ycl
assi
fi
edas:

2
C 1.Met al
sandt hei
ral
l
oys,suchasiron,st
eel,copper,al
umi
nium,et
c.
H 2.Non- metal
s,suchasglass,rubber,pl
asti
c,etc.Themetalsmaybef ur
ther
A cl
assi
fi
edas:
P a)
( Ferr
ousmet al
s b)Non-
,and ( ferr
ousmet al
s.
T
E 16 Engi
neer
ingMat
eri
al
sandt
hei
rPr
oper
ti
es  17
R The* fer
rousmet alsarethos e
whichhav et heironast heirmai n
consti
tuent, such as cas tiron,

Engi
neer
ingMat
eri
al
sand
wroughtironandst eel.
The non- fer
rous met al
s ar e
those which have a met alot her
1. Pl
aneangl
e(α,β,θ,φ) Radi
an(
rad) thanir
onast hei
rmai nconsti
tuent,
suchascopper ,alumini
um,br ass,
2. Sol
i
dangl
e(Ω) St
eradi
an(
sr)
ti
n,zi
nc,et c.

*I
tisknownasGener alConferenceofWeightsandMeasures(G.
C.W.M).Itisanint
ernati
onal 2.
3Sel
ect
ionofMateri
al
sfor
organi
sat
ionofwhichmos toftheadvancedanddevelopi
ngcountr
ies(incl
udi
ngIndia)are Engi
neer
ingPurposes
member s.Theconfer
encehasbeenent rust
edwitht
het askofprescri
bingdefi
nit
ionsfor The sel ection of a pr oper
vari
ousunit
sofweightsandmeasures,whichar
etheverybasi
csofscienceandtechnology mat eri
al,f
orengi neeringpur poses,
today. i
soneoft hemos tdi f
ficultproblem

t
hei
rPr
oper
ti
es
forthedesi gner .Thebes tmat erial
i
s one whi ch ser ve t he des ired
objective att he mi ni mum cos t.
1.I
nt r oduct ion. 25.HeatTreatmentofSt eel
s. The f ol
lowing f actorss hould be
2.Cl assi f
icat i
onofEngi neering 26.Non-ferr
ousMet als.
considered whi l
e s electi
ng t he Afil
amentofbul
bneedsamater
iall
i
ket
ungst
en
Mat er ials. 27.Alumini
um.
3.Sel ect i
on of Mat eri
als for
mat eri
al:
28.Alumini
um Al l
oys.
Engi neer ingPur poses. 29.Copper . 1.Avai labil
ityoft hemat erial
s,
4.Physi calPr oper t
iesofMet als. 30.CopperAl l
oys. 2.Sui t abili
tyoft hemat er ialsf
ort
hewor
kingconditionsinservi
ce,and
5.Mechani cal Pr oper t
ies of 31.GunMet al
. 3.Thecos tofthemat
erial
s.whi
chcanwit
hst
andhi
ghtemperat
ureswi
thoutThei
mport
ant
Met al s. 32.Lead. under
goi
ngdef
ormat
ion.
6.Fer r ousMet als. 33.Ti
n. proper
ti
es,whi
chdeterminethe
7.CastI ron. 34.BearingMet als. ut
il
i
tyofthemateri
alarephys
ical,chemicalandmechani calpr opert
ies.Wes hal
lnow
9. AlloyCastI ron. 35.Zi
ncBaseAl loys. di
scus
sthe
10.Ef fectofI mpur i
tiesonCast 36.NickelBaseAl loys.
I
r on. 37.Non-met al
li
cMat eri
al
s.
11.Wr oughtI ron. 2.
1 I
ntr
oduct
ion
12.St eel .
15.Ef fectofI mpur i
ti
esonSt eel. The knowl edge of mat eri
als and t hei r
16.Fr eeCut ti
ngSt eels. pr operti
es is ofgr eatsignifi
cance f ora desi gn
17.AlloySt eel s. engi neer.Themachi neelement sshoul dbemade
19.St ai nlessSt eel. ofsuchamat eri
alwhi chhaspr oper ti
essuitabl
ef or
20.HeatResi stingSt eels. thecondi t
ionsofoper at
ion.Inaddi ti
ont othis,a
21.Indi anSt andar dDesi gnation desi gnengi neermustbef amil
iarwi ththeef fect s
of Hi gh Al loy St eels whi ch t he manuf acturi
ng pr oces ses and heat
(St ainl ess St eel and Heat treatmenthaveont hepr operti
esoft hemat erials.
Resi st i
ng
I
nt hischapt er,we shal ldiscus st he commonl y
St eel ).
usedengi neeri
ngmat eri
alsandt heirproperti
esi n
22.Hi ghSpeedToolSt eels.
23.Indi anSt andar dDesi gnation Machi neDesign.
ofHi ghSpeedToolSt eel
.
24.Spr ingSt eels.

phy
sical
andmechani
calpr
oper
ti
esoft
hemat
eri
ali
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
ti
cl
es. Zi
nc 7200 419 113 33.
0
Cobal
t 8850 1490 69.
2 12.
4
Mol
ybdenum 10200 2650 13 4.
8
Vanadi
um 6000 1750 — 7.75
2.
5 Mechani
calPr
oper
ti
esofMet
als
Al
umi
nium Themechani calpr oper t
iesoft hemet al sar et hosewhi char eassoci at
edwi tht he
Copper abil
ityoft hemat erialtor es istmechani calfor cesandl oad.Thesemechani calpr oper ti
es
oft he met ali nclude st rengt h,s t
iff
nes s,el asti
city,pl asti
city,duct i
li
ty,br i
ttlenes s
,
Zi
nc mal l
eabi l
it
y,t oughness,r esi l
i
ence,cr eep and har dness.Wes hallnow di scus st hese
propertiesasf oll
ows :
1.St r
engt h. I tist heabi lityofamat erialtor es i
stt heext ernall
yappl iedf orces
withoutbr eakingoryi elding.Thei nternalr esi st
anceof feredbyapar ttoanext ernall
y
appliedf orcei scal led* stres s.
2.St i
ffness. I ti st heabi l
ityofamat er ialtor esistdef ormat ionunders tres s.The
modul usofel asticityi sthemeas ureofst if
fness .
3.El ast i
cit
y. I ti st hepr oper tyofamat er
ialt or egaini t
sor i
ginalshapeaf t
er
I
ron Lead deformat ion when t he ext ernalf orces ar er emov ed.Thi s pr oper tyi s des irablef or
mat eri
alsus edi nt ool sandmachi nes.Itmaybenot edt hatst eeli smor eel as tict han
Val
uabl
eMet
als rubber.
2.
4 Physi
calPr
oper
ti
esofMet
als 4.Pl ast i
cit
y. I tispr oper t
yofamat er i
alwhi chr etainst hedef ormat i
onpr oduced
underl oad per manent ly.Thi spr oper t
yoft he mat eriali snecess ar
yf orf or gings ,in
Thephy si
calpropert
iesofthemetal
sincl
udeluster,col
our,si
zeandshape,densi
ty, stampi ngi magesoncoi nsandi nor nament alwor k.
el
ect
ri
cand t hermalconduct i
vi
ty,and mel
ti
ng point.Thef oll
owi
ng t
ableshowst he 5.Duct i
l
it
y.I tist hepr oper tyofamat er i
alenabl ingi ttobedr awni ntowi rewi t
ht he
i
mportantphysi
calproper
tiesofsomepuremetal
s. applicationofat ens il
ef or ce.Aduct i
lemat er i
almus tbebot hs trongandpl as tic.The
duct i
li
tyi s usual ly measur ed by t he ter ms,per cent age el ongat ion and per cent age
reductioni nar ea.Theduct i
lemat erialcommonl yus edi nengi neer ingpr acti
ce( inor der
* Thewor
d‘f
err
ous
’isder
ivedf
rom al
ati
nwor
d‘f
err
um’whi
chmeansi
ron.
ofdimi nishingduct ili
ty)ar emi l
ds teel,copper ,al uminium,ni ckel,zinc,tinandl ead.
18 AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn Not
e:Theducti
li
tyofamateri
ali
scommonlymeasuredbymeansofpercent
ageel
ongat
ionand
per
cent
ager
educt
ioni
nareainatensi
l
etest
.(Ref
erChapt
er4,Ar
t.4.
11)
.
Tabl
e2.
1.Phy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esofmet
als.
Met
al Densi
ty Mel
ti
ngpoi
nt Ther
mal Coef
fi
ci
entof * Forf
urt
herdet
ail
s,r
eferChapt
er4onSi
mpl
eSt
ress
esi
nMachi
nePar
ts.

conduct
ivi
ty l
i
nearexpansi
on Engi
neer
ingMat
eri
al
sandt
hei
rPr
oper
ti
es  19
at
3 6.Brit
tl
eness.I ti
sthepr oper tyofamat eri
aloppositetoduct i
li
ty.Itisthe
(
kg/
m) (
°C) (
W/m°
C) 20°
C( μm/m/°
C)
property ofbr eaki
ng ofa mat erialwithl i
ttl
e permanentdi stor
ti
on.Br i
ttl
e
Alumi
ni
um 2700 660 220 23.
0 mat eri
al
swhensubj ect
edtot ens il
el oads,s napof fwithoutgivi
nganys ensi
ble
Brass 8450 950 130 16.
7 elongati
on.Casti r
onisabritt
lemat eri
al.
Br
onz
e 8730 1040 67 17.
3 7.Malleabil
it
y.Iti
sas pecialcaseofduct il
i
tywhichper mitsmat er
ialstobe
Cas
tir
on 7250 1300 54.
5 9.
0 roll
edorhammer edintothi
ns heet s.Amal l
eablemat eri
alshouldbepl as t
icbutit
Copper 8900 1083 393.
5 16.
7
i
snotessent ialtobesost rong.Themal leablemat eri
alscommonl yus ed in
engineeri
ngpr acti
ce( i
norderofdi minishingmal leabil
it
y)arel ead,softs teel
,
Lead 11400 327 33.
5 29.
1
wr oughti
ron,copperandalumi nium.
Monelmet
al 8600 1350 25.
2 14.
0
Ni
ckel 8900 1453 63.
2 12.
8
Si
l
ver 10500 960 420 18.
9
St
eel 7850 1510 50.
2 11.
1
Ti
n 7400 232 67 21.
4
Tungst
en 19300 3410 201 4.
5
 8.Toughness.I ti st hepr oper tyofamat eri
alt or esistfract ur eduet ohigh
i
mpactl oadsl i
kehammerbl ows.Thet oughnessoft hemat erialdecr easeswhen * Forf
urt
herdet
ail
s,r
eferChapt
er6(
Art
.6.
3)onVar
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts.
i
ti sheat ed.I ti smeas uredby
theamountofener gyt hatauni t Gauget oshowt he
pr essureappl i
ed.
volume of t he mat er ial has
abs orbed af terbei ng s tr
essed
upt ot hepoi ntoff ract ur e.Thi s
proper tyi s des ir
abl ei n par t
s
subj ect edt os hockandi mpact
l
oads .
9.Machi nabi li
ty.I ti st he
proper ty ofa mat erialwhi ch
referst oar el ative cas e wi t
h
whi ch a mat er i
alcan be cut .
Themachi nabi li
tyofamat erial
canbemeas ur edi nanumber Bal lisforcedinto
thesur faceoft he
ofway ssuchascompar ingt he ordi nar
yst eel
tooll ife f or cut ti
ng di fferent
mat er i
al sort hr us tr equi red t o
remov et he mat erialats ome
given r ate or t he ener gy
requi red t o r emove a uni t
volumeoft hemat er ial.I tmay
be not ed t hatbr ass can be
Scr ewt opositi
on
easilymachi nedt hans teel . sampl e
10. Resi l
ience.I tis
the pr oper ty ofa mat er i
alt o
abs orb ener gy and t or esi st
shock and i mpactl oads.I tis
meas ur ed by t he amount of
ener gy abs or bed per uni t
volumewi t
hinel as ti
cl i
mi t.Thi s
proper tyi sess ent i
alf orspr i
ng Br i
nellTester:Har dnesscanbedef inedast her esi
s
mat er i
al s.
11. Cr eep.Whenapar tissubj ect edt oaconst antst ressathi gh
temper at uref oral ongper iodoft ime,i twi l
lunder goasl ow andper manent
defor mat ion cal ed cr
l eep.Thi s proper t yi s consi der ed in desi gni ng i nternal
combus ti
onengi nes,boi lersandt urbines.
12. Fat igue.Whenamat er i
ali ssubj ectedt or epeat edst resses,i t
fai
lsats tressesbel owt heyi eldpoi ntst resses.Sucht ypeoff ailureofamat erial
i
sknownas
*f
ati
gue.Thef ailurei scaus edbymeanst anceofamet altoat t
empt stodef ormi t.Thismachi ne
ofa progr ess i
v e crack f ormat ion whi chinvented by t he Swedish met al
lurgistJohann August
Brinell(1849-1925),measur ehardnesspr ecisely.
areusually
fi
neandofmi croscopi csi ze.Thi spr opertyi sconsi der edi n
desi
gnings haf ts,connect ingr ods ,spr i
ngs,gear s,et c.
13. Har dness.I ti sav er yimpor tantpr opertyoft hemet al sandhasa
wide v ariety ofmeani ngs.I tembr aces many di f
fer entpr oper t i
es such as
resistancet owear ,s cr at chi ng,def ormat ionandmachi nabil
ityet c.I tal someans
theabi li
tyofamet al tocutanot hermet al.Thehar dnessi susual ly

 152  ATextbookofMachi neDesi gn

Si
mpl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts 101 6.Theext entoflocal
isedst r
ess es;
7.Theext entofini
ti
als t
res sess etupdur ingmanuf act
ure;
4.Per
cent
ageel
ongati
on 8.Theext entoflossoflif
ei ffailureoccurs;and9. The extentofl oss of
Weknowthatper
cent
ageel
ongat
ion pr
oper tyiff
ail
ureoccur s.
80−60 Eachoftheabov efactorsmus tbecar efull
ycons i
deredandev al
uated.Thehigh
=L−l = =0.
25or25% Ans. fact
orofsaf
etyr esult
sinunneces saryr iskoffai
lure.Thevaluesoff
actorofsafet
ybased
onulti
matestrengt hfordiff
erentmat erial
sandt ypeofl oadaregiveni nthefol
lowi
ng
L 80 tabl
e:
Maximum shearst r
ess
4.
12Wor
kingSt
res
s
Weknowt hatmaxi mum shearst res s,
Whendesi
gningmachinepar
ts,iti
sdesir
abletokeepthest
resslowerthant he
maximum orul
ti
matest
ressatwhichfai
l
ureofthemateri
alt
akesplace.Thi
sstressis τmax=12⎡
⎣(σt)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦=12⎡
⎣(35.
8)2+4(
20.
9)2⎤
⎦
knownast heworki
ngstr
essordesignstr
ess.Iti soknownassaf
sal eorallowable
=27.
5MPaAns.
str
ess.
Note:Byfail
urei
tisnotmeantactualbr
eaki
ngoft
hemat
eri
al.Somemachi
nepart
saresai
dtofai
l
when they have pl
ast
ic def
ormati
on seti
nthem,and t
hey no mor
e per
for
m thei
rfunct
ion 5.
9 Theor
iesofFai
l
ureUnderSt
ati
cLoad
sat
isf
actor
y. I
thasal readybeendi s cuss edi nt hepr ev i
ouschapt ert hatst rengthofmachi ne
member si sbas edupont hemechani calpr oper tiesoft hemat er i
alsused.Si ncet hes e
4.
13Fact
orofSaf
ety propertiesar eusual lydeter mi nedf rom simpl et ensi onorcompr essiont ests,ther efore,
I
tisdef
ined,i
ngener
al,ast
her
ati
ooft
hemaxi
mum st
resst
otheworki
ngst
ress. predicti
ngf ailurei nmember ssubj ectedt ouni axials tressi sbot hsi mpl eands traight-
Mat
hemati
call
y, forward.Butt hepr oblem ofpr edi ctingthef ai l
ures tressesf ormember ss ubject edt obi -
axialort r i
-axi alstresses i s much mor e compl icated.I nf act,t he pr oblem i ss o
Factorofsafety= Maximum s tress compl i
cat ed t hata l arge numberofdi fferentt heories hav e been f ormul ated.The
Worki
ngordesi gnstress pri
ncipalt heor iesoff ai
luref oramembersubj ect edt obi -axi
al stressar easf oll
ows :
Incaseofduct i
l
emat er
i se.
al g.mildst eel
,wher et heyi
eldpointi
sclear
lydef
ined, 1.Maxi mum pr i
ncipal( ornor mal )stresst heor y(alsoknownasRanki ne’st heor y).
thefact
orofsaf
etyisbas edupont heyieldpoints t
ress.Insuchcases,
2.Maxi mum s hearstres st heor y(alsoknownasGuest ’ sorTr esca’ stheor y).
Yi
eldpoi ntstr
ess
3.Maxi mum pr i
ncipal (ornor mal )strai
nt heor y( al
soknownasSai ntVenantt heory).
Factorofsafety=
4.Maxi mum s tr
ainener gyt heor y(alsoknownasHai gh’st heory).
Worki
ngordesi gnstress
5.Maxi mum di stort
ion ener gy theory( also known as Hencky and Von Mi s
es
Incaseofbr i
tt
lemat eri
alse.g.castiron,theyi el
dpointisnotwelldefi
nedasf or
theor y) .
ducti
lemater
ial
s.Ther ef
ore,t
hef act
orofs afetyforbr i
tt
lemateri
al
sisbasedonulti
mat e
Sinceduct i
lemat eri
alsus uallyfailbyy i
eldingi e.whenper
. manentdef or mat i
ons
str
ess.
occurint hemat eri
alandbr i
ttl
emat eri
alsfai lbyf racture,ther eforet helimiti
ngs trength
∴ Fact
orofsaf
ety= Ult
imatestr
ess forthese t wo cl asses ofmat er
ialsi s nor mal l
y meas ur
ed by di ff
erentmechani cal
Workingordesi
gnst
ress properties.Forduct i
lemat er i
als,t hel imit
ingst rengthi st hes tr
essaty i
eld poi ntas
Thi
srel
ati
onmayal
sobeusedforduct
il
emater
ial
s. determined f rom si mpl et ens ion t estand i ti s ,ass umed t o be equali nt ens i
on or
Not
e:Theabover
elat
ionsf
orf
act
orofsaf
etyar
efors
tat
icl
oadi
ng. compr ess ion.Forbr i
tt
lemat erials,t helimiti
ngs trengthi stheul timat estressi nt ens i
on
orcompr es sion.
4.
14Sel
ect
ionofFact
orofSaf
ety
Thes el
ectionofapr operf actorofsaf et
yt obeus edindesigninganymachi ne
5.
10Maxi
mum Pr
inci
palorNor
mal
Str
essTheor
y(Ranki
ne’
sTheor
y)
componentdependsuponanumberofconsi derat
ions,suchast hemat erial
,modeof Accordingtothistheory,thefail
ureoryi
el
dingoccursatapointinamemberwhen
manufact
ure,ty peofs tress,gener alservi
cecondi ti
onsandshapeoft hepar ts.Before t
hemaxi mum pr i
ncipalornor malstressinabi-axi
alst
resssy
stem reachest
helimi
ti
ng
sel
ecti
ngapr operf actorofs afety,adesi gnengi neershouldconsidert hef ol
lowing s
trengt
hoft hemateri
alinas i
mplet ensi
ontest
.
poi
nts: Sincet heli
miti
ngs tr
engthf orducti
lemateri
al
sisy i
el
dpointstressandforbr
it
tl
e
1.Ther eli
abi
lit
yoft hepr opert
iesofthemat erialandchangeoft hesepr opert
ies mat er
ials
duri
ngser vice;
2.Ther eli
abil
ityoft estr esult
sandaccur acyofapplicat
ionoft heser esult
st o
act
ualmachi nepar t
s;
3.Ther eli
abi
li
tyofappl iedl oad;
4.Thecer tai
ntyast oexactmodeoff ail
ure;
5.Theext entofsi mpli
fyingassumpt i
ons;
 Tor
sionalandBendingSt
ressesinMachinePar
ts  153 154  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn
(
whi
chdonothav
ewel
ldef
inedyi
eldpoint)t
heli
miti
ngstr
engthisul
ti
matestr
ess,t
her
efor
eaccor
ding Not
e:Theval
ueofmaxi
mum s
hearst
ressi
nabi
-axi
alst
resssyst
em (
τmax)maybedet
ermi
nedas
di
scussedi
nArt
.5.
7.
Li
mest
one I
ronor
e Oxygeni
s
Coke bl
ownint
o 5.
12Maxi
mum Pr
inci
palSt
rai
nTheor
y(Sai
ntVenant
’sTheor
y)
Pigir
onand molt
enmetal Themolt
ensteelcan
Wastegases scrap st
eel thenbet
appedof f
. Accor
dingtothistheory,t
hef ai
l
ureoryi
el
dingoccursatapoi ntinamemberwhen
ar
eremoved are poured t
hemaxi mum pri
ncipal(ornormal)st
rai
ninabi-axi
alstr
esssystem reachesthel
i
mi t
ing
i
ntoconvert
er Conver
terpour
sout val
ueofstrai i
n(e.st
. rainatyiel
dpoi nt
)asdeterminedfrom asimplet ensi
l
etest
.The
Mi
xed raw molt
ensteel maximum pri
nci
pal(ornormal)st
raininabi
-axi
alstr
esssystem i
sgivenby
maer
ial
s
Hotai r εmax=σEt1–mσ.
t2E
blastedint
o
furnace
∴Accor
dingt
otheabovet
heor
y,

εmax=σEt1–mσ.
t2E=ε=E×σytFS.. .
..
(i
)
Ladl
e Molt
ensteelfl
ui
dcanbepoured
i
ntomouldsorcastwhi
l
efui
ld
Mol
tensl
agr
emoved Oxygenbur
nsoffcarbonto
I
ron Mol
tenpi
gir
on t
urnthepi
gironi
ntosteel
wher
eσt1andσt2=Maximum andmi nimum pr inci
palst
res
sesinabi
-axi
alst
resssyst
em,
ε=St rainatyi eldpoi ntasdeter
minedfr
om simpletensi
on
Pi
gir
oni
smadef
rom i
ronor
einabl
astf
urnace.I
tisabr
it
tl
efor
m ofi
ront
hatcont
ains4-
5percentcar
bon. test,
Not
e:Thi
spi
ctur
eisgi
venasaddi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ionandi
snotadi
rectexampl
eoft
hecur
rentchapt
er. 1/m =Poi sson’sratio,
t
ot heabovetheor
y,taki
ngf act
orofsafet
y( F.
S.)int
oconsi
derat
ion,t
hemaxi
mum E=Young’ smodul us,and
pr
inci
palornor
malst
ress(
σt1)inabi
-axi
alst
resssyst
em i venbyσyt
sgi F.S.=Fact orofsaf ety.
σt1=FS..,f
orduct
il
emat
eri
al
s From equat
i i
on(
),wemaywr it
et hat
σt2=σyt
σu,f
orbr
it
tl
emat
eri
al
s σt1 –m FS.
.
=
F.S.
where σyt=Yi el
dpointst r
essint ensi
onasdet erminedfrom simpletensi
on
Thi
stheor
yisnotused,i
ngener
al,becausei
tonl
ygi
vesr
eli
abl
eresul
tsi
npar
ti
cul
ar
t
es t
,andσu= cases.
Ult
imat estr
ess.
Sincet hemaximum pr incipalornormalstresstheoryisbasedonf ai
lur
eint ensi
on 5.
13Maxi
mum St
rai
nEner
gyTheor
y(Hai
gh’
sTheor
y)
orcompr essionandignorest heposs i
bil
i
tyoffai
lureduet oshearingstr
ess,ther
eforeiti
s Accor di
ngtot hi
stheory,t
hef
ail
ureoryi
eldi
ngoccursatapointinamemberwhen
notusedf orducti
lemat eri
al
s .However,forbr
ittl
emat er
ialswhicharer el
ati
vel
ystrongin thest r
ainener gyperunitvolumei
nabi -axi
alst
resssystem r
eachestheli
mit
ingst
rai
n
shearbutweaki ntensionorcompr essi
on,thi
st heoryi
sgener all
yused. energy(i.e.str
ainenergy
Note:Thev al
ueofmaxi
mum pri
nci
palstr
ess(σt1) f
oramembers
ubj
ect
edt
obi
-axi
alst
ress
syst
em maybedet
ermi
nedasdi
scussedi
nAr t
.5.
7.
attheyi eldpoint)perunitvol
umeasdetermi
nedfrom si
mpletensi
ontest
.

5.
11Maxi
mum ShearSt
ressTheor
y(Guest
’sorTr
esca’
sTheor
y)
Accordingtot hi
stheor y,t
hef ai
lureoryi el
di ngoccur satapointi
namemberwhen
t
hemaxi mum s hearstressi nabi-axialstresss ystem reachesavalueequaltotheshear
st
ressatyi
eldpoi ntinas impletens i
ont est.Mat hemat i
call
y,
τmax=τyt/F.S. . .
.(i
)
where τmax=Maxi mum s hearstr
essi nabi -axialstresssystem,
τyt= Shearst r
essaty iel
d pointasdet er
mined f
rom simple
t
ensiontest,and
F.S.=Factorofsaf ety.
Si
ncet hes hearstressaty i
eldpoi ntinasi mpl etensiontesti
sequaltoone-hal
fthe Thi
sdoubl
e-deckerA380hasapassengercapaci
tyof555.I
tsengi
nesandpar
tsshoul
dber
obust
yi
eldst
ressint ensi
on,ther ef
oretheequat i
on( i
)maybewr it
tenasσytτmax=2×FS.. whi
chcanbearhi
ght
orsi
onalandvar
iabl
est
resses.

Weknowt
hatst
rai
nener
gyperuni
tvol
umei
nabi
-axi
alst
resssy
stem,
Thi
stheor
yismost
lyusedf
ordesi
gni
ngmember
sofduct
il
emat
eri
al
s.

Tor
sionalandBendingStr
essesi
nMachineParts  155 156  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn
U1=21E⎢ ⎣
⎡(σt1)
2+(
σt2)
2–2σ1m×
t σt2⎥⎦⎤ Pt1= 10 2=1 73d2
2. kN/
mm2

σ1=A 0.
7854d
andt
rans
ver
seshearst
ress,
andli
mit
ingst
rai
nener
gyperuni
tvol
umef
oryi
el
dingasdet
ermi
nedf
rom si
mpl
etensi
on
Ps= 5d2=6.
365d2 kN/
mm2
tes
t,
1 ⎛ yt⎞2 τ=A0.7854
U2=2E⎜⎝F.
S.⎟
⎠Accor
dingt
otheabovet
heory, 1.Accordi
ngt
omaximum pri
nci
palst
ress
U1=U2. theoryWeknowthatmaxi
mum princi
pal
str
ess,

σt1=σ1+2σ2+12⎡
⎣(σ1–σ2)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦
2

∴21E ⎢
⎣⎡
(σt1)
2+(
σt2)
2–2σ1m×σ
t 2⎥
t ⎤=21E⎝
⎦ ⎜⎛Fσ.S.⎠
yt ⎟⎞ σ1+1⎡
⎣(σ1)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦ .
..
( σ2=0)
=
2 2
12.73= d2+12⎢ ⎣
⎡⎢⎜
⎝⎛ 73d2 ⎟
12. ⎠⎞
2
+4⎜⎝
⎛6.365d2⎟
⎠⎞
2⎥⎦
⎤⎥
or (
σt1)
2+(
σt2)
2–2σ1m×σ
t 2=⎜
t ⎝⎛Fσ.S.
yt ⎞
⎟⎠2 2
=6. 365d2⎡
3652+12×6. ⎣4
Thi
stheor
ymaybeusedf
orduct
il
emat
eri
al
s. ⎦d
+4⎤
=
5.
14Maxi
mum Di
stor
ti
onEner
gyTheor
y(HenckyandVonMi
sesTheor
y) 6.365d2⎢
⎣⎡1+124+4⎤
⎥ 365d2
⎦=15. kN/
mm2=
Accordi
ngtot hi
stheory,t hef ai
lur
eoryieldi
ngoccur satapointinamemberwhen 15d3652 N/ mm2
thedi
stort
ionstr
ainenergy( alsocal l
edshearst r
ainenergy)perunitvol
umei nabi-
axial
str
esssystem r
eachest helimitingdistort
ionenergy(i
.e.dist
orti
onenergyatyiel
dpoint)
peruni
tvolumeasdet erminedf rom asimpletensiont
est.Mat hemati
cal
ly,t
hemaximum Accor
dingt
omaxi
mum pr
inci
palst
resst
heor
y,
dis
tor
ti
onenergyt heor
yf oryiel
di ngisexpressedas
2 σt1=σt(
el) or153652=
100d
(
σt1)
2+(
σt2)
2–2σt1×σt2=⎛
⎜⎝ Fσ.S.
yt ⎞
⎟⎠

∴ d2=15365/100=153.65 ord=12.4mm Ans.

Thist
heor
yismost
lyusedf
orduct
il
emat
eri
al
sinpl
aceofmaxi
mum st
rai
nener
gy
2.Accordi
ngtomaxi
mum shearst
ress
theor
y.
t
heoryWeknowt hatmaxi
mum shear
Note:Themaximum di
stor
ti
onener gyi
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
otalst
rai
nener
gyandt
he
st
rainener
gyduetouni
form st
ress
.
st
ress,

Exampl e5. 16.Thel oadonabol tconsist

sofanaxialpullof10kNt ogetherwi t
ha τmax=12⎡
⎣(σ1–σ2)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦=12⎣
⎡(σ1)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦ .
..
( σ2=0)
tr
ansverseshearf orceof5kN.Fi ndthedi amet
erofbol
trequir
edaccordingto
1.Maxi mum pr i
ncipalstresst heory;2.Maximum shearstr
esstheory;3.Maxi mum
pri
ncipalstraint heory;4.Maxi mum st rai
nenergytheory;and5.Maxi mum di stort
ion = 12 ⎡⎢⎛
⎜12.732⎟
⎞2+4⎛ 365d2⎞
⎜6. ⎟⎠
2⎥⎤⎦ 365d2 ⎡
⎥=12×6. ⎣
energytheor y. 4+4⎤⎦
⎣⎝d⎠ ⎝
⎢
Takeper missibletensilestressatel ast
icl
i
mit=100MPaandpoi sson’srati
o=0. 3.
Soluti
on.Gi ven:Pt1=10kN;Ps=5kN;σt(el)=100MPa=100N/ mm2;1/ m =0.3 =d92kN/
mm2=9000d2 N/
mm2
Let d=Di amet eroft heboltinmm.
Accor
dingt
omaxi
mum shears
tresst
heor
y,
∴Cr oss-sectionalareaoft hebol t
,
A= ×d2=0. 7854d2mm2 τmax= or 9000d2=1002=50

Weknowt
hataxi
alt
ensi
l
est
ress,
 Tor
sionalandBendingSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  157 158  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn
∴ d2=9000/50=180 or d=13. 42mm Ans. 724=1d4 d4 d4
3.Accor
dingt
omaximum pr
inci
palstr
aintheory
Weknowt hatmaxi
mum pri
nci
palstress,
+ ⎡ ⎤= = 4
∴ d =26724 ord=12. 78mm Ans.
σ1 1⎣( 2
σ1)+4τ2⎦ 153652 .
..
(Ascal
cul
atedbef
ore)σt1 2 2
5.Accordi
ngtomaximum di st
ortionener gytheory
dandmi
ni
mum pr
inci
palst
ress,
Accordi
ngtomaxi mum distortionenergytheory,
σ1–1⎡
⎣(σ1)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦σt2=22 (
σt1)
2+(σt2)
2–2σt1×σt2=[σt( ]
el
)2

= ⎡ 2
⎣15365⎤+⎡
⎢–d26352⎤
⎥
2
⎦ –2×15d3652×–2635d2 =(
100)
2
732d2–12⎡
12. ⎢
⎢⎣⎛
⎜⎝
12.
73d2⎟
⎠⎞
2+4⎝⎜
⎛
365d2⎞
6. ⎟⎠
2⎤⎥
⎦⎥

⎢d2⎥
⎦ ⎣
365d2
=6. 365d2⎡
–12×6. ⎣4+4⎤
⎦
236×106+6.
94×106+80. 97×106=10× 103
6.
365 –2.
635 2
d4 d4 d4
= = 23600 694 8097
d2⎡⎣
1– 2⎤
⎦ d2 kN/
mm + +
4 d4 d4=1 or
32d3914=1d
=–26352N/ mm2Fr
ontvi
ewofaj
etengi
ne.Ther
otor
sunder
gohi
ght
orsi
onalandbendi
ng
stesses.d
r
∴ d4=32391 ord=13. 4mm Ans.
Example5. 17.A cy l
indri
calshaftmadeofst eelofyield st
rengt
h 700 MPai s
Weknow t
hataccor
dingt
omaxi
mum pr
inci
pals
trai
n subjected to st
aticloadsconsi sti
ng ofbendi
ng moment10 kN- m and a tor
sional
moment30kN- m.Det erminet hediameteroft
heshaftusi
ngt wodi f
fer
enttheor
iesof
t
heor y,
t
1 fai
lure,andassumi ngaf actorofsafetyof2.TakeE=210GPaandpoi sson'
sratio=
E mE E m
σ t1 –σt2 0.25.
×
15365 2635 0.
3 16156
∴ + =100 or Solut
ion.Given:σyt=700MPa=700N/ mm2;M =10kN- m =10×106N- mm ;T=
2 2 = σt( )o
el r
30kN- m
σ–σt2=σt(
el) =30×106N- mm ;F.S.=2;E=210GPa=210×103N/ mm2;1/ m =0.25
Let d=Di amet eroftheshafti
nmm.
2 Fir
stofal l
,letusf ind themaxi mum and mi
nimum princi
pal
=100 str
esses.Weknowt hatsectionmodulusoft
heshaft
dd dd2=16156/100=161. 56 or d
=12.7mm Ans. Z= ×d3=0. 0982d3mm3
4.Accor
dingtomaximum str
ainener
gytheory ∴ Bendi
ng(
tensi
l
e)st
ressduet
othebendi
ngmoment
,
Weknowt hataccor
dingtomaximum str
ainener
gyt
heor
y,
σ1=
(
σt1)
2+(
σt2)
2–2σ1×
t σt2=[
σt(
el]
)2 MZ0.
098210×10d6 =101.
83×106 N/
mm2
m = 3 d
2 2
⎡
⎢⎣15d3652⎤
⎥⎦+⎡
⎢–d26352⎤
⎣ ⎥⎦ –2×15d3652×–d26352 ×0.
3=(
100)
2 andshearst
ressduet
otor
sionalmoment
,
τ= 16πdT 16×30×106=152.
8×3106
N/
mm2=
236d×106+6. 3d×4 106=10× 103
94×4106+24.
3 πd3 d
4d Weknowt
hatmaxi
mum pr
inci
palst
res
s,

236004 +694d +2430=1 or26

Tor
sionalandBendingStr
essesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  159 160  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn
2
σ1+σ2 1 2 2⎤
σt + ⎡( σ1–σ2)+4τ
1= 1E ⎢
⎡(
σt1)
2+(
σt2)
2–2σ1m×σ2⎥⎤=21E⎝
⎦ ⎜⎛Fσ.S.⎠
⎟⎞
2 2⎣ ⎦ t t yt

σ1 1 2 2⎤
= + ⎡( σ1)+4τ 2⎣
2 2⎣ ⎦ ..
. σ2=0)
(
2
6 2 6 2⎤
101.8×10 1⎡ ⎛
6
101.8×10 ⎞+ ⎛ 152.8×10 ⎞⎥ or (
σt1)
2+(
σt2) 1m×σ
2–2σt 2=⎜
t ⎝⎛Fσ.S.
yt ⎞
⎟⎠
= + ⎢⎜ ⎟ 4⎜ ⎟⎥
2d3 2⎢⎣⎝ d
3
⎠ ⎝ d
3
⎠⎦ 6 2 6 2 6 6 2
9×10
⎡211. ⎤ +⎡–110. 1×10 ⎤ 211.9×10 –110.1×10 ⎛700⎞
⎥ –2× × ×0.
25=⎜
6 6
50.9×10 1 10 ⎡( 2 2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎟
= + × 101 .
8 )+4( 152.
8) ⎣ d
3
⎦ ⎣ d3 ⎦ d3 d3 ⎝2 ⎠
d3 2 d3 ⎣ ⎦ 12 12 12
6 6 6 44902×10 12122×10 11665×10
50.9×10 161×10 211.9×10 or + + =1 22500
= + = N/mm2 d6 d6 d6
d3 d3 d3 68689×10 12
andmi
nimum pr
inci
palst
ress, =122500
6
σ1+σ2 1 d
2 2⎤
σt2=
– ⎡( σ1–σ2) +4τ ∴ d6 =68689×10 12
/122500=0. 5607×112
0ord=90.8mmAns.
2 2⎣ ⎦
σ1 1 2 2⎤
= – ⎡( σ1) +4τ ..
. σ2=0)
(
2 2⎣ ⎦
6 6 6
50.9×10 161×10 –110. 1×10 2
= – = N/mm
d3 d3 d3
Letusnowfindoutthediamet erofshda
)f
tb(
yconsideringt hemaximum shearstresst
heor
y
and maximum st
rai
n ener
gy theor
y.1.
Accordi
ng to maximum shear stress
theor
y We know thatmaximum shear Exampl e5.18.A mi ldst eelshaftof50mm di ameterissubjectedt oabendi ng
str
ess, momentof2000N- m andat or queT.Ift heyiel
dpointofthesteeli
ntensionis200MPa,
fi
ndthemaxi mum valueoft hist orquewi thoutcausi
ngyieldi
ngoftheshaf taccor
dingto
τmax=σt1−σ2 2=1
t 2⎢
⎣⎡ 9d3×106+110.
211. 1d×3106⎥
⎦⎤= 1.themaxi mum pr i
ncipalstress;2.t hemaxi mum shearstress;and3.t hemaximum
161d×3106 dist
orti
onst r
ainenergyt heoryofyi el
ding.
Sol
ution.Given:d=50mm ;M =2000N- m =2×106N- mm ;σyt=200MPa=200
Weal
soknowt
hataccor
dingt
omaxi
mum shears
tresst
heor
y, N/mm2LetT=Maxi mum t orquewi thoutcausi
ngyiel
dingofthes haf
t,inN-mm.
1.Accor dingtomaxi mum pr incipalstress
t
heoryWeknowt hats ectionmodul usof
τmax=2σFSyt.. or 161d×3106=2700×2 =175 t
hes haft
,
∴ d3=161×106/175=920×103 ord=97.
2mm Ans. Z= ×d3= ( 3
50) =12273mm3
Not
e:Theval
ueofmaxi
mum shears
tress(
τmax)mayal
sobeobt
ainedbyusi
ngt
her
elat
ion, ∴ Bendi
ngst
ressduet
othebendi
ngmoment
,
τmax 1⎡ 2
σ1)
( 2⎤
+4τ σ=
=
2⎣ ⎦ = 1 MZ
6 2 6 2 212×273106 =163N/
mm2
1⎡
⎢⎛101.
8×10 152.
⎞+ ⎛ 8×10 ⎞
⎤ ⎟ 4⎜ d3
=⎥ ⎢⎜
2⎣ ⎝ d
3
⎠ ⎝
⎟
⎠
⎥⎦ andshearst
ressduet
othet
orque,
–3
6 ⎡ 2 2⎤ 16T 16T mm2
TN/
1 10d (
101.
8) +4(
152.
8) ⎦ =
τ=πd3 π( 3=0
50) .
0407×10
= × 3⎣
2
1 106 161×106 2 .
..⎡
⎢T= ×τ×d3⎤
⎣ ⎥⎦
= 2×d3×322=d3 N/
mm .
..
(Sameasbef
ore)
Weknowt
hatmaxi
mum pr
inci
palst
res
s,
2.Accor
dingt
omaxi mum st
rai
nener
gyt
heory
Weknowt hataccor
dingtomaxi
mum st
rai
nener
gyt
heor
y, σ1+1⎡
⎣(σ1)
2+4τ2⎤
⎦
 Tor
sionalandBendi
ngSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  161 162  ATextbookofMachineDesi
gn
2
σt1= 2 2 2⎡⎣
(81.5)+6642.
5+1.65×10–9T2⎤
⎦–⎡
⎣(
81.
5)2
–6642. 65×10–9T2⎤
5+1. ⎦=
2
(
200)
1 ⎡ 2 –3 2 ⎤
=1632+ 2 ⎣(
163)+4 (
0.0407×10 T)⎦ (
81.
2
5)+3×6642. 65×10 T =(
5+3×1. 200)
–9 2 2

–9 2
=81.
5+ 6642.
5+1.
65×10 mm2
T N/ 95×10–9T2=40000
26570+4.
Mi
nimum pr
inci
palst
ress,
σ1 1 2=40000×–26–9570 =2713×109
2 2⎤
σt2 = – ⎡( σ1)+4τ T
2 2⎣ ⎦
163 1⎡ 2 –3 2⎤
= – ( +
163) 4( 0407×10
0. T)⎦ 4.
95 10
2 2⎣ 3
–9 2
∴ T=1647×10 N-
mm =1647N-m Ans.
=81. 5+1.
5– 6642. 65×10 mm2
T N/
andmaxi
mum shears
tress,
τ 1 ⎡ σ 2+ τ
2⎤ 1 ⎡ 2 –3 2⎤
max= 2 ⎣ (1) 4 ⎦=2 ⎣ (
163)+4(
0.0407×10 T)⎦
–9 2
= 6642.
5+1.
65×10 mm2
T N/
Weknowt
hataccor
dingt
omaxi mum pr
inci
palst
resst
heor
y,
σt σ
1 = yt .
..
( ngF.
Taki S.=1)
∴ 81.
5+ 6642.5+1.65×10–9 2
T =200
6642.
5+1.65+1–9
0T2 =(200–81.52
)=14042
14042–6642.5 9
T2 = =4485×10
–9
65×10
1.
or 3
T=2118×10N- mm =2118N-m
Ans.
2.Accor
dingt
omaximum shearst
resstheor
y
Weknow t hataccor
dingtomaximum shearstr
ess
t
heory,σyt
τmax=τyt=2

200
∴ 6642.
5+1.65×10–9T2= =100
2
–9 2 2
6642.
5+1.65×10 T =( 100) =10000

2=10000×–6642.
5–9=2035×109
T

1.65 10
∴ T=1426×103N- mm =1426N- m Ans.
3.Accordi
ngt
omaximum distorti
onst rai
nenergytheor y
We know thataccor
di ng to maxi mum di st
ort i
on st
rai
n ener
gy
2 2 2
theory (σt1) +(σt2) –σt1×σt2=(σyt)
2 2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡
⎣81.
5+ 6642. 65×10–9T2 ⎦+ ⎣
5+1. 81.
5– 6642. 65×10–9T2
5+1.
⎤
⎦

⎡ ⎤⎡
–⎣81.
5+ 6642. 65×10–9T2 ⎦⎣81.
5+1. 5– 6642. 65×10–9T2
5+1.
⎤ 2
⎦=(200)

9. Twoshaf
tsunderpuretor
sionar
eofident
icall
engt
handident
icalwei
ghtandaremade 181  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn
ofs
amemat er
ial
.Thes tAi
haf ssol
i
dandtheshaftBishol
l
ow.Wecans ayt
hat
(
a) s tBi
haf sbet
tert
hans tA
haf
(
b) s tAi
haf sbet
tert
hans tB
haf
Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  181

6
(
c) bot
hthes
haf
tsar
eequal
l
ygood
10. Asoli
dshaf
ttr
ansmi
tsat
orqueT.Theal
l
owabl
eshearst
ressi
sτ.Thedi
amet
eroft
he C
s
hafti
s H
A
16T 32T P
a) 3πτ(
( b)3πτ T
E
R
364T d)
( 316T
c)
( πτ τ

11. Whenamachi
bendi
i
nt
nememberi
ngandashearst
hememberwil
lbe
r
ss
ess(
ubj
ect
τ)duet
edt
ot
oat
or
si
ensi
on,t
les
hent
tr
ess(
σt) duet
hemaxi
odi
mum shearst
r
rectl
essi
oador
nduced Var
iableSt
ressesi
n
(
a) 1⎡
⎣(
2
σt
)2+4τ2⎤
⎦ b)12⎡
( ⎣(σt
)2–4τ2⎤
⎦
Machi
1.I
nePar
ntr
t
s
oduct i
on. 15.Str
ess Concent rat
ion Fact orforVari
ous Machine
⎡ 2 ⎤
σt)+4τ2 ⎦(
c)⎣(
( d) (
2
σt)+4τ2 2.Compl et
elyRever sedor Member s.
Cycl icSt r
esses. 16.Fat
igueSt r
essConcent rat
ionFactor
.
12. Ranki
ne’
stheor
yisus
edf
or 3.FatigueandEndur ance 17.NotchSensi t
ivi
ty.
(
a) br
it
tl
emat
eri
al
s b)
( duct
il
emat
eri
al
s Limi t
. 18.CombinedSt eadyand
c)
( el
ast
icmat
eri
al
s(d) pl
ast
icmat
eri
al
s 4.Effect of Loadi ng on Vari
ableStresses.
Endur anceLi mit—Load 19.GerberMet hodf or
13. Guest
’st
heor
yisusedf
or
Fact or. Combi nat
ionofSt resses.
(
a) br
it
tl
emat
eri
al
s b)
( duct
il
emat
eri
al
s 5.EffectofSur face Fi ni
sh on 20.GoodmanMet hodfor
c)
( el
ast
icmat
eri
al
s(d) pl
ast
icmat
eri
al
s Endur anceLi mit—Sur f
ace Combi nat
ionofSt resses.
14. Att
heneut
ralaxi
sofabeam,t
heshearst
res
sis FinishFact or . 21.SoderbergMet hodf orCombi nati
onofStr
esses.
6.EffectofSi zeonEndur ance 6.
1 I
ntr
oduct
ion
(
a) z
ero b)
( maxi
mum Limi t—Si zeFact or.
c)
( mi
nimum 8. Relat i
onBet weenEndur ance Wehav ediscussed,i nt hepr eviouschapt er,
15. Themaxi
mum s hearst
ressdev
elopedi
nabeam ofr
ect
angul
arsect
ioni
s..
..
..
..t
he Limitand thes tressesduet os t
aticloadi ngonl y.Butonl ya
aver
ageshearst
res
s. Ulti
mat eTensi leStrength. few machi nepar t
sar esubject edtos t
ati
cl oading.
9. Fact orofSaf et yforFat i
gue Sincemanyoft hemachi nepar t
s( suchasaxl es,
(
a) equalt
o b)
( t
imes Loadi ng. shafts, cr ankshafts, connect ing rods ,s pri
ngs,
c)
( 1.
5ti
mes 10.StressConcent rati
on. pini
on t eeth etc.)are subj ected tov ariable or
11.Theor et i
calorFor m St r
ess alt
ernat i
ng l oads (al
so known as f luctuating or
Concent rat
ionFact or
. fati
guel oads),theref
oreweshal ldis cuss,i nthis
ANSWERS
12.StressConcent r
ati
onduet o chapt er,thev ari
ableoralternatingstresses.
b)
1.( a)
2.( a)
3.( d)
4. ( b)
5.( HolesandNot ches.
14.Fact orst o be Consi dered
c)
6.( c)
7.( a)
8.( a)
9. ( a)
10.( 6.
2Compl
etel
yRever
sedorCycl
i
cSt
resses
while Desi gning Machi ne
a)
11.( a)
12.( b)
13.( b)
14. ( c)
15.( Partst oAvoi dFat igue Consi
derarotat
ingbeam ofci
rcul
arcr
oss-
Failure. s
ect
ionandcar
ryi
ngaloadW,asshowninFi
g.6.
1.
 183  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

Thi
sloadinducesstr
essesi
nt hebeam whi
charecycl
ici
nnat
ure.Ali
ttl
econsi
derati
on
wil
lshow thattheupperfi
bresofthebeam (i
.e.atpoi
ntA) ar
eundercompr essi
ve
st
ressandt hel
owerfi
br i
es(.
e.atpointB)ar
eundertensi
l
est
ress.Af
ter

181
halfa r evol
ut i
on,the poi nt B occupies the
positionofpoi ntAandt hepoi ntAoccupi esthe
positionofpoi ntB.ThusthepointBi snowunder
compr essi
vest r
essandt hepointAundert ensil
e
stress.Thes peedofvar i
ationofthesest r
esses
dependsupont hespeedoft hebeam. Fi
g.6.
1.Reversedorcycl
icstr
esses.
From abov ewes eet hatf
oreachr evol
uti
onoft
hebeam,t hest r
essesar ereversed
from compr ess i
vetotensil
e.Thestresseswhichvar
yfrom onevalueofcompr essi
vet o
thesameval ueoft ensi
leorvi ceversa,areknownascompl etelyreversed orcycl i
c
stresses.
Notes:1.Thestr
esseswhichvar
yfrom amini
mum val
uetoamaxi
mum v
alueoft
hesamenat
ure,
i
(.
e.tensi
leorcompressi
ve)ar
ecaledf
l l
uct
uati
ngst
resses.
2. The s t
resseswhi
ch var
yf rom zeroto a cer
tai
n maximum value ar
e call
ed
repeatedst
resses.
3. Thes t
resseswhi
chvaryf r
om ami nimum val
uet oamaxi mum valueoft he
oppositenatur
e( i
.e.fr
om acert
ainmini
mum compr essi
vetoacer t
ainmaximum tensi
leor
from amini
mum t ensil
etoamaximum compressi
ve)ar
ecaledal
l t
ernati
ngst
resses.

6.
3 Fat
igueandEndur
anceLi
mit
Ithasbeenf oundexper iment
allythatwhenamat eri
alissubject
edt or epeated
str
esses,i
tfail
satst r
essesbel ow theyiel
dpointst r
esses.Sucht ypeoff ai
lur
eofa
Inordert ost
udyt heeff
ectoff
ati
gueofamat er
ial
,arot
ati
ngmir
rorbeam met
hod
materi
alisknownasf at
igue.Thef ail
ureiscausedbymeansofapr ogressi
vecr ack
i
sused.I
nt hismethod,astandar
dmirr
orpol
ishedspeci
men,asshowninFi
g.6. a),i
2( s
for
mat i
onwhichar eusuallyfi
neandofmi cr
oscopicsize.Thef ai
lur
emayoccureven
r
otat
edinaf ati
gue
wit
houtanypr iorindi
cation.The fati
gue ofmat er
ialiseffect
ed byt he siz
e oft he
component,r
elati
vemagni tudeofst
at i
candfl
uctuati
ngloadsandt henumberofl oad

Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  184 185  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

testi
ngmachi newhi l
et hes pecimeni s 3σe
l
oaded i n bendi ng.As t he s pecimen σ'
e=2−R
rotates ,thebendi ngs tres satt heupper
fi
bres vari
es from maxi mum e σ'
wher e=Endur
ancel
i
mitforanyst
ressrangerepr
es edbyR.
ent
compr es sivet omaxi mum t ens il
ewhi l
e σe=Endurancelimitf
orcompl
etel
yrever
sedst
res
ses,
thebendi ng st r
essatt hel owerf i
bres andR=St ressrat
io.
varies f rom maxi mum t ens ile t o
maxi mum compr essive.I not herwor ds, 6.
4 Ef
fectofLoadi
ngonEndur
anceLi
mit
—LoadFact
or
the s peci men i s subj ected t o a Theendur ancel i
mit( σe)ofamat erialasdet er
mi nedbyt her otati
ngbeam met hod
compl etelyr ever
seds tresscy cl
e.Thi sis i
sf orr eversedbendi ngload.Ther ear emanymachi nemember swhi char esubject
edto
represent edbyat ime- stressdi agr am as l
oadsot hert hanr eversedbendi ngl oads.Thus
showni nFi g.6.2(b).Ar ecor di skeptof the endur ance li
mi twi llal so be di f
ferentf or
the number of cy cl es r equi red t o dif
ferentt y pesofl oading.Theendur ancel imit
producef ail
ureatagi ven s tr
es s,and dependi ng upon t he t ype ofl oading may be
the r esul ts are plotted i ns tress -
cycle cur
ve as shown i
n Fig.6.
2(c).A li
tt
le modifiedasdi scussedbel ow:
A
consi derat ionwi l
ls how t hati fthest ressiskeptbelow acert
ainval
ueasshown Let Kb = Load cor recti
on
machi
nepar
tisbei
ngt
urnedonaLat
he. factorf orthe
bydot tedl inei nFi g.6. 2(c),t hemat erialwi llnotfai
l
what evermaybet henumberofcy cl
es.Thi sst ress ,asr epr esentedbydot t edl i
ne,is reversed orr otati
ng bendi ng
known as endur ance orf ati
gue l imi
t( σe).I ti sdef i
ned asmaxi mum val ue oft he l
oad.
compl etel
yrever sedbendi ngst resswhi chapol i
shedst andar dspeci mencanwi thstand I
tsv alue i s usual lyt aken as
withoutfail
ure,fori nfi
nitenumberofcycl es( us ually107cycl es) . unity.
Itmaybenot edt hatt het erm endur ancel imiti susedf orreversedbendi ngonl y Ka = Load cor rect ion f actorf ort he
whi l
ef orothert ypesofl oadi ng,t he ter m endur ance st rengt h maybe used when reversed axi all oad.I tsv al
ue
referr
ingthef ati
gues tr
engt hoft hemat erial.I tmaybedef inedast hesaf emaxi mum maybet akenas0. 8.
stresswhichcanbeappl iedt othemachi nepar twor kingunderact ualcondi t
ions . Ks=Loadcor r
ect ionf actorfort her eversedt orsi
onalors hear
Wehav eseent hatwhenamachi nememberi ssubjectedt oacompl etelyr eversed l
oad.I tsval uemaybet akenas0. 55f orShaf
tdri
ve.
stress,themaxi mum st r
essi nt ensioni sequalt othemaxi mum st r
essi ncompr ession duct i
l
e mat erials and 0. 8f or brittl
e
ass howni nFi g.6. 2( b).Inact ualpr actice,manymachi nemember sunder godi ff
erent mat erials.
rangeofs tr
es sthant hecompl etelyreversedst ress. ∴Endur ancel imitf orr eversedbendi ngload, σeb=σe. Kb=σe ..(Kb=1)
.
Thestressver sest i
medi agram forf luct uat i
ngst resshavi ngvaluesσmin andσmaxi s
shown i n Fig.6. 2( e).The var iabl
e st r
es s,i n gener al,may be consi der ed as a Endurancel
imi
tforr
ever
sedaxiall Ka and
oad, σea = σe.
combi nati
onofs teady( ormeanorav erage)st ressandacompl et
elyr ever sedst ress enduranceli
mitf
orr
evers
edtors
ionalorshearl
oad, τe=σe.Ks
componentσv.Thef oll
owingr elati
onsar eder ivedf rom Fig.6. 2( e)
:
6.
5 Ef
fectofSur
faceFi
nis
honEndur
anceLi
mit
—Sur
faceFi
nis
hFact
or
1.Meanoraver ages tr
es s,
Whenamachi nememberi
ssubj
ect
edtovar
iablel
oads,theendur
ancel
i
mitoft
he
σm = mater
ialf
orthatmemberdependsuponthesurfacecondit
ions
.Fig.6.
3showsthe
2.
Rever
sedst
resscomponentoral
ter
nat
ingorvar
iabl
est
ress, val
uesofsur
facef
inishf
act
or
σv=
Note:Forr
epeat
edl
oadi
ng,t
hest
ressv
ari
esf
rom maxi
mum t
ozer
o(i
.e.σmin=0)i
neachcycl
eas
showninFig.
6.
2(d)
.
∴ σm =σv=

3.
Str
essr
ato,R =
i .Forcompl
etel
yrever
sed st
resses,R = –1and f
or

repeat
edstr
esses ,
R=0.I
tmaybenot edthatRcannotbegr
eat
erthanunit
y.
4.Thefol
lowi
ngrelati
onbet
weenendur
anceli
mitandst
ressr
ati
omaybeused
 Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  186 187  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

3.Whenthenominaldi
amet
eroft
hespeci
meni
smor
ethan50mm,t
hent
heval
ueofsi
ze
f
act
ormaybetakenas0.75.

6.
7Ef
fectofMiscel
laneousFact
orson
EnduranceLimit
I
naddi ti
ont ot hesur facef ini
shf act or
K K K
Ksur),si
( zefact or(sz)andl oadf actors b, a
K
and s,t herear emanyot herf actorssuchas
rel
i
abi li
tyf actor( Kr),t emper aturefactor(Kt),
i
mpactf actor( Ki) et c.whi chhasef fecton
the endur ance l imi t of a mat eri
al.
Cons ideringal lthesef actor s,theendur ance
l
imit may be det ermi ned by us ing t he
fol
l
owi ngexpr es sions:
1.For t he r ever sed bendi ng l oad,
endur ance
l
imit,
σ' e=σ eb.Ksur.
Ksz.
Kr.Kt.Ki
membermaybeobt ai
ned bymul t
ipl
yingtheendurancel i
mitand thesurf
acef i
nish 2.Fort her ever sedaxi al l
oad,endur ancel i
mi,σ'
t e=σea.
Ksur.
Ksz.
Kr.
Kt.
Ki
fact
or.Wes eethatf orami r
rorpolishedmateri
al
,thesur f
acefi
nishf act
ori
sunity.In
otherwor
ds,theendur anceli
mi tf
ormi r
rorpol
i
shedmat er
iali
smaxi mum anditgoeson 3.Fort
her
ever
sedt
orsi
onalorshearl
oad, I
naddi
ti
ont
oshear
,tensi
l
e,compr
essi
veand
reduci
ngduetos urfacecondit
ion. endur
ancel
i
mit
,tor
sionalst
resses,t
emper
atur
ecanaddi
tsown
Let Ksur=Surfacefini
shfactor.
σ'
e=τ Ksur.
e. Ksz.
Kr.
Kt.
Ki Not
e:Thi
spi
ctur
eisgi
venasaddi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ionst
ress(
Ref
.Chapt
er4)
∴Endurancelimit,
I
nsol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems,i
ftheval
ueofanyoft
he andi
snotadi
rectexampl
eoft
he
Ksur=σe.
σe1=σeb. Kb.
Ksur=σe.Ksur .
.( Kb=1)
.
cur
rentchapt
er.
K K. K abovef
act
orsi
snotknown,i
tmaybet
akenasuni
ty.
.
..
(Forr
ever
sedbendi
ngload)=σea.sur=σe.a sur ..
.(For
r
ever
sedaxi
all
oad) 6.
8 Rel
ati
onBet
weenEndur
anceLi
mitandUl
ti
mat
eTensi
l
eSt
rengt
h
K K.K I
thasbeenf oundexper i
mental
l
yt hatendurancel
imi
t(σe)ofamat eri
alsubjected
=τe.sur=σe.s sur .
..
(Forr
ever
sedt
orsi
onalorshearl
oad)
tofat
igueloadingisaf uncti
onofulti
mat etensil
estr
engt
h( σu).Fig.6.4s howst he
Not
e:Thesur
facef
ini
shf
act
orf
ornon-
fer
rousmet
alsmaybet
akenasuni
ty.
endur
ancelimitofsteelcor
respondi
ngt oult
imatetens
il
estrengthfordiff
erentsurface
condi
ti
ons.Foll
owingaresomeempi r
icalrel
ati
onscommonlyus edinpracti
ce:
6.
6 Ef
fectofSi
zeonEndur
anceLi
mit
—Si
zeFact
or
Ali
ttl
econs iderat
ionwi l
lshow t
hatifthesizeofthestandar dspecimenasshown
i
nFig.6.2(a)i
sincr eased,thentheendurancelimitofthematerialwi
lldecrease.Thi
sis
duetothefactthatal ongerspecimenwillhavemor edefect
sthanasmal l
erone.
Let Ksz=Si z
efactor.
K
∴Endurancel i
mi t
,σe2=σe1× sz...
(Consideri
ngsur f
acefi
nishfactoral
so)
Ksur.
= σeb. Ksz = σe.
Kb.
Ksur.
Ksz = σe.
Ksur.
Ksz ( Kb = 1)=
Ksur.
σea. Ksz=σe.
Ka.
Ksur.
Ksz..
.(Forreversedaxiall
oad)
K K KK K
=τe.sur.sz=σe.s.sur. sz.
..(Forreversedt
orsi
onalorshearl
oad)
Notes:1.Thev al
ueofsi
zef
act
ori
stakenasuni
tyf
ort
hest
andar
dspeci
menhavi
ngnomi
nal
di
amet erof7.
657 mm.
2.Whent henomi
naldi
ameteroft
hespeci
meni
smor
ethan7.
657mm butl
esst
han50mm,
t
hev
alueofs
izefact
ormaybetakenas0.85.

Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  188 189  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

σd=FSσ.
ea.=0.
722σe=0.
36σeAns.

6.
10St
ressConcent
rat
ion
Whenevera machi ne componentchangest he shape ofi t
scr oss-
sect i
on,the
simple st ress di stri
buti
on no l ongerhol ds good and t he nei ghbour
hood oft he
discontinuityi sdi ff
erent.Thisi rregul arit
yi nt hest r
es sdistributi
oncaus edbyabr upt
changesoff ormi scaledst
l r
essconcent r
ation.Itoccur sforal lki
ndsofs tr
es sesinthe
presenceoff ill
ets,notches,hol es ,keyways,s pl
ines,surfacer oughnes sorscratchesetc.
Inor dert ounder st
andf ullyt hei dea
of st res s concent rati
on, consi der a
member wi th di ff
erent cr os s-s ecti
on
underat ensilel oadasshowni n Fi g.6. 5.
Al it
tlecons ideration wil
lshow t hatt he
nomi nals tressi nt her i
ghtandl efthand
sideswi llbeuni f
orm buti nther egionwher e Fig.6.5.Stres
sconcentr
ation.
Fi
g.6.
4.Endur
ancel
i
mitofst
eelcor
respondi
ngt
oul
ti
mat
etensi
l
est
rengt
h. thecr osss ectioni schanging,ar e-dis t
ribution
Forsteel
,σe=0. 5σu; ofthef orcewi thinthemembermus tt akepl ace.Themat eri
alneart heedgesiss tr
essed
Forcaststeel, σe=0. 4σu; cons i
der ablyhi gherthant heav erageval ue.Themaxi mum st ressoccur satsomepoi nt
Forcasti ron,σe = 0.
35 σu ;Fornon- ont hef i
ll
etandi sdi r
ectedpar alleltot heboundar yatt hatpoi nt.
fer
rousmet alsandal
loys,σe=0.3σu
6.
11Theor
eti
cal
orFor
m St
ressConcent
rat
ionFact
or
6.
9 Fact
orofSaf
etyf
orFat
igueLoadi
ng Thetheoreti
calorf
orm str
essconcentrati
onf act
ori sdef
inedast herati
ooft he
Whenacomponenti ssubject
ed tofati
gueloadi
ng,theendur
ancel
imitist
he maximum str
es sinamember( atanotchoraf il
l
et)tothenomi nals
tressatthes ame
cri
teri
onforfali
ure. sect
ionbaseduponnetar ea.Mathematical
l
y,t heoret
icalorf
orm str
es sconcent
rati
on
Ther
efore,thefactorofsaf
etyshoul
dbebas edonenduranceli
mit
.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y, f
actor,
Enduranceli
mitst
ress σe Maximum st r
ess
Factorofsafet
y(F.
S.)= = Kt=Nominalstress

Desi
gnorwor
kingst
ress σd Thev ueofKtdependsupont
al hemat
eri
alandgeomet
ryoft
hepar
t.
Not
e: Forst
eel
,σe=0.
8to0.
9σy Notes:1.I ns t
aticloading,str
essconcent r
ati
oninduct il
emat erialsisnots os eri
ousasi nbri
ttl
e
wher
e σe=Endur
ancel
i
mits
tressf
orcompl
etel
yrever
sedst
resscy
cle,and materials,becaus einduct i
lemat er
ialsl
ocaldefor
mat ionory iel
di ngtakespl acewhi chreduces
σy=Yi
el
dpoi
ntst
ress. theconcent rati
on.Inbr it
tl
emat eri
al
s ,cr
acksmayappearatt hes elocalconcent r
ati
onsofst r
ess
whichwi l
lincreaset hes tr
essov ert herestofthes ect
ion.Iti s,therefor
e,neces sarythatin
Example 6.1.Det er
mi ne t
he design str
essf ora pi
ston r
od wher ethe load i
s designingpar t
sofbr i
ttl
emat eri
alssuchascas t
ings,careshouldbet aken.Inor dertoavoi
df ai
l
ure
completel
yreversed.Thesur f
aceofther odisgroundandthesurfacefi
nishf
actoris0.
9. duet os t
ressconcent rati
on,fi
l
let
satt hechangesofs ecti
onmus tbepr ovided.
Ther
ei snostressconcentrati
on.Theloadispredictabl
eandthefactorofsaf
etyis2.
2.Incy cl
i
cloading,st
ressconcent r
at i
oni nducti
l
emat eri
alsisalwayss er
iousbecausethe
Sol
uti ven:Ksur=0.
on.Gi 9;F.
S.=2 ducti
l
it
yoft hemateri
alisnoteffect
iveinr eli
evi
ngt heconcentr
ationofstresscausedbycr acks,
The piston rod iss ubj
ect
ed to fl
aws,surf
aceroughness,oranys har
pdi scontinui
tyinthegeomet ri
calf
orm ofthemember .Ift
he
str
essatanypointinamemberi sabov etheendur anceli
mitofthemat er
ial,acrackmaydev el
op
reversedaxialloading.Weknow t
hatf
or
undertheacti
onofrepeatedloadandt hecr ackwilll
eadtofai
lur
eoft hemember .
reversed axi al l oadi
ng, the load
correcti
onfactor(Ka)is0.8. 6.
12St
ressConcent
rat
ionduet
oHol
esandNot
ches
Pi
stonr
od
I
fσe i
stheenduranceli
mitf
orrever
sedbendi
ngl
oad,t
henendur
ancel
i
mitf
orr
ever
sed Consideraplat
ewithtr
ansverseell
ipti
calholeands ubjectedtoat ensi
leloadas
axi
all
oad, showni nFig.6.
6(a).Weseef rom thest r
ess-
distr
ibut
ionthatt hestr
essatt hepoi
nt
awayfrom thehol
eispr
acti
cal
lyunifor
m andt hemaxi mum st
r esswil
lbeinducedatthe
σea=σe×Ka×Ksur=σe×0.
8×0.9=0.72σe
edgeofthehole.Themaxi
mum stressisgivenby
Weknowt hatdesi
gnstr
ess,
⎛+2a⎞
⎟
 Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  190 191  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

σmax=σ⎜
⎝1b⎠ σmax=

andt
het
heor
eti
calst
ressconcent
rat
ionf
act
or,

σmax=⎛
⎜1+2ba⎞
⎝ ⎟⎠ 6.
13Met
hodsofReduci
ngSt
res
sConcent
rat
ion Fi
g.6.
7.St
ress
Kt=σ We have al
readydis
cussed in Ar
t6.10 thatwhenev er concentr
ationdueto
thereisachangei ncross-
secti
on,suchass houlders
,holes, notches.
notchesorkeywaysandwher ether
eisanint
erfer
-
Whena/bi sl
arge,theel l
i
pseappr
oachesacr ackt
ransver
set otheloadandt he encef i
tbet
weenahuborbear i
ngraceandas haf
t,thenst
ressconcentr
ati
onr esul
ts.Thepr
esenceof
valueofKtbecomesv erylarge.Whena/
bi ssmal
l
,theell
i
pseappr oachesalongit
udinal
sl
it[asshowninFig.6.6(b)]andthei
ncr
easeinst
ressissmall
.Whent heholeisci
rcular
asshowni nFig.6.
6(c),thena/b=1andt hemaxi
mum s t
ressist
hreet i
mesthenomi nal
value.

Cr
ankshaf
t

str
essconcentr
ati
oncannotbet otal
lyel
i
mi natedbutitmayber educedtos omeextent.
A device orconceptthatisus ef
ulin as si
sti
ng a design engineertov i
sual
iz
et he
presenceofst
ressconcent
rat
ionandhowi tmaybemi t
igatedisthatofst
ressfl
owlines,
Fi
g.6.
6.St
ressconcent
rat
ionduet
ohol
es. ass howninFig.6.
8.Themi t
igat
ionofstressconcentrati
onmeanst hatthestr
essf l
ow
l
inesshallmai
ntai
nthei
rspaci
ngasf arasposs ibl
e.

The stress
concentrat
ion int he notched
tensi
on member ,as shown i n
Fig.6.7,isi nfl
uenced by t he
depthaoft henotchandr adius
ratt he bot t
om oft he notch.
⎛ 2a
The maxi mum s tr
ess, whi 1+ ⎞
ch σ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r⎠
appli
es t o member s havi ng
not
chesthatar
esmal li
ncomparis
onwi t
hthewi dt
hoft
he
pl
ate,maybeobtai
nedbythef
oll
owingequat
ion,

Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  192 193  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

6.
14Fact
orst
obeConsi
der
edwhi
l
eDesi
gni
ngMachi
nePar
tst
oAvoi
d
Fati
gueFai
l
ure
Thefoll
owingf act
orsshouldbecons i
deredwhiledesigni
ngmachinepartstoav oi
d
fat
iguefai
lure:
1. Thevar i
ationi
nt hesiz
eofthecomponentshoul dbeasgr adualaspossibl
e.
2. Thehol es,notchesandotherst
res srai
ser
ss houl
dbeav oi
ded.
3. Thepr operst ressde-concent
ratorssuchasf i
l
letsandnotchesshoul dbe
provi
ded
whereverneces sary
.

Fi
g.6.
8
I
nFig.6. 8(a)weseet hats
tressl
inestendt obunchupandcutver yclosetothe
sharpr e-
entrantcorner.I
nordertoimprovet hesi t
uati
on,fi
llet
smaybepr ovi
ded,as
showni nFig.6.8(b)and(c)togi
vemor eequall
yspacedf lowlines.
Fi
gs.6.9t o6.11s how t
heseveralwaysofr educi
ngt hest r
essconcentr
ati
onin
shaftsandot hercyli
ndri
calmemberswithshoul ders,holesandt hreadsr
especti
vel
y.I
t
maybenot edt hatiti
snotpract
icabl
et ousel arger adi
usfil
letsasincaseofballand
r
ollerbeari
ngmount ings.I
nsuchcases,
Fi
g.6.
12.Met
hodsofr
educi
ngst
ressconcent
rat
ionofapr
essf
it
.
4. Thepart
sshouldbepr otectedfrom cor
rosi
veatmosphere.
5. Asmoothfini
shofoutersur f
aceoft hecomponenti
ncreasest
hefat
igueli
fe.
6. Themateri
alwit
hhighf ati
guest r
engthshoul
dbeselected.
7. Theresi
dualcompressives t
ressesoverthepar
tssurf
aceincr
easesit
sfatigue
st
rengt
h.

6.
15St
ressConcent
rat
ionFact
orf
orVar
iousMachi
neMember
s
Thefol
l
owingtabl
esshow t
het
heor
eti
cals
tressconcent
rat
ionf
act
orf
orv
ari
ous
t
ypesofmembers
.
Tabl
e6.
1.Theor
eti
cal
str
essconcent
rat
ionfact Kt)f
or( orapl
atewi
thhol
e(of
di
ameterd)intensi
on.
d

b 0.
05 0.
1 0.
15 0.
20 0.
25 0.
30 0.
35 0.
40 0.
45 0.
50 0.
55
Fi
g.6.
10.Met
hodsofr
educi
ngst
ressconcent
rat
ioni
ncyl
i
ndr
ical
member
swi
thhol
es.
Kt 2.
83 2.
69 2.
59 2.
50 2.
43 2.
37 2.
32 2.
26 2.
22 2.
17 2.
13

Fi
g.6.
11.Met
hodsofr
educi
ngst
ressconcent
rat
ioni
ncyl
i
ndr
ical
member
swi
thhol
es.
Thestressconcent r
ati
oneffect
sofapr essfi
tmayber educedbymakingmore Fi
g.f
orTabl
e6.
1 Fi
g.f
orTabl
e6.
2
gr
adualtr
ans i
ti
onf r
om theri
gidtothemorefl
exibl
eshaft.Thevar i
ouswaysofr
educi
ng
st
ressconcentrat
ionforsuchcasesareshowninFig.6.
12( a)
,(b)and(c)
. Tabl
e6.
2.Theor
eti
calst
ressconcent
rat
ionf or( Kt)f
act oras
haf
t
wi
tht
ransv
ersehol
e(ofdi erd)i
amet nbendi
ng.
 Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  194
194  AText
bookofMachi
neDesi
gn

d Example6.2F
.indt hemaxi mum
0.
02 0.
04 0.
08 0.
10 0.
12 0.
16 0.
20 0.
24 0.
28 0.
30 stressinducedinthefol lowingcases
D
taking str
essconcent ration into
Kt 2.
70 2.
52 2.
33 2.
26 2.
20 2.
11 2.
03 1.
96 1.
92 1.
90 account :
1.Arectangul
arpl at e60mm ×
10mm wi t
hahol e12di amet eras
showni nFig.6.13(a)andsubj ected
toat ensil
eloadof12kN.
2.Asteppedshaf tasshowni n
Fig.6.13(b)andcar r
yingat ensil
e
l
oadof12kN.
St
eppedshaf
t

Fi
g.6.
13
Sol
uti
on.Case1.Given:b=60mm ;t=10mm ;d=12mm ;W =12kN=12×
103N
Weknowt hatcr
oss-
sect
ionalar
eaoft
heplat
e,
A=( b–d)t=(60–12)10=480mm2
∴ Nomi
nalst
r s= W
es 12×103 =25N/mm2=25MPa
=

A 480
Rat
ioofdi
amet
erofhol
etowidt
hofpl
ate,
d 12
==0.2b
60

From Tabl
e6.1,wef i
ndthatford/b=0. 2,theor
etical
str
essconcent
rat
ionf
act
or,
Kt=2.5
∴ Maxi mum st
ress=Kt×Nomi nalstr
ess=2. 5×25=62. 5MPaAns.
Case2.Gi ven:D =50mm ;d=25mm ;r=5mm ;W =12kN=12×
103NWeknowt hatcr
oss-sect
ionalareaforthesteppedshaf
t,
π
A=π ×d2= ( 2
25)=491mm2
4 4
12
W = ×103 =24.
4N/mm2=24.
4MPa
∴ Nomi
nalst
res
s=

A 491
Rati
oofmaxi mum di
ametertominimum diamet
er,
D/d=50/ 25= 2
Rati
o of r adi
us of fil
let t
o mi ni
mum
diamet ,r
er /d=5
/25 =0.2
From Tabl
e 6.3,we f i
nd thatforD/d = 2 and r
/d = 0.
2,t
heor
eti
calst
ress
concent
rat
ionfact
or,
Kt

Maxi
mum s
tress=Kt×Nomi
nals
tress=1.
64×24.
4=40MPaAns.
Var
iabl
eSt
ressesi
nMachi
nePar
ts  195
6.
16Fat
igueSt
res
sConcent
rat
ionFact
or
Whenamachi nememberi ssubjectedt ocycli
corf atigueloading,thevalueof
fat
igue s t
ress concentrat
ion fact
ors hallbe appl i
ed i
nst ead oft heoreti
calstress
concentrati
onfactor.Sincet hedeter
mi nati
onoff ati
guestressconcent rat
ionfactoris
notaneas ytask,theref
oref r
om exper
iment alt
est
si ti
sdef
inedas
Fat
iguestr
es sconcentrati
onfact
or, f
act
ormaybeobt
ainedf
rom t
hef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ions:
Endur
ancel
i
mitwi
thoutst
ressconcent
rat
ion Kf –1
q=
Kf=
Endur
ancel
i
mitwi
thst
ressconcent
rat
ion
Kt–1
6.
17Not
chSensi
ti
vi
ty or Kf=1+q(
Kt–1) .
..
[Fort ensi
l
e orbending
Incy cli
cl oading,theef fectoft henot chort hef i
ll
etisusuall
ylesst hanpredictedby st
ress]
theuseoft het heoret
icalfact orsasdi scuss edbef ore.Thedi f
fer
encedependsupont he and Kfs=1+q(
Kts–1) .
..
[Forshearst
ress]
str
essgr adienti nt her egionoft hest ressconcent rat
ionandont hehar dnessoft he
materi
al.Thet erm notchsensi t
ivi
tyisappl iedt othisbehaviour.I
tmaybedef i
nedast he
degreet owhi cht het heor eti
calef f
ectofst ressconcent rat
ionisact uall
yreached.The
str
essgr adi entdependsmai nlyont heradi usoft henot ch,holeorfi
lletandont hegr ain
siz
eoft hemat eri
al.Sincet heext ensivedat af oresti
mat i
ngthenot chsensi t
ivi
tyfactor(q)
i
snotav ailable,thereforethecur ves,asshowni nFig.6.14,maybeusedf ordetermining
thevaluesofqf ort wos teels.