Chap 1

Dog Obedience Instructor
Training Program
Stage 1: A Basic Overview of Canines
Animal Behavior College Core Program

Dog Obedience Instructor Training Program
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR COLLEGE
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Santa Clarita, CA 91355
Copyright © 2020 by Animal Behavior College Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, without express permission in writing from the Publisher.
Cover image: dagabu/Adobe Stock
1-2
Contents
Stage 1: A Basic Overview of Canines............................................ 1-6
Learning Objectives........................................................................ 1-7
Dog Breeds and Groups.................................................................. 1-8
American Kennel Club.................................................................................. 1-9
AKC Breed Characteristics.............................................................................................................1-12
Sporting Group....................................................................................................................................................... 1-14
Working Group....................................................................................................................................................... 1-16
Herding Group........................................................................................................................................................ 1-18
Terrier Group........................................................................................................................................................... 1-20
Non-Sporting Group............................................................................................................................................. 1-22
Hound Group.......................................................................................................................................................... 1-24
Toy Group................................................................................................................................................................. 1-28
Miscellaneous Class............................................................................................................................................... 1-30
Foundation Stock Service.................................................................................................................................... 1-30
Other Registries & Kennel Clubs.................................................................................................1-30

Reputable Purebred Dog Breeders............................................................................................1-31
Canine Behavioral Developmental Periods................................. 1-34

Fetal: In Utero...................................................................................................................................1-35
Neonatal: From Birth to 10 Days ................................................................................................1-35
Transitional Period: 11 to 21 Days..............................................................................................1-35
Socialization Period: 3 to 12–14 Weeks....................................................................................1-36
Juvenile Period: ~3 to ~12 Months ...........................................................................................1-41
Adolescent Period: ~8 Months to 2–3 years...........................................................................1-41
Adult Period: ~3 to 7 years...........................................................................................................1-42
Senior: 7+ Years................................................................................................................................1-43
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Puppy Socialization.................................................................................... 1-44

What Is Positive Socialization?....................................................................................................1-45
Canine Nutrition Basics................................................................ 1-52

Evolution of the Canine Digestive System................................................. 1-52
Canine Dietary Requirements.................................................................... 1-53
Canine Nutrition Options........................................................................... 1-57
Regulation of Dog Food Ingredients and Labeling..............................................................1-57
Dog Food Names................................................................................................................................................... 1-61
Protein Sources................................................................................................................................1-62
Types of Dog Food..........................................................................................................................1-64
How Raw Food Is Prepared............................................................................................................................................... 1-67
Nutrition and Health Problems.................................................................. 1-68

Obesity................................................................................................................................................1-68
Nutritional Deficiencies.................................................................................................................1-68
Foods That Are Harmful to Dogs....................................................................................................................... 1-69
Nutrition and Canine Behavior.................................................................. 1-69

Canine Health................................................................................ 1-74
Vaccine Protocols for Dogs......................................................................... 1-74
Common Canine Health Problems............................................................. 1-80
External and Internal Parasites....................................................................................................1-82
Canine Anatomy & Physiology..................................................... 1-86

Canine External Anatomy .......................................................................... 1-86
Canine Sensory Perception........................................................................ 1-88
Canine Genetics.......................................................................................... 1-92
Genotype and Phenotype............................................................................................................1-92
Innate and Learned Behavior......................................................................................................1-93
Congenital Diseases and Disorders........................................................... 1-95
1-4
Canine Reproduction.................................................................................. 1-97

In-Heat Dogs in Training Classes................................................................................................1-98
Neutering...........................................................................................................................................1-98
Canine Communication.............................................................. 1-102

Relaxed Body Posture................................................................................................................. 1-103
Alert Body Posture....................................................................................................................... 1-104
Offensive Threat Posture............................................................................................................ 1-105
If A Dog Becomes Offensively Aggressive ..................................................................................................1-106
Never Give Corrections....................................................................................................................................................1-106
Defensive Threat Posture........................................................................................................... 1-107

Stop the Stimulus................................................................................................................................................1-107
Avoid Corrections................................................................................................................................................1-107
Submissive Body Posture........................................................................................................... 1-108

Play Bow Posture.......................................................................................................................... 1-109
Interpreting Puppy Play............................................................................................................. 1-109
Appropriate Puppy Play.....................................................................................................................................1-109
Inappropriate Puppy Play..................................................................................................................................1-110
Interrupting Puppy Play..................................................................................................................................................1-111
Stress Signals ................................................................................................................................ 1-112

Canine Vocalizations................................................................................. 1-114
A Bit About Dominance Theory in Dog Training..................................... 1-117
Deliverable................................................................................................ 1-119
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W
elcome to Stage 1. This is exciting; You have decided to learn about being a dog trainer. In this
stage, using both scientific (formal) and common (informal) terminology, we cover what is currently
known about Canis familiaris: the domestic dog. To become a Certified Dog Obedience Instructor, you need
to start with the basics, including dog breed characteristics, canine developmental periods, proper puppy
socialization, vaccination recommendations, disease awareness prevention and canine communication.
Being conversant about normal canine behavior and ideal dog care provides you with knowledge base
you can refer to as you work with clients. Having a clear understanding of canine behavior can help you
explain to clients the difference between normal behavior that occurs at inconvenient or inappropriate
times and abnormal behavior. Educating your clients on dog care best practices can help them prevent
potential behavioral and health problems. And knowing how to interpret and explain dog body language
and vocalizations is essential to becoming an effective trainer.
avarand/Adobe Stock
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Learning Objectives
➤ List the seven breed groups established by the American Kennel Club (AKC)
➤ Cite examples from each of the seven AKC Breed Groups
➤ Identify general characteristics of the seven Breed Groups
➤ Know what constitutes a reputable breeder
➤ Identify developmental periods and explain the characteristics of:
» The first fear period
» Optimum bonding period
» General socialization period
➤ Understand the essentials of puppy socialization
➤ Understand basic canine nutrition
➤ List canine dietary requirements
➤ Understand canine food labeling
➤ Identify canine nutrition health problems
➤ Know the core and non-core canine vaccines for canines
➤ Explain the diseases for which general vaccines are given
➤ Explain various canine infections, diseases and other health problems
➤ Recognize symptoms for various canine diseases
➤ Identify canine external anatomy
➤ Explain canine sensory perception and how dogs use their senses
➤ Understand basic canine genetics, including genotype and phenotype
➤ Explain the differences between innate and learned behavior
➤ Explain the purpose of the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals
➤ Describe the components of canine reproduction
➤ Interpret canine communicative behavior
➤ Identify and describe canine body postures
➤ Identify and describe canine vocalizations
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Dog Breeds and Groups

DoraZett/Adobe Stock
T
rainers who know about specific breeds of dogs can often engender trust and respect from their clients.
When trainers can correctly identify the breed of clients’ dogs, no matter how less-known it might be,
that specific knowledge indicates their level of expertise.
In addition, a good working knowledge of dog breeds allows trainers to offer an educated guess as to the
lineage of a mixed-breed dog or a mutt/mongrel.1 Some owners might appreciate not having to classify their
dog as a “mutt” or “mongrel,” which is why some U.S. professionals refer to canines of unknown parentage
as All-American.2
Purebred: Dogs whose mother and father are the same breed and are themselves of
unmixed descent since recognition of the breed.
Mixed Breed: Dogs whose parents who are not of the same
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breed and at least one of the parent’s breeds is known.
Mutt/Mongrel/All-American: Dogs whose parents who have

three or more breed types. All breed types might not be known.
The American Kennel Club (AKC) uses this designation for non-
purebreds who are allowed to compete in some events.
Hybrid/Designer Dogs: A hybrid is the offspring of two

purebred animals. Examples include: Yorkie-poos, Yorkshire
Terrier and Miniature or Toy Poodle; Labradoodles,
Labrador Retriever and Standard Poodle; and Puggles, Pug
and Beagle (image right). 3
1 Mixed-breed. (n.d.). In Oxford Living Dictionaries. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mixed-breed
2 Molon, A. (2014, February 07). Westminster dog show opens to-gasp!-mutts. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from https://www.cnbc.com/2014/02/07/westminster-dog-show-opens-to-mutts.html
3 Glennon, E. (2015, September 10). Instead of a “Designer Breed,” Consider the Undoodle: The Otterhound – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/instead-designer-breed-otterhound/
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Along with knowing the various breeds, you should also become familiar with their common characteristics.
While we include a very broad description of each breed group’s characteristics, we suggest you do more
specific studying on your own. Every breed that has registration status with AKC has a breed standard
(you can find them at https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/). In addition, each breed has a parent club.
Learning about all the different groups and breeds can seem overwhelming. However, every time you
learn about a breed, you increase your training knowledge. As you progress through this program; think
how you might apply the breed information to training your clients’ dogs.
American Kennel Club

In order to begin to understand dogs, you should become
familiar with the different types or breeds that are recognized by
the American Kennel Club (AKC), the largest dog club in the USA.
Established in 1884, the AKC is a not-for-profit organization devoted to the advancement of purebred dogs.4
It maintains a registry of recognized breeds; adopts and enforces rules governing dog shows, obedience
trials and field trials; and fosters interest in the health and welfare of purebred dogs.
The organization also functions as a registry for purebred dogs; it compiles registration status and protects
the stud books of all AKC-recognized purebred dogs. The books document a dog’s lineage and how many
times he or she has been bred and the resulting registered offspring.5 To register a purebred, an application
is submitted to the AKC and upon acceptance, the pedigree is maintained forever.
National individual breed clubs set the AKC’s breed standards.
For example, the Schipperke Club of America sets the standard
for the breed. Proposed changes to a current accepted standard
are voted on by local breed clubs. If the changes are approved,
the AKC puts the updated club standard into effect. These clubs
also maintain lists of reputable (and relevant) breeders.
4 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). About the American Kennel Club - Bringing Dog Lovers Together Since 1884. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/about/
5 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). More Information About the AKC’s Dog and Litter Registration. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/register/information/
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More than 22,000 shows and events for registered and
listed dogs are held under the organization’s rules and
regulations each year, including the AKC/Eukanuba
National Championship and Westminster Dog Show.6
Owners and handlers can also participate in a variety
of dog sports, such as conformation, agility, obedience,
tracking, rally, herding, lure coursing, hunt tests, field
trials, scent work and Earthdog, on any given weekend7

In conformation, dogs are not, in essence,
Conformation: a dog show where competing against each other; they are vying to
be the best representation of their breed standard.
purebred dogs are judged on specific StockphotoVideo/Adobe Stock
breed standards.8
Agility: an obstacle course race that handlers direct their dogs through; judging is based on a
dog’s completion time and accuracy.9
Obedience: tests dogs’ ability to follow obedience cues, such as sit, stay, down, etc., as well as
advanced cues, including heelwork and recall.10

Tracking: tests dogs’ ability to locate an object
by following its scent.11

Rally: a course containing signs that indicate
different exercises an owner and dog must
perform.12

Herding: tests dogs’ ability to move a group of
animals from one place to another.13

Lure Coursing: involves dogs chasing a
A Borzoi is near to catching the object she’s been
chasing in a lure coursing competition. mechanically operated lure.14
krushelss/Adobe Stock
6 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). About the American Kennel Club - Bringing Dog Lovers Together Since 1884. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/about/
7 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Sports & Events Archive – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/sports/
8 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Conformation – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/sports/conformation/
9 United States Dog Agility Association. (n.d.). USDAA FAQ: What is Dog Agility? Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.usdaa.com/faq.cfm
10 The Kennel Club. (n.d.). Obedience Training, Clubs & Competitions. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/activities/obedience/
11 Tracking Club of Massachusetts. (n.d.). Tracking Venue Info: What is Scent? Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.trackingclubofma.com/tracking-venue-info.html
12 The Kennel Club. (n.d.). Activities: Rally. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/activities/rally/
13 American Herding Breed Association. (n.d.). Trial/Test Herding Programs. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.ahba-herding.org/MainPage.php?AreaName=Overview
14 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Coursing – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/sports/coursing/
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Hunt Tests: tests hunting dogs’ abilities, such as finding and flushing out game.15
Field Trials: tests the working ability of Gundogs in competitive conditions.16
Earthdog: tests the working ability and instincts of small terriers.17
Scent Work: based on the work of professional detection dogs, competing dogs must locate
a scent and communicate to their handler that they found it.18
Fact or Fiction?
Dog obedience training is counterproductive to dogs being shown for conformation.
Fiction: Conformation is the official term for dog shows in which dogs’ physical structure,
temperament and movement are compared to their breed standard. The true purpose of
conformation is to evaluate breeding stock. Each breed standard clearly defines the ideal dog,
and is used to judge each competing dog.1 AKC judges must have a thorough understanding of
each breed standard. They are required to complete complex exams and meet strict standards
before entering a show ring.2
Before competing in the conformation ring, dogs must be well socialized and be able to ignore
myriad distractions and tolerate being touched by judges. They also need to know how to walk
on a loose-leash, heel, stand, focus and much more. In addition, conformation dogs typically
acquire polite manners at a much earlier age than other canines.3
Interestingly, some of the dogs in conformation also

compete in obedience, rally, tracking and agility. These
dogs understand the differences between each ring;
they will show in the conformation ring, have their
collars changed and then compete in another ring within
minutes.
As a professional dog trainer, you should attend local

dog shows in your area. Conformation events are
excellent ways to learn more about specific breeds. Dog A purebred dog can compete in—and
show handlers are experts on their specific breeds and win more— than just conformation.
Grigorita Ko/Adobe Stock
most will happily answer any questions. Just make sure
to approach and ask questions after their dog has shown.
1 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Conformation: Get Started. Retrieved January 16, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/sports/conformation/get-started/
2 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Conformation: Judging Resource Center. Retrieved January 16, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/sports/conformation/judging-information/
3 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Conformation: Get Started. Retrieved January 16, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/sports/conformation/get-started/
15 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Spaniels Hunting Tests – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/sports/spaniels/hunting-tests/
16 The Kennel Club. (n.d.). Field Trials & Working Gundogs. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/activities/field-trials-working-gundogs/
17 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Earthdog – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/sports/earthdog/
18 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). AKC Scent Work – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/sports/akc-scent-work/
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There many other sports, events and title recognition programs that
owners can train their dogs to participate in, including Barn Hunt, Diving
Dogs, Flyball and Trick Dog.
Barn Hunt: Dogs and their handlers work as a team to locate

and mark rats (who are safely protected) hidden in a maze of
straw or hay bales.
Diving Dogs: Dogs take a running leap from a dock into a

pool after tossed toy; the goal is to leap as far as they can and
surpass their competition.
Flyball: Dogs race over low hurdles to a box to launch a ball

into the air, which they then catch and return it to their owner.
This Diving Dog is mid-leap in her
attempt to catch the high-flying toy.
Trick Dog: Dogs are trained to perform various tricks at David/Adobe Stock
different levels; there are five, from Novice to Elite.
To discover everything the AKC and its affiliates offer owners of purebreds, as well as mixed breeds and
mutts, visit its website at www.akc.org.
AKC Breed Characteristics
The AKC currently recognizes 192 dog breeds.19 Breed clubs seeking official recognition petition the
organization every year. If a club can prove through extensively detailed documentation that a breed is
indeed legitimate, the AKC will officially recognize it. The existing recognized breeds are currently divided
into seven groups: Sporting, Hound, Working, Terrier, Toy, Non-Sporting and Herding. In addition, there
are two other AKC designations for purebreds—Miscellaneous Class and Foundation Stock Service®—that
have yet to be recognized as official breeds within the seven groups.20
19 AKC. (2018, January 10). Meet the Two Newest AKC-Recognized Breeds: Nederlandse Kooikerhondje and Grand Basset Griffon Vendeen. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/expert-advice/news/newest-akc-recognized-breeds-
nederlandse-kooikerhondje-grand-basset-griffon/
20 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Dog Breeds - Types Of Dogs. Retrieved January 10, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/
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As a professional dog trainer, it’s beneficial to know specific

AKC Breed Groups
characteristics that are common to certain dog breeds.
Understanding these traits will help you predict behavior and ö Herding ö Terrier
provide solutions for your clients. It is equally helpful to know ö Hound ö Toy
each breed’s characteristics when working with mixed-breeds ö Non-Working ö Working
and designer dogs. This gives you a basic guideline for forming a
ö Sporting
training plan. With non-purebred dogs, it is not possible to know
ö Foundation Stock Service
which breed traits will come through with the greatest effect; a
dog may look like one parent and behave like the other. ö Miscellaneous Class
Beware of Labeling Certain Breeds
While knowing typical specific breed characteristics can be helpful, every dog is an individual, and might
not have or display every one of them, which is perfectly normal. Be careful of labeling specific breeds as
“stubborn,” “aggressive” or “difficult to train.” These are simply not true and doing so creates bias against
them. This could lead to breed-specific legislation, i.e., public policies or legal statutes that limit or prevent
ownership of specific dog breeds or mixes deemed “dangerous” or “aggressive, such as so-called “bully
breeds.”21, 22 As a dog trainer, you need to be aware of the problems this type legislation can cause.
While it’s beneficial to know why terriers dig more
than other breeds or why flock guardians can be
more aloof, it’s unfair to assume all will be that way.
Breed characteristics provide valuable information
and explain what a specific type of dog was bred to
do; however, they are not an exact science. Always
create a training plan for every individual dog based
on their needs and personality, as well as what their
The American Staffordshire Terrier is among the owner wants to accomplish.

several “pit bull” class of dogs who are targets of
breed specific laws and regulations.
lenkadan/Adobe Stock
21 American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior. (2014). Breed Specific Legislation Position Statement. Retrieved from https://avsab.org/resources/position-statements/
22 ASPCA. (n.d.). What Is Breed-Specific Legislation? Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.aspca.org/animal-cruelty/dogfighting/what-breed-specific-legislation
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Sporting Group
The Sporting Group includes pointers, retrievers, setters and spaniels. Remarkable for their instincts in water
and woods, these breeds were bred to retrieve game on land and in water, and cover long distances daily.
They can be divided into their specialty: pointing, water-working (those who seek prey in water), retrieving
and flushing (finding prey and driving it from its hiding place).23
Several sporting group breeds are good at several specialties. Currently, more sporting breeds live as family
pets rather than participating in hunting and other field activities; however, they do both very well.24
Sporting Group Breeds
mdorottya/Adobe Stock Tinka/Adobe Stock Callalloo Candcy/Adobe Stock
• American Water Spaniel • Flat-Coated Retriever • Nederlandse Kooikerhondje

• Boykin Spaniel • German Shorthaired • Nova Scotia Duck Tolling
• Brittany Spaniel Pointer (above) Retriever
• Chesapeake Bay Retriever • German Wirehaired Pointer • Pointer
• Clumber Spaniel • Golden Retriever • Spinone Italiano
• Cocker Spaniel • Gordon Setter • Sussex Spaniel (above)
• Curly-Coated Retriever • Irish Red and White Setter • Vizsla
• English Cocker Spaniel • Irish Setter • Weimaraner
• English Setter (above) • Irish Water Spaniel • Welsh Springer Spaniel
• English Springer Spaniel • Labrador Retriever • Wiredhaired Vizsla
• Field Spaniel • Lagotto Romagnolo • Wirehaired Pointing Griffon
23 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Sporting Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/sporting/
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Sporting Breed Characteristics
Sporting breeds strong desire to please often results in dogs who adore their family. They are very
intelligent and love to learn. They usually have a playful nature and require an active lifestyle. Because
these dogs were bred to run and retrieve game all day, they require vigorous daily exercise and mental
stimulation, such as hour-long walks, games of fetch and solving food-stuffed puzzles. A walk around
the block will not be enough. If their exercise and mental stimulation needs are not meet daily, sporting
breed dogs might develop problem behaviors such as barking, digging, mouthing, destructiveness,
pacing or fence running.25
Fun Facts
² Labrador Retrievers are the most popular breed in America,
Canada and the U.K.1
² Dogs who retrieve waterfowl need to have “soft mouths” in order

to bring the game back carefully so as to not mark the carcass.2
² The Lagotto Romagnolo is the only purebred dog in the world

recognized as a specialized truffle searcher.3
1 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Labrador Retriever Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/labrador-retriever/
2 Lazzari, Z. (2017, September 26). How to Train Hunting Dogs to Soft Mouth. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://animals.mom.me/how-to-train-hunting-dogs-to-soft-mouth-12294059.html
3 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Lagotto Romagnolo Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/lagotto-romagnolo/
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Working Group
The working group consists of diverse breeds that were created to be herders, hunters, guarders, mushers,
and rescue and service animals. Many of these dogs make excellent pets for an experienced owner. Many
of dogs in this group have distinctly different physical features, such as longer, double-coated fur. Some
double-coated working dogs, such as the Alaskan Malamute, Akita and Siberian Husky, were bred to pull
sleds, herd or hunt in cold climates.26
Flock guardian breeds, such as the Great Pyrenees, Komondor, Kuvasz and Anatolian Shepherd, were
created to protect livestock from predators. Their size ranges from 50 lb. to upwards of 150 lb.27 As working
guardians, they bond completely with their flock, which can make them a bit aloof with people and can be
suspicious or aggressive with other dogs.28
Working Group Breeds
egonzitter/Adobe Stock Carola Schubbel/Adobe Stock motionshooter/Adobe Stock
• Akita • Doberman Pinscher • Mastiff

• Alaskan Malamute • Dogue de Bordeaux • Neapolitan Mastiff
• Anatolian Shepherd • German Pinscher • Newfoundland
• Bernese Mountain Dog • Giant Schnauzer • Portuguese Water Dog
• Black Russian Terrier • Great Dane • Rottweiler
• Boerboel (above) • Great Pyrenees • Saint Bernard
• Boxer • Greater Swiss Mountain Dog • Samoyed
• Bullmastiff • Komondor • Siberian Husky (above)
• Cane Corso • Kuvasz (above) • Standard Schnauzer
• Chinook • Leonberger • Tibetan Mastiff
26 Grandin, T. (Ed.). (2014). Livestock Handling and Transport (4th ed.). Wallingford: CABI.
27 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Working Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/working/
28 Grandin, T. (Ed.). (2014). Livestock Handling and Transport (4th ed.). Wallingford: CABI.
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Working Dog Characteristics
Quick to learn, these intelligent, capable dogs make solid companions; however, they are not for first-time
dog owners. Positive reinforcement, patience and fun are essential components in training these large
and giant dogs. Some breeds are known to be more independent than others; some can be territorial of
property and their people. Some of the breeds have an allowance for aggression toward other dogs or
strangers written into their specific breed standard.29
When working with any of these breeds, you should research their specific traits so that you are more
prepared and better able to educate their owners. When working with any independent dog, always use
positive reinforcement training.30
Fun Facts
² Rottweilers were bred to drive cattle to the market. Once
cattle were sold, ranchers tied their earned money around the
Rottweiler’s neck to prevent thieves from stealing their money.1
² Newfoundlands are renowned as a lifesaving dogs in water,

capable of pulling drowning victims to shore.2
² Black Russian Terriers were created through selective

intermingling of many breeds, including Rottweilers, Giant
Schnauzers and Airedales. This breed was developed by the
Russian military to be guard dogs; they can work in frigid
climates.3
1 Mansourian, E. (2015, November 9). 5 Things That You Probably Don’t Know About Rottweilers – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/5-
things-you-didnt-know-rottweilers/
2 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). So What Else Is a Newfoundland Besides Big? – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/content/entertainment/articles/7-facts-about-the-
newfoundland/
3 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Black Russian Terrier Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/black-russian-terrier/detail/
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Herding Group
This group is often confused with the flock guardians; coworkers would be a better way to describe these
two distinct groups. Herders create order; most have this ability instinctually. Humans turn that instinct
into active working dogs. The dogs’ skills also enable them to be successfully adapted into service work. For
example, canine police officers often come from this group. Their workability and devotion to their handlers
is beyond compare.31
Rugged, alert and intelligent, herding dogs make wonderful family pets; however, they need activity to
be happy. Exercise and mental stimulation are a must; providing these dogs with an outlet that uses their
natural abilities helps keep them from herding children and small dogs.32
Herding Group Breeds
avanheertum/Adobe Stock Callalloo Candcy/Adobe Stock Dogs/Adobe Stock
• Australian Cattle Dog • Briard • Old English Sheepdog

• Australian Shepherd • Canaan Dog • Pembroke Welsh Corgi
• Bearded Collie • Cardigan Welsh Corgi • Polish Lowland Sheepdog
• Beauceron • Collie (Rough and Smooth) • Puli
• Belgian Malinois • Entlebucher Mountain Dog • Pumi (above)
• Belgian Sheepdog • Finnish Lapphund (above) • Pyrenean Shepherd
• Belgian Tervuren (above) • German Shepherd Dog • Shetland Sheepdog
• Bergamasco Sheepdog • Icelandic Sheepdog • Spanish Water Dog
• Berger Picard • Miniature American • Swedish Vallhund
• Border Collie Shepherd
• Bouvier des Flanders • Norwegian Buhund
31 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Herding Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/herding/
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Herding Group Characteristics
Herders are bred to work with people in controlled
situations. They also must work independently;
they need to make split-second decisions to
ensure livestock remain together. Training a
herding dog needs to be done at a fast fun pace
to keep her interested. These dogs are sharp and
get bored easily.33
The various herding breeds require trainers to use

Herding group breeds require a great deal of
many or all of their skills. Positive training goes a physical and mental activity. Participating in herding
competitions, which the above border collie is doing,
long way with herding dogs. These breeds need is one way owners can help their dogs expend energy.
Aaron Whitney/Adobe Stock
daily exercise and mental stimulation, such as brisk
30-minute walks and plenty of food-puzzle-solving opportunities.34
Fun Facts
² Australian shepherds where actually created in America.1
² Puli cords begin to form naturally when the puppy is about

9 months old. It takes 4 to 5 years until the cords reach the
ground.2
² Some herding breeds use their body to herd livestock (block

access), while others use brute force (nipping heels and noses).3
1 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Australian Shepherd Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/australian-shepherd/
2 Puli Club of America. (n.d.). Frequently Asked Questions about the Puli. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.puliclub.org/PCAPuliFAQ.htm
3 Renna, C. H. (2009). Herding dogs / Selecting and Training the Working Farm Dog. Freehold, NJ: Kennel Club Books.
1-19
Terrier Group
Terriers were bred to hunt, eliminate vermin above and below ground, and guard barns or homes. They
come in all shapes and sizes, from the small Dandie Dinmont and Norfolk, to the larger Airedale. Terriers
can be slender-looking (e.g., American Hairless, Manchester, Russell, Rat, Smooth Fox) or muscular (e.g.,
American Staffordshire, Bull, Staffordshire Bull). These tenacious dogs also have a wide variety of coat types
and colors, and many have specific skill sets. Their common trait is tenacity.35
Terrier Group Breeds
DoraZett/Adobe Stock Callalloo Twisty/Adobe Stock Vincent/Adobe Stock
• Airedale Terrier • Glen of Imaal Terrier • Russell Terrier

• American Hairless Terrier • Irish Terrier • Scottish Terrier
• American Staffordshire • Kerry Blue Terrier • Sealyham Terrier (above)
Terrier • Lakeland Terrier • Skye Terrier
• Australian Terrier • Manchester Terrier • Smooth Fox Terrier
• Bedlington Terrier • Miniature Bull Terrier • Soft Coated Wheaten
• Border Terrier • Miniature Schnauzer Terrier
• Bull Terrier • Norfolk Terrier • Staffordshire Bull Terrier
• Cairn Terrier • Norwich Terrier (above) • Welsh Terrier
• Cesky Terrier (above) • Parson Russell Terrier • West Highland White Terrier
• Dandie Dinmont Terrier • Rat Terrier • Wire Fox Terrier
35 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Terrier Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/terrier/
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Terrier Group Characteristics
Terriers are driven to accomplish a goal. They are bred for digging and may show predatory aggression
toward smaller animals. Socializing with other canines is essential to having a dog-friendly terrier. These
dogs are fast, fun and need a lot of exercise and mental stimulation. In general, they make engaging pets;
however, owners need to match their dogs’ lively characters.36
Image courtesy of Squishy Face Studio

If a terrier does not get enough daily exercise and mental
stimulation, she will often find her own fun. Terriers’ energy
and intelligence enable them to be very creative when scaling
6-foot privacy fences and digging tunnels into a neighbor’s
yard. Games that simulate chasing rodents, such as fetch and
playing with a flirt pole or stick are ideal for terriers (image
right). Also, providing a digging pit is essential for terriers
who enjoy excavating.37
Fun Facts
² Some terriers are so small in stature they were moved to the toy
group (e.g., Yorkshire, Silky and Toy Fox).1
² Terriers should have deep yet narrow chests so they can easily fit
into holes to hunt down rats and other vermin.2
² The word “terrier” is derived from the Latin word “terra,”

meaning earth.3
1 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Toy Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/toy/page/2/
2 King, H. H. (2005). Working terriers badgers and badger-digging (History of Hunting Series). Alchester, UK: Vintage Dog Books.
3 Terrier [Def. 1]. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terrier
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Non-Sporting Group
Bred for many reasons, this diverse group of dogs comes in a wide range of sizes, shapes and personalities,
with varying coats and overall appearances. Some have characteristics of the working group (Keeshond
and Schipperke), while others have traits of the sporting group (Finnish Spitz, Poodle and Dalmatian). A few
were bred specifically to guard (Chow Chow, Chinese Shar-Pei and Llasa Apso) or to be companion animals
or gifts (Bichon Frise, Tibetan Spaniel, Boston Terrier, French Bulldog and Tibetan Terrier).38
Non-Sporting Group Breeds
Ricant Images/Adobe Stock everydoghasastory/Adobe Stock volofin/Adobe Stock
• American Eskimo Dog • Finnish Spitz • Schipperke (above)

• Bichon Frise • French Bulldog • Shiba Inu
• Boston Terrier (above) • Keeshond (above) • Tibetan Spaniel
• Bulldog • Lhasa Apso • Tibetan Terrier
• Chinese Shar-Pei • Löwchen (below) • Xoloitzcuintli (below)
• Chow Chow • Norwegian Lundehund
• Coton De Tulear (below) • Poodle: Standard &
• Dalmatian Miniature
Mikkel Bigandt/Adobe Stock volofin/Adobe Stock tanipanova/Adobe Stock
38 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Non-Sporting Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/non-sporting/
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Non-Sporting Group Characteristics
The dogs in this group typically have less in common
with each other compared to those in some of the
other groups. Most make good watch or house dogs;
all respond well to positive reinforcement. The most
popular breeds in this group are the active, proud
and very smart Poodle, the dignified, smart and
outgoing Dalmatian, and the confident, smart and

Being a Non-Sporting Group canine does not exclude
comical Lhasa-Apso.39 a particular breed or dog from engaging in sports as
evidenced by this quick and nimble Miniature Poodle.
JuhaSa/Adobe Stock
Fun Facts
² Dalmatian puppies are born pure white. They get their spots
as they mature.1
² Schipperkes can live up to 20 years of age.2
² The Lhasa Apso is a thousand-year-old breed that served as

sentinel dogs at palaces and Buddhist monasteries isolated high
in the Himalayan Mountains.3
1 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Dalmatian Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/dalmatian/
2 Schipperke Rescue. (n.d.). The Schipperke in General. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://schipperkerescue.net/about-schips.html
3 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Lhasa Apso Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/lhasa-apso/
39 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Non-Sporting Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/non-sporting/
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Hound Group
Most hounds were bred for hunting. Some of these dogs use acute scenting abilities to follow a trail; others
have a phenomenal gift of stamina and/or speed to run down quarry relentlessly. Because this group
contains both sight- and scenthounds, some of which were bred to both, it’s helpful to know what each
type was created to do.40
Hound Group Breeds
mdorottya/Adobe Stock Christian Müller/Adobe Stock Kim/Adobe Stock
• Afghan Hounds • Dachshund • Pharaoh Hound

• American English • English Foxhound • Plott
Coonhound • Grand Basset Griffon • Portuguese Podengo
• American Foxhound Verdeen Pegueno
• Basenji • Greyhound • Redbone Coonhound
• Basset Hound • Harrier • Rhodesian Ridgeback
• Beagle • Ibizan Hound • Saluki
• Black and Tan Coonhound • Irish Wolfhound • Scottish Deerhound (above)
• Bloodhound • Norwegian Elkhound • Sloughi
• Bluetick Coonhound • Otterhound (above) • Treeing Walker Coonhound
• Borzoi • Petite Basset Griffon • Whippet
• Cirneco Dell’etna (above) Vendéen
40 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Hound Group – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/hound/
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Sighthounds
This subgroup’s breeds are considered some of the
oldest domesticated canines, originating primarily
in Africa and the Middle East.41 They are physically
amazing: sleek in appearance, lightly boned, and
built for agility and speed. These dogs are fast and
can turn on a dime. Sighthounds include, but are not
limited to, Greyhounds, Whippets, Ibizan Hounds,

The Afghan Hound’s beautiful exterior contrasts with
Borzois, Afghan Hounds and Salukis.42 the strength that lies beneath her sumptuous coat.
Bred to withstand the harsh climate and landscape
of mountainous regions during a long-day hunt, the
Sighthound Characteristics Afghan is not for your average new dog owner.
Lars Kilian/Adobe Stock
Using their sight to hunt prey, they’re able to spot fast movement and can become easily distracted by small
moving animals, such as squirrels, and even fast-moving cats or small dogs. However, some sighthounds
can successfully share their homes with cats, especially if they were introduced to them as puppies. These
breeds excel at lure coursing, agility and any other dog sport. Sighthounds learn quickly and respond best
to positive reinforcement.43
Fun Facts
² The Saluki, one of the oldest known dog breeds, is sometimes
referred to as the royal dog of Egypt.1
² The Greyhound is the fastest breed of dog and the hare is its
natural quarry.2
² The Irish Wolfhound is the tallest breed of dogs; a male might

stand nearly 3 feet at the shoulder and weigh up to 180 pounds.3
1 Gibeault, S. (2016, October 19). 9 Facts About the Saluki-A Sighthound of Ancient Beauty – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/9-facts-
about-the-salukia-sighthound-of-ancient-beauty/
2 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Greyhound Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/greyhound/
3 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Irish Wolfhound Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/irish-wolfhound/
41 Gibeault, S. (2016, October 19). 9 Facts About the Saluki-A Sighthound of Ancient Beauty – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/9-facts-about-the-salukia-sighthound-of-
ancient-beauty/
42 Purina U.K. (n.d.). Caring for sighthounds. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.purina.co.uk/dogs/dog-breeds/dog-types/sighthounds
43 Purina U.K. (n.d.). Caring for sighthounds. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.purina.co.uk/dogs/dog-breeds/dog-types/sighthounds
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Scenthounds
Scenthounds are sturdy, with strong bones and well-defined muscles. Many originated in France and
England. They were bred for an acute sense of smell and hunt game using their noses. Once scenthounds
start tracking game, they will alert their handlers with a distinctive baying sound, which hunters can
easily follow.44
Additionally, many of the smaller scenthounds have a white tail tip, an easily identifiable marker for hunters
to follow through brush. Scenthounds include, but are not limited to, Beagles, Bloodhounds, Basset Hounds,
Coonhounds, Dachshunds and American Foxhounds.45
Adobe Stock
44 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Scenthound History. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.apps.akc.org/classic/events/coonhound/history.cfm
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Scenthound Characteristics
High-Value Treat
Scenthounds love to sniff and investigate. Because of The value of a treat is determined by the
dog. High-value treats need to something
their strong sense of smell, they have a tendency to
a dog truly loves but only occasionally
wander off when they catch an appealing scent. They receives so that they retain their desirability.
Some dogs will do anything for cooked
need to be supervised (on leash) outside or have very chicken, while others might prefer pieces
of hard cheese, hotdogs or cooked steak.
secure fencing.46
During training sessions, always use high-value treats; this keeps a scenthound’s nose focused on you or her
owner. These breeds excel in tracking and many other dog sports. They require daily exercise and plenty of
mental stimulation.47
Fun Facts
² Some hound group breeds, such as the Basenji and Rhodesian
Ridgeback, hunt by sight and scent.1, 2
² Long ears and facial wrinkles help gather scent when scenthounds
are tracking. They can smell through water, distinguish specific
odors and trail a scent that is several days old.3
² A trained bloodhound’s’ “nose” testimony is the first “statement

by canine” allowed into U.S. courts.4
1 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Basenji Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/basenji/
2 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Rhodesian Ridgeback Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/rhodesian-ridgeback/
3 Petcentric. (2014, September 03). Why Do Bloodhounds Have Long Ears? The Better to Smell You With! Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.petcentric.com/articles/breeds/why-do-bloodhounds-have-long-ears
4 Guinness World Records. (n.d.). First animal whose evidence is admissible in court. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-animal-whose-evidence-is-admissible-in-
court/
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Toy Group
Toy breeds were primarily bred to be companion dogs. Affectionate, sociable and adaptable, they are ideal
for people with limited living space. They range in size from a diminutive 6 lb. or less to 7 lb. (Chihuahua,
Yorkshire Terrier, Pomeranian, Poodle, Maltese) to 14 to 18 lb. (Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Pug, Shih-Tzu).
Some of the more delicate breeds will have special needs, such as requiring help getting into vehicles or
onto furniture. Toy dogs are typically long-lived compared to larger breeds.48 , 49
Toy Group Breeds
dejavudesigns/Adobe Stock Dogs/Adobe Stock barinovalena/Adobe Stock
• Affenpinscher (above) • Havanese • Pomeranian (above)

• Brussels Griffon • Italian Greyhound • Poodle: Toy
• Cavalier King Charles • Japanese Chin (above) • Pug
Spaniel • Maltese • Shih Tzu
• Chihuahua • Miniature Pinscher • Silky Terrier (below)
• Chinese Crested (below) • Papillon (below) • Toy Fox Terrier
• English Toy Spaniel • Pekingese • Yorkshire Terrier
B.Stefanov/Adobe Stock Mikkel Bigandt/Adobe Stock Dixi_/Adobe Stock
49 Animal Planet. (n.d.). Toy Dog Breeds : Dog Breed Selector. Retrieved January 16, 2018, from http://www.animalplanet.com/breed-selector/dog-breeds/toy-dog-breeds.html
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Toy Breed Characteristics
Many toy breeds are intelligent and energetic and can have protective instincts. Some can be quite “yappy.”
These dogs need a lot of exercise and mental stimulation; however, due to their size, this can frequently be
handled within the home. Training a toy breed is the same as with any other, although some owners have
a tendency to ignore any questionable behavior. What is unacceptable in a 45-plus-lb dog could be viewed
as “adorable” in a 10-lb. one.50, 51
Even though small dogs learn just as quickly as larger dogs, there are certain training challenges due to
their tiny size. In group classes, you will need to be aware of where you place them in relation to larger dogs.
A toy dog does not know she is tiny any more than a large dog is aware of her size.
Fun Facts
² Three dogs survived the sinking of the Titanic: two Pomeranians
and a Pekingese in lifeboats—a fourth dog, a Newfoundland, was
rescued from the water.1
² The Italian Greyhound is believed to have originated more than

2,000 years’ ago in the Mediterranean basin, possibly in the
countries now known as Greece and Turkey.2
² The Pug is called “Mopshond” in The Netherlands, which means

“to grumble.”3
1 Coren, S., PhD. DSc, FRSC. (2012, March 7). The Heroic Dog on the Titanic. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201203/the-heroic-dog-the-titanic
2 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Italian Greyhound Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/italian-greyhound/
3 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Pug Dog Breed Information. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/pug/
51 Animal Planet. (n.d.). Toy Dog Breeds : Dog Breed Selector. Retrieved January 16, 2018, from http://www.animalplanet.com/breed-selector/dog-breeds/toy-dog-breeds.html
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Miscellaneous Class
The Miscellaneous Class was established by the
AKC as a transitory group for any breed desiring to
advance to full AKC recognition. A breed is admitted
into the Miscellaneous Class upon meeting specific
requirements, such as a nationwide interest and
an active parent club with serious and expanding
breeding activity over a wide geographic area.

The Barbet is one of eight breeds currently listed in
When the AKC is satisfied that a breed in this class the Miscellaneous Class. This medium-sized French
water dog was bred to locate, flush and retrieve birds.
shows healthy, dynamic growth, it becomes eligible This smart, athletic canine has a cheerful disposition
and is very social and loyal, according to the AKC
for inclusion in one of the seven AKC recognized dvr/Adobe Stock
breed groups.52
Foundation Stock Service

The AKC Foundation Stock Service® (FSS) classification enables purebred breeds that have not yet qualified
for the Miscellaneous class to continue to develop. The FSS gives breeders and owners a reliable and
reputable way to maintain their records. FSS breeds are not eligible for AKC registration; however, most are
approved to compete in AKC Companion Events.53
Other Registries & Kennel Clubs
While the largest in America, the AKC is not the only registry service. Below is a brief list of reputable registries
and kennel clubs. We suggest you become familiar with the clubs associated with your area or dog’s breed.
Canadian Kennel Club (CKC): https://www.ckc.ca/en
United Kennel Club (UKC): https://www.ukcdogs.com/
American Rare Breed Association (ARBA): https://www.arba.org/index.htm
Federation Cynologique Internationale FCI: http://www.fci.be/en/
52 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Miscellaneous Class – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/miscellaneous-class/
53 American Kennel Club. (n.d.). Foundation Stock Service. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/groups/foundation-stock-service/
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Reputable Purebred Dog Breeders

Some clients might ask you for recommendations
Temperament
on finding a purebred puppy. Of course, you The characteristics and aspects of
should point them to purebred rescue first. If personality a dog is born with.
Temperament is similar to traits in
a client is insistent on purchasing a dog from a that both are innate (i.e., a dog is
breeder, refer them to AKC’s breed parent clubs born with them) and enduring.
However, temperament more often
for a list of reputable dog breeders. AKC breed relates to emotionality: the specific
club members follow a strict code of ethics and emotional characteristics such as
calm, anxious or nervous.
health test, show all dogs in conformation and
AlleyDog: Temperament Definition. www.alleydog.com/glossary/
strive to better their chosen breed. Additionally,
reputable breeders provide lifetime contracts
on health and temperament; microchip all dogs (including puppies); take back any dogs they’ve bred;
and provide lifetime support of their puppies. Interestingly, AKC breed club members are very involved in
rescue, even if the dog or puppy was not bred by them.
Recommended Reading
The New Complete Dog Book

Published by Companionhouse Books; 22 edition (August 22, 2017)
An excellent resource guide that lists every recognized AKC breed along
with detailed descriptions of each one.
The Dog Breed Bible

Published by Barron’s Educational Series; 2 edition (November 1, 2016)
This heavily illustrated directory describes canine breeds recognized

by the AKC. A succinct description of every dog includes their history,
temperament, practical considerations, health and ratings.
1-31
Section Review
1. Describe the AKC’s purpose and main functions: ________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. List some of the events and competitions purebred, mixed breed and mutt dogs could participate in:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why should dog trainers be careful of labeling certain breeds: ______________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. List four breeds in the Sporting Group and describe the group’s overall characteristics:_______________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. List four breeds in the Working Group and describe the group’s overall characteristics: ______________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. List four breeds in the Herding Group and describe the group’s overall characteristics: _______________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1-32
7. List four breeds in the Terrier Group and describe the group’s overall characteristics: ________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. List four breeds in the Non-Sporting Group and describe the group’s overall characteristics: __________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. List four breeds in the Hound Group and describe the characteristic differences between sight- and
scenthounds:__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
10. List four breeds in the Toy Group and describe the group’s overall characteristics: __________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
11. Explain what constitutes a reputable breeder: _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1-33
cynoclub/Adobe Stock
Canine Behavioral Developmental Periods
C
anis familaris (domestic dog) is a predator species born, on average, 59 to 65 days after conception.
Predators at birth are typically born incomplete, in that they have no ability to see, hear, smell or
regulate their own body temperature. The difference between predator and prey animals at birth is the
latter are typically born more complete.54 For example: A newborn deer immediately tries to get up and
is walking within hours of birth. Prey animals have all of their senses and while their mothers will protect
them if they can, survival is incumbent on a newborn’s ability for flight.55
As puppies grow into dogs, they go through

Canine Behavioral Development Periods
many developmental periods that extend
Period Age/Duration
throughout their lifetime. The events that
Fetal Up to birth
occur during each period can greatly affect the
Neonatal 0 to 10 days
rest of their lives. It is important to be aware
Transitional 11 to 21 days
of the significance of each developmental Socialization 3 to 12–14 weeks
period to ensure a puppy or dog’s training Fear 8 to 10–12 weeks
needs are successfully met. Dogs have eight
Juvenile ~3 to ~12 months
Juvenile/Adolescent Fear ~6 to 14 months
developmental periods: fetal, neonatal,
Adolescent ~8 to 2–3 years
transitional, socialization, juvenile, adolescent, Adult ~3 to 7+ years
adults and senior.56 Senior 7+ years
54 Bassert, J. M., & Thomas, J. A. (2014). Clinical textbook for veterinary technicians (Eighth ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
55 Coren, S., PhD. DSc, FRSC. (2009, June 29). Why are puppies born with their eyes and ears closed? Retrieved January 11, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/200906/why-are-puppies-born-their-eyes-and-ears-closed
56 Martin, K. M., DVM, & Martin, D., RVT-VTS. (2011). Puppy start right: Foundation training for the companion dog. Waltham, MA: Karen Pryor Clickertraining.
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Fetal: In Utero
During this development period, puppies are tiny
Stimulus
fetuses. A mother’s emotional and nutritional A stimulus is any object or event
needs should be met while puppies are in utero. that elicits a response. A stimulus
can be visual (sight), auditory
If a mother is repeatedly exposed to fear-inducing (sound), tactile (touch), olfactory
stimuli while pregnant, her puppies are more likely (smell) or gustatory (taste).
The plural of stimulus is stimuli.
to be emotionally unstable and reactive.57
AlleyDog: Stimulus Definition. www.alleydog.com/glossary/
Neonatal: From Birth to 10 Days
pushish images/Adobe Stock

This is the early development and reflexive behavior period. Puppies
are born deaf, blind and unable to regulate their body temperature.
During this period, puppies respond to limited stimuli, such as
temperature, pressure, movement, taste and smell. The mother
encourages them to eat, cleans them, stimulates elimination and
cares for them in every necessary way. During this period, puppies
mostly sleep and nurse (image right). Handling neonatal puppies for
3 minutes a day provides health and behavior benefits.58
Transitional Period: 11 to 21 Days
Puppies change quickly, neurologically and behaviorally, in this
Larisa/Adobe Stock
short period as they start progressing from complete dependence
on their mother toward partial independence. Their eyes begin to
open around 12 to 14 days; their ears open around 20 to 21 days. The
puppies will also begin to walk instead of crawl and start interacting
with others. Ideally, humans will begin gently exposing puppies to
various stimuli, such as being held and talked to (image left). Soft
toys can also be introduced during this period.59
59 Landsberg, G. M., Hunthausen, W. L., & Ackerman, L. (2013). Behavior problems of the dog and cat (Third ed.). Edinburgh: Saunders/Elsevier.
1-35
Socialization Period: 3 to 12–14 Weeks

This period is critical to puppy development. Everything
that puppies experience during this timeframe will affect
their later behavior—i.e., how they react to various
situations and people. During this 9-to-11-week-long
stage, puppies will experience different periods of change,
including primary development, primary and secondary
socialization, fear, optimum bonding and general
socialization. Note: The timeframes are averages across Everything a puppy encounters—people,
places, pets and things—between 3 and 14
all types of dogs, which is why some of them overlap.60, 61 weeks of age will affect her adult behavior.
Wirawan/Adobe Stock
These developmental periods are extremely relevant to trainers: You will often be asked to work with dogs
who appear uncomfortable and fearful around people. While some might assume that dogs who behaves
this way were abused; it is more likely that they were not properly socialized during this critical period. Dogs
who do not receive adequate socialization can sometimes be rehabilitated; however, the process can be
time-consuming and laborious. Still, it always worth the effort to socialize a fearful dog as it can help stop or
prevent many problems. For example, dogs who are not properly socialized have a much greater tendency
to bite other dogs and people.62, 63
Primary Development Period: 3 to 5 Weeks

Puppies become more self-aware at this age. They master their use of sight, hearing and walking. Their
brains continue developing as they learn to communicate and relate with other dogs, humans and their
environment. This is a very rapid sensory developmental time. Accordingly, the puppies should be handled
several times daily. Reputable breeders and responsible owners will encourage puppies to start exploring
different textures by changing the whelping box’s bedding materials. (A whelping box is a low-sided, open
container that is used a nesting place for a mother and her puppies.) Providing the puppies with different
toys also promotes exploration.64
60 Shaw, J. K., RVT, VTS, & Martin, D., RVT, VTS (Eds.). (2015). Canine and feline behavior for veterinary technicians and nurses (1st ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley Blackwell.
63 Yin, S., DVM, MS. (2009). Low stress handling, restraint and behavior modification of dogs & cats. Davis, CA: CattleDog Publishing.
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Primary Socialization Period: 3 to 7 Weeks
Puppies are little sponges during this period; they are
learning rapidly and socialization is the primary focus.
Reputable breeders and responsible owners should
positively expose puppies to myriad things in their
environment. They should hear ringing phones and
vacuum noises, meet strangers and children, walk on
grass, and enjoy being handled.65
During this period, puppies should be also encouraged Between 3 to 7 weeks of age, puppies learn
myriad new things, including the essentials of
to approach and investigate stimuli within their being a dog and to not bite too hard during play.
Rajtar photography/Adobe Stock
environment. This is when they learn the fundamentals
of being dogs: chasing, barking, biting, fighting, body posture and the ability to accept discipline from their
mother. They also learn bite inhibition, a dog’s ability to control the pressure of her mouth while biting to
cause little to no damage.66
Secondary Socialization Period: 6 to 8 Weeks

Puppies should stay with their littermates until 8 to 10
weeks of age. Socialization is still a primary focus during
this period as they encounter different environments.
Usually during this time frame, puppies are taken to a
veterinarian for their first vaccinations, which also gives
them their first experience riding in a vehicle. They
should continue to meet strangers and other dogs.
Each positive step should be encouraged and rewarded

Littermates should be allowed to remain together
with high-value treats. 67 until they are at least 8 weeks old.
everydoghasastory/Adobe Stock
65 Shaw, J. K., RVt,VTS, & Martin, D., RVT, VTS (Eds.). (2015). Canine and feline behavior for veterinary technicians and nurses (1st ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley Blackwell.
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Fear Period: 8 to 10+ Weeks
Between 8 to 10 or so weeks of age, puppies will
experience a fear period. When a puppy is entering
a fear period, she will become suddenly afraid of
novel items that appear in her environment, even if
they were previously introduced to her. During this
sensitive period, any stimulus that frightens a puppy
will result in a traumatic experience. This, in turn, could
become generalized and cause the puppy to have

During a fear period, a puppy can easily become
lifelong aversive responses to that stimulus. If a puppy frightened of anything she has not seen, heard or
experienced before, such as vacuum cleaner.
bmf-foto.de/Adobe Stock
suddenly becomes fearful, her owner should postpone
any veterinary visits, as she will not be able to handle all of the new sights and sounds.68
If you have a dog in one of your training classes who had a negative experience during her fear period,
tell her owner it will take time to change his dog’s emotional associations with the incident—if it is at all
possible. Instruct the owner to pair every experience between the puppy and the thing(s) she fears with all
the things she likes. This is called Counter-Conditioning, which is covered in Stage 2: Learning Theory.69
For example, if a puppy has associated a bad experience with the sound of a vacuum cleaner during her
fear period, the owner needs to reward her with high-value treats whenever she looks at the vacuum.
Progressing at the puppy’s pace, the owner next rewards her whenever she approaches and then touches
the vacuum cleaner. Over time, the owner can briefly turn on the vacuum cleaner in another room, while
someone else gives the puppy a lot of tasty treats.
Eventually, the owner can extend the amount of time the vacuum is left on—it could take weeks to get to
this point. Any positive, nonreactive interactions with the vacuum should always be followed by food treats;
this will eventually desensitize the puppy to its sound. Until desensitization occurs, whenever the owner
needs to vacuum, he should place his puppy in her crate along with a food-stuffed toy; he could also turn
on a white-noise device to drown out any disturbing sounds.
69 Yin, S., DVM, MS. (2009). Low stress handling, restraint and behavior modification of dogs & cats. Davis, CA: CattleDog Publishing.
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Optimum Bonding Period: 8 to 10–12 Weeks
Between 8 to 10 weeks of age is the optimal timeframe
for puppies to move to their “forever” homes unless
they’re within a fear period. For puppies going
through a fear period, they shouldn’t be placed until
they are 12 weeks of age. Owners with puppies of
this age should be strongly encouraged to continue
focusing on proper socialization, which entails using
high-value treats to encourage them to interact and

As soon as a 10-week old puppy arrives in
approach novel stimuli. 70 her new home, her owner should continue her
socialization by introducing her to new people,
places and things in a stress-free manner.
nikodash/Adobe Stock
Owners must never force their puppies to endure
veterinary visits or greetings from other dogs. Puppies
must have choices; stressful situations should be immediately discontinued. For necessary veterinary visits,
owners can provide plenty of treats during the exam; they should also keep their puppies away from adult
dogs until they are more socialized.71
General Socialization Period: 7 to 16 Weeks

During the general socialization period, which extends
into the Juvenile Period, owners should take every
opportunity to socialize their puppies to as many new
and varied situations as possible. This is a great time to
enroll them in a puppy group class. Even though puppies
will not have received all their vaccinations at this age,

During the Puppy Kindergarten class at Lietash
Canine Academy in South Rawdon, Nova they can still be adequately socialized without adding
Scotia, Canada, canine participants acquire
social skills while their owners learn how to undue risk of parvo exposure.72
properly care for and feed their young pups.
Lietash Canine Academy
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By avoiding dog-accessible areas, such as dog parks, and only exposing their puppies to healthy dogs
who are up-to-date on vaccinations, owners can limit their exposure to parvo and other potentially fatal
diseases.73 (For more information on parvo, see General Canine Vaccinations in this stage.)
In addition, puppies start to lose their puppy teeth between 12 and 16 weeks of age and will start teething
as their larger adult teeth begin to emerge. Because teething is painful, owners should provide their puppies
with safe chew toys, such as a Puppy Kong. Their adult teeth should fully emerge by 6 to 7 months of age.74
Fact or Fiction?
Obedience training and socialization should not begin until puppies have had
all of their vaccinations.
Fiction: In general, puppies can start socialization
classes as early as 7 to 8 weeks of age. They should
receive a minimum of one set of vaccines at least seven
days prior to the first class and a first deworming. They
should be kept up-to-date on vaccines throughout
the class. Puppy group classes are held in controlled
environments, which are thoroughly disinfected after
each class. Please keep puppies away from dog parks
and other heavily traveled pet areas until they have
received all of their vaccinations.1
If a client’s veterinarian insists that his puppy waits

to attend classes, it might be because of a current viral
outbreak or medical considerations specific to his pet.
However, if there is not specific reason, you could
advise your client to provide the veterinarian with
the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior
(AVSAB) position statement on puppy socialization,
which explains why the classes are so important (you
can download it from https://avsab.org/resources/position-statements/).2
1 American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior. (2008). Puppy_socialization Puppy Socialization Position Statement. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://avsab.org/resources/position-statements/
74 Donovan, L. (2015, October 13). A Timeline of Puppy Teething. Retrieved January 11, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/expert-advice/health/puppy-health/timeline-of-puppy-teething/
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Juvenile Period: ~3 to ~12 Months

This period begins with the end of the socialization period and ends
at sexual maturity. During this stage, owners should continue to
positively socialize their juvenile puppy by enrolling in basic training
group classes, nose games, introduction to agility (no jumps) and/
or other fun classes that build confidence. Even though the optimal
socialization period has passed, it is still essential that owners continue
socializing their puppies. Building confidence is critical at this stage,
so owners should encourage their puppies to approach or investigate
novel stimuli within their environment. They should teach puppies
that treats appear whenever a plastic bag floats through the air, trash
Owners should use treats to reward
cans move, bikes appear in the distance, loud trucks rumble past or their 3- to 12-month old puppies
whenever they seek out and/or
cars zoom by.75 experience something new.
duncanandison/Adobe Stock
Juvenile/Adolescent Fear Period: 6 to 14 Months

Between 6 and 14 months of age, some puppies might go through secondary fear periods that can last 1
to 3 weeks. As with the first fear period, they can become frightened of new or familiar things; any negative
experiences can be overcome using the same techniques. In some mild cases, owners could also simply
wait for the issue to resolve itself.76
Adolescent Period: ~8 Months to 2–3 years
Basically, this is the teenage period. Adolescent dogs have acquired all of their adult teeth and are almost
fully grown; however, they are still not socially mature and are still sexually maturing. Unneutered male
dogs will begin lifting their legs to urinate and unneutered female dogs will go into their first heat (season).
Many pets are neutered at the start of this period. The term “neuter” is gender neutral; in scientific terms,
females are spayed and males are castrated. Owners should continue to build on their puppy’s behavior
skills with lots of high-value treats and fun.77
76 Thompson, K., Mcbride, E., & Redhead, E. (2010). Training engagement and the development of behavior problems in the dog: A longitudinal study. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 5(1), 57. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2009.09.013
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Dogs develop differently depending on breed, type,
home environment, etc. As trainers, you will promote
healthy socialization throughout a dog’s life. Leaving
the predictable pattern of their home enables dogs to
see new sights, smell new scents and have wonderful
interactions with their owners. Dogs are never too old to
learn. This is also a great time for owners to have their
dogs practice obedience skills; teach them a new trick or
work on familiar behaviors.78

“Teenage” dogs, in general, are more confident
Starting at 1 year of age, dogs become more confident. and more accepting of new encounters and
adventures compared to their younger selves.
They exhibit inherent characteristics of their breed(s) or janifest/Adobe Stock
breed-heritage. They are excitable young dogs who, in most instances, have figured out how life works in
the home they live in. Two-year old dogs are still very eager and excitable. With proper training, they can be
more reliably trusted with set boundaries: house, yard and family are very important.79
Adult Period: ~3 to 7 years
At age 3, dogs really come into their stride.
They are mature and have the wisdom their 3
years of life grants them. If dogs’ owners made
socialization and training a priority, most often
they will be worthy of trust. Rule breaking is less
likely, although, mistakes can happen.80
When properly socialized and trained when young,

an adult dog can become her owner’s trusting—and
trustworthy—best friend and welcome companion.
hitdelight/Adobe Stock
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A 4-year-old dog is settled; routine and habit are joys. These dogs are confident, trustworthy and good
friends. At this point, 4-year-olds understand and enjoy the learning process. Owners and dogs have figured
out the most effective ways to work with each other. Depending on the breed, at 5 years’ of age midlife
could begin to set in. Some dogs might not be as spry as they once were, while others are still as active as
they were at age 2 or 3.
Senior: 7+ Years
Dogs are considered senior when they reach 7 years of age.
However, because smaller breeds tend to live longer, they reach
seniority later at around 10 to 12 years. Senior dogs are typically
less active, which might necessitate dietary changes in order to
prevent weight gain. Older dogs also need mental and physical
stimulation, just as younger dogs do. Training is still very valuable.
In fact, senior dogs often provide specific training opportunities,
as they might have some hearing, sight or memory loss.81
End of Life
This is never an easy subject to broach. If you do your job well,
clients might consider you a knowledgeable friend and dog-care

A senior dog can—and should—be
advisor. As such, they might turn to you for guidance on making physically active, albeit at a slower, less
intense pace than before. She will also
decisions for their dog’s final days. No matter what they ask, you need plenty of mental stimulation to
keep her sharp and engaged with her
should always be empathetic and refer any medical questions to surroundings and her owners.
Mikkel Bigandt/Adobe Stock
their veterinarian.
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Puppy Socialization
Proper socialization is the single most important
Socialization
thing owners can do for their puppy. Proper The process of desensitizing dogs
positive socialization can mean the difference or puppies to the myriad things
between life and death for a dog—a well-
(objects, people, sounds,
environment, etc.) they will
socialized dog is much less likely to be
encounter in their daily lives.
surrendered to a shelter or abandoned. American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior: Puppy Socialization Position Statement
Socialization Facts
The most important time for puppy socialization is the first three months of life.82
If puppies adopted after 3 months of age, their owners are strongly encouraged to continue
to socialize them.83
Socialization involves the positive exposure of puppies to many situations and environments
they might encounter throughout their lives.84
All exposure must be introduced at a puppy or dog’s pace to ensure a positive experience and
to avoid any negative reactions.85
Desensitization is done by exposing a puppy to the

environment in small increments and by helping
her make positive associations to the things within
it. Owners should never overexpose their puppy
to new things, which could cause her to become
sensitized. By forcing or overwhelming a puppy, you
cause her to make a negative association to things
in the environment, which in turn can cause her to
Proper socialization is critical during
become more fearful and/or aggressive.86 the three months of a puppy’s life.
Voyagerix/Adobe Stock
While Parvovirus disease is a concern, it does

not claim nearly as many lives as behavioral
problems do. 87
82 Serpell, J. (Ed.). (1996). The domestic dog: Its evolution, behavior and interactions with people. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
84 Dunbar, I., PhD, BVetMed MRCVS. (2009, December 09). Can Too Much Socialization Ruin A Puppy? Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.dogstardaily.com/blogs/can-too-much-socialization-ruin-puppy
86 Operation Socialization. (2015). Socialization Q & A. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.operationsocialization.com/soc-101/q-a-a-for-puppy-owners.html
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What Is Positive Socialization?

Positive socialization will be different for every
puppy. Before bringing a puppy into their home,
owners should think about what happens in their
daily life. 88 Puppies living in suburban areas should
learn how to happily ignore people, dogs and
children walking through their neighborhood, and
learn to enjoy car rides. Urban puppies should learn
how to happily ignore sirens, fast-moving cars,

When socializing a puppy, owners need to take into
people passing by closely and quickly and blaring
account all the experiences she will likely have in her
life, such as being around kids and riding in a vehicle.
horns, as well as how to eliminate on hard surfaces lalalululala/Adobe Stock
and ride on public transportation. Apartment
dwelling puppies should learn how to happily ride in and share elevators with other people and dogs,
navigate flights of stairs, ignore noisy neighbors, and walk closely to people.89
When socializing puppies, owners need to have plenty of high-value treats while introducing them to daily
events. When a puppy encounters a new novel stimulus within her environment, her owner should let her
check it out (if it’s safe). If she touches the stimulus, her owner should say “Yes” and give her a treat. When
she sees another dog, child, person, someone riding a bike, skateboarder or jogger, she should be allowed
to observe from a distance. When a puppy chooses to look at her owner after looking at the stimulus, he
should say “Yes,” give her a treat and walk away. The goal is for puppies to learn that environmental stimuli
are harmless, meaningless and a normal part of everyday life and that they can happily ignore them.90
For loud sounds, owners should give their puppies a treat whenever they hear sirens, loud trucks or blaring
horns. Puppies could happily lick peanut butter-filled toys while riding on elevators, in cars and even when
visiting the veterinarian. It’s vital that owners make new situations fun.91
89 Case, L. P. (2010). Canine and feline behavior and training: A complete guide to understanding our two best friends. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning.
90 Donovan, L. (2015, June 4). Puppy Socialization: Why, When, and How to Do It Right – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/puppy-training/puppy-socialization/
91 Becker, M. (2013, January 24). Your Guide to Socializing a Puppy. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/your-guide-to-socializing-a-puppy
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When a puppy becomes frightened in a new situation, her owner
should back her away until she is comfortable taking treats and
looking at the worrisome thing. When his puppy looks at whatever
is frightening her, he should say, “Yes,” and give her a few treats. He
should give her treats one to two more times, and then leave the
situation. His puppy just learned very valuable information: that
she could leave the situation if she chooses and the distressing
thing makes treats appear.92
This is the essence of socialization: Teaching puppies how to
politely engage within their environment by ignoring stimuli.
Ideally, socialization provides enough positive experiences that If a puppy becomes frightened of
something, her owner should allow her
any new experiences can be taken in stride at any stage of life.93 to move far enough away to where she
becomes calm enough to accept treats.
Mikkel Bigandt/Adobe Stock
Proper Socialization
An example of positive socialization is bringing a puppy to a group class and only exposing her at a distance
to friendly puppies she feels comfortable with. Her owner gives her food treats and praises when she looks
at the other puppies and when performing polite behaviors. If the puppy becomes agitated, her owner
simply moves her a bit farther away until she is comfortable again. A good sign that a puppy is comfortable
with a situation is when she will take food treats. Her owner should slowly bring her closer to the other
puppies over the next few weeks if she remains happy and comfortable. Not all puppies want to meet other
dogs; owners should always let their puppy choose.94
Improper Socialization
Dogs who have not been properly socialized will tend to be shy and over-reactive.95 This reactive behavior
happens because a puppy has not been positively exposed to environmental stimuli. Fearful puppies might
flinch, freeze or withdraw when petted. They might startle easily by things considered routine, such as loud
sounds, moving bikes, automatic doors, etc.96
92 Donovan, L. (2015, June 4). Puppy Socialization: Why, When, and How to Do It Right – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/puppy-training/puppy-socialization/
93 Dunbar, I., PhD, BVetMed MRCVS. (2017, September 05). The Importance of Early Socialization. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.dogstardaily.com/training/importance-early-socialization
94 VetStreet. (2015, October 30). How to Socialize Your Puppy. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/the-dos-and-donts-for-socializing-your-puppy
96 Westrick, J. (2015, February 27). How to Socialize Your Active Puppy. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.animalplanet.com/pets/socializing-your-active-puppy/
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A dog could become fearful when people make
direct eye contact or direct frontal approaches,
smile, and/or make movements over her head, neck
or shoulder area when trying to pet her. Under-
socialized dogs fear these normal human greeting
behaviors because they’re never been exposed to
them and are unsure how to react. When people see
under-socialized dogs acting in a fearful manner,
many presume they were abused. This may be the A dog who was not properly socialized as a puppy
could become wary or fearful whenever someone
case sometimes, but not usually.97 directly approaches or reaches out to her.
dashabelozerova/Adobe Stock
Poor socialization can result in sensitization, which causes fear that can lead to aggression.98 Unfortunately,
improper socialization happens every day by well-meaning owners. When puppies are forced to meet other
puppies, dogs, people or children, it will cause them to become fearful. Fearful puppies will freeze, have
dilated pupils, low body posture and piloerection (raised hackles), and are unwilling to take food treats.
If puppies are afraid of other dogs and their owner brings them to a dog park, they will show signs of
aggression if they’re unable to get away.99
If a puppy is continually exposed to a fearful stimulus, she will likely bite,
and might never become comfortable with that situation.100 An owner must
never drag his puppy into or stay in a frightening situation; this will make her
fear much worse. Even when at the veterinarian’s office, owners should stop
the exam if their puppy becomes fearful (image left).101 Fear-Free certified
135pixels/Adobe Stock
veterinary staff understand this concern and will immediately ensure the
puppy is comfortable throughout her exam.102
97 Schultz, J. L. (n.d.). Bringing Up Baby (Socialization for Young Pups). Retrieved January 12, 2018, from www.aspcapro.org/sites/default/files/socialization-for-young-pups_0.pdf
100 Dunbar, I., PhD, BVetMed MRCVS. (2017, September 05). The Importance of Early Socialization. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.dogstardaily.com/training/importance-early-socialization’
101 Becker, M. (2013, January 24). Your Guide to Socializing a Puppy. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/your-guide-to-socializing-a-puppy
102 Fear Free LLC. (n.d.). What is Fear Free? Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://fearfreepets.com/about/what-is-fear-free/
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Puppies should be given choices and their owners should support their puppy’s choice. It is normal for a
puppy to refuse to approach a stranger for petting. Her owner should ask the stranger to toss a few treats
next to her puppy’s front paws and then leave the situation. With positive socialization, puppies learn how
to politely react to stimuli within their environment; ignoring people, other dogs and children is the goal.103
Positively Socialized Puppies

Can Still Become Fearful
Many owners will follow professional dog trainer’s
recommendations for positive socialization; however,
their puppy still grows into a fearful dog. Most will
assume they did something wrong, and they might have
unintentionally pushed their puppy too far, which caused
her to become fearful. Unfortunately, it can only take one Even with positive socialization, if a puppy has
a very bad experience, such as with another
distressing situation to cause permanent fear, especially dog, it could cause her to be frightened of all
dogs when she is an adult.
during a fear period.104 dashabelozerova/Adobe Stock
Fearful behavior is both learned and innate (i.e., genetically predetermined). The latest research has shown
there is a genetic basis for some fearful behaviors. Even if owners follow proper socialization techniques
closely, some puppies can still become fearful. With that said, early positive socialization throughout a dog’s
life greatly decreases the chances.105
Reactivity & Reactive Dogs
Reactive dogs are those who overreact (growling,

barking and/or lunging) to particular things or
situations. Improper socialization and/or genetics can
cause reactivity, and fear is usually the cause. Reactive
dogs could have specific triggers, such as people wearing
white sneakers or carrying jangly key chains; noisy
children; larger or smaller dogs; or feeling trapped on
a leash (image right). Note: Reactivity is not the same as
aggression, even though it can look similar.1 nut/Adobe Stock
1 Rakosky, E. (2016, August 30). Reactive Dog vs. Aggressive Dog. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/reactivity-vs-aggression/
103 Miller, P. (2016, November 01). Training a Dog to Make Choices. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/issues/19_11/features/Training-a-Dog-to-Make-Choices_21546-1.html
104 Summerfield, J. L., DVM. (2016, July 08). The Dark Side of Socialization: Fear Periods and Single Event Learning. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.drjensdogblog.com/the-dark-side-of-socialization-fear-periods-and-single-event-learning/
105 Abrantes, R. (2014, June 21). Fearful Behavior-Genetics and the Environment. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://ethology.eu/fearful-behavior-genetics-and-the-environment/
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Rescued Dogs
While every new dog or puppy owner should begin proper socialization
immediately, it is even more important for people who adopt from
shelters (image left) or find a dog on the street. In these situations, the
MoustacheGirl/Adobe Stock
new owner is unaware of the genetic make-up or personal history of the
adopted dog or puppy. Therefore, it is impertative that these rescued
dogs are given every advantage by having their new owners properly
socialize them. 106
To view a short video on Canine Socialization, you need to:

1) log into the Student Center; 2) click Video Instruction; and
3) choose Canine Conflicts: Part 2 Socialization.
Note: While video is listed as Part 2, there is not a Part 1.
Recommended Reading
Puppy Start Right: Foundation Training for the Companion Dog

Authors: Dr. Kenneth Martin, DVM, DACVB (Behavior) and Debbie Martin RVT VTS
(Behavior), CPDT-KA, KPA CTP
Published by Sunshine Books, Inc.; 2nd ed. edition (December 15, 2011)
A great resource for all dog owners and trainers, shelters and adoption agencies. Using
a positive approach to prevention and training, the authors instruct readers on how to
develop a “parenting relationship” between people and their dogs.
Control Unleashed: The Puppy Program

Author: Leslie McDevitt
Published by Clean Run (2012)
A “preventive-medicine” guide for puppy raisers, it focuses on creating a foundation for

training from the beginning.
106 Parks, S., PhD. (2018, April 23). How to Socialize Your Rescue Dog. Retrieved May 3, 2018, from https://www.rover.com/blog/how-to-socialize-your-rescue-dog/
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Section Review
1. List the eight canine behavioral development periods and their timeframes: ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe what occurs during the Primary Socialization Period: ____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe what happens in a fear period and explain what owners should do when their puppies are in
this period:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe what occurs during the Optimum Bonding Period: ______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe what occurs during the Juvenile Period and explain what owners should do while their pup-
py is in it: ____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe what occurs in the Senior Period: ______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. Define socialization and explain why it is important: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Explain how positive socialization can be achieved ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Explain what owners should do if their puppy is frightened in a new situation: _____________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
10. List and describe some of the consequences of improper socialization: ____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
11. Explain why rescue dogs and puppies be socialized: ____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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Canine Nutrition Basics

Javier brosch/Adobe Stock
D
og owners want to do everything they can to keep their pets healthy and happy, including feeding
them wholesome and nutritious food. Yet there are so many competing claims about dogs’ nutritional
needs and so many choices in the dog food aisle that even well-informed pet owners may feel confused
and frustrated. For specific nutrition questions, dog owners should seek advice from their veterinarians.
However, a professional trainer who is knowledgeable about canine nutrition requirements and feeding
options can be a valuable resource for pet owners. In addition, a trainer can benefit from understanding
how nutrition affects canine health and behavior.
Evolution of the Canine Digestive System

No one knows exactly when or how the wild wolf settled
down and became man’s best friend. Some scientists
think the first dogs may have started to live alongside
humans more than 30,000 years ago.107
While it’s true that dogs descended from wolves, it’s
not true that a dog’s digestive system is exactly like a
wolf’s. Wolves hunt and eat large animals such as elk,

Because dogs evolved from wolves they share
caribou and moose. They may round out their diet with many similarities; however, their digestive
system has changed enough to enable them to
rabbits, weasels, mice, frogs, insects and even berries.108 metabolizes starchy foods, such as grains.
Andrea Izzotti/iStock
107 Zimmer, C. (2013, November 14). Wolf to Dog: Scientists Agree on How, but Not Where. New York Times. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/14/science/wolf-to-dog-scientists-agree-on-how-but-not-where.html
108 International Wolf Center. (2014, January). Wolf FAQs. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.wolf.org/wolf-info/basic-wolf-info/wolf-faqs/
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Like wolves, dogs have a short digestive tract that is suited to digesting all kinds of meat. When it comes
to diet, though, a dog is more flexible than its wild ancestors. Swedish scientists who compared DNA from
wolves and dogs discovered a surprising difference in the genes that control digestion of starch. Dogs have
evolved a greater ability to break down and absorb starchy foods like grains and rice.109 Thousands of years
ago, this ability was a big advantage for dogs as they scavenged off the garbage of human settlements.
Today this change still affects the way we feed our dogs.
Canine Nutrition through the Years

Through most of the long partnership between humans and dogs,
people fed their pets whatever they could spare—bread crusts,
vegetable trimmings, meat scraps, and perhaps a bone or two. It
wasn’t until 1860 that the first commercial dog food—a type of
biscuit—was sold in England. By the 1920s, dog owners could buy
canned foods made of horsemeat. After World War II, an economic
boom caused demand for both canned and dry dog food to soar. Ohioan James Spratt created the first
commercial dog food, meat- and grain-
In the 1950s, manufacturers figured out how to produce kibble based biscuits, circa 1860 in London.
with equipment designed for making breakfast cereal.110
As the dog food industry grew, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began regulating the safety
of pet food.111 The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), a voluntary organization, began
publishing and updating a Dog Food Nutrient Profile based on the current scientific understanding of
canine nutritional needs.112
Canine Dietary Requirements

The energy for everything a dog does comes from protein, fats and carbohydrates. These nutrients, along
with minerals and vitamins, also are crucial for many canine body structures and processes. Here’s a look at
the role different nutrients play in keeping a dog healthy and active.
109 Axelsson, E., Ratnakumar, A., et al. (2013). The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet. Nature, 495(7441), 360-364. doi: 10.1038/nature11837
110 The Pet Food Institute,(n.d.) History of Pet Food, Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.petfoodinstitute.org/pet-food-matters/nutrition-2/history-of-pet-food/
111 U.S. FDA: Center for Veterinary Medicine. (2017, October 19). Resources for You - FDA’s Regulation of Pet Food. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/ucm047111.htm
112 Association of American Feed Control Officials,(n.d.) AAFCO Publications. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.aafco.org/Publications/PublicationListing
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Protein
Proteins make up a large part of every cell in a dog’s
M.studio/Adobe Stock
body—from muscles, bones and hair to eyes, ears and
teeth. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
Twenty or so different amino acids can combine in
different ways to form thousands of proteins. Dogs can
produce about half of these amino acids, but there are
10 that they cannot make. A nutrient that cannot be made by the body is called an essential nutrient. Dogs
must get the 10 essential amino acids from food.113
Proteins from animals, such as poultry, beef, lamb, fish and eggs, provide a complete set of amino acids.
Grains provide some but not all of the amino acids.114 A deficiency of an essential amino acid can cause
serious health problems.
The AAFCO’s Dog Food Nutrient Profile states that food for adult dogs should contain at least 18 percent
protein, while foods for puppies must have at least 22 percent protein.115
Fats
Fats are the most concentrated source of energy,
and they also play an important role in cell structure
and function. Fats are made up of molecules called
fatty acids. Dogs need two types of essential fatty
acids—omega-6 and omega-3. These nutrients help
to keep a dog’s coat and skin healthy.

Food sources for omega-3 fatty acids include fish
(salmon, shellfish, shrimp, etc.), flaxseed oil, chia
seeds and English walnuts. Omega-6 sources include
vegetable oils, avocados, seeds and nuts. Note:
Due to their high fat content, dog-safe nuts (e.g.,
almonds, cashews) should only be given on a limited
basis, according to Dr. Carol Osborne, DVM and
integrative veterinarian at Chagrin Falls Pet Clinic.
photka/Adobe Stock
113 National Research Council of the National Academies. (2006). Your Dog’s Nutritional Needs: A Science-Based Guide For Pet Owners [Pamphlet]. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science. http://dels.nas.edu/Materials/Booklets/Dog-Nutrition
114 ASPCA. (n.d.). Dog Nutrition Tips. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/dog-care/dog-nutrition-tips
115 AAFCO. (2013). Pet Food Report - 2013: Midyear Proposed Revisions to AAFCO Nutrient Profiles (Rep.). Champaign, IL: AAFCO. doi: https://www.aafco.org/Regulatory/Committees/Pet-Food
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A dog who doesn’t get enough fatty acids may develop dry hair and sores as well as a weakened immune
system.116 Commercial dog foods typically have many times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3s.
However, even though research is ongoing, the optimal ratio that is healthiest for dogs is still unknown.117
The Dog Food Nutrient Profile requires that foods for adult dogs have at least 5 percent fat; puppy foods
must have 8 percent fat.118
Carbohydrates
Although carbohydrates are not an essential part of
the canine diet, dogs are able to get energy from
carbohydrates as well as from proteins and fats.
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches and dietary
fibers. Manufacturers add carbohydrates—usually
in the form of grains, corn, legumes and other
vegetables—to commercial dog foods because
these ingredients are less expensive than meat and
can round out the nutrient profile of a product.119
Dog foods may also contain dietary fiber such as oat bran, rice hulls or peanut shells. These ingredients are
not digested, but they make dogs feel full.
Carbohydrate-rich foods are not as easily digested as meats, but, as noted in the section on canine evolution,
dogs have evolved an enhanced ability to digest starchy foods. Dog foods are not required to have a
particular percentage of carbohydrates. Most contain between 30 percent and 70 percent carbohydrates.120
117 Kidd, R., DVM, PhD. (n.d.). Fatty Acids for Pet Skin and Haircoat Health. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/care/fatty-acids-pet-skin-and-haircoat-health
118 AAFCO. (2013). Pet Food Report - 2013: Midyear Proposed Revisions to AAFCO Nutrient Profiles (Rep.). Champaign, IL: AAFCO. doi: https://www.aafco.org/Regulatory/Committees/Pet-Food
119 Case, L. P., MS, Daristotle, L., DVM, PhD., et al. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (Third ed.). London: Mosby/Elsevier.
120 Case, L. P., MS, Daristotle, L., DVM, PhD., et al. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (Third ed.). London: Mosby/Elsevier.
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Minerals
There are 12 minerals that are essential for dogs. Dogs
need calcium and phosphorous to build strong bones
and teeth. Iron is necessary to form hemoglobin,
the molecule in red blood cells that carry oxygen.
Magnesium, potassium, sodium and chloride help
nerves and muscles function properly. Zinc is essential
for cell reproduction, wound healing and keeping skin
healthy. Iodine maintains thyroid function and helps
regulate metabolism. Canines need some minerals—such as copper, molybdenum and selenium—only in
tiny amounts; however, these minerals are crucial in many chemical reactions within a dog’s body.121
Minimum and maximum mineral levels are set down in the Dog Food Nutrient Profile. Dogs that get too
little of essential minerals—or too much, in some cases—can have serious health problems ranging from
poor growth and weakness to skin lesions and bone loss.
Vitamins
You might have started the day with a glass of orange
Oakozhan/Adobe Stock
juice, but your dog doesn’t need one. Unlike humans,
dogs can make the vitamin C they need. However, dogs
must get other vitamins from their diets. Vitamins play
a vital role in a broad range of chemical functions in the
canine body. Vitamin A is important for vision, growth and
immune function. Vitamin D helps maintain proper levels
of minerals. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cells
from damage.122
Minimum and maximum vitamin levels are spelled out in the Dog Food Nutrient Profile. As with minerals,
deficiencies of vitamins—or excess amounts—can cause serious health problems.
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Canine Nutrition Options

Selecting the right dog food is not a simple matter.
The aisles of supermarkets and pet supply stores offer
a dizzying selection of types and brands of dog foods.
The rules covering dog food ingredients and labeling
are intricate and not always logical. It’s not surprising
that a consumer survey showed widespread confusion
about what’s in dog food and doubts about the The variety of dog food brands and types on the
market can be overwhelming to some pet owners.
truthfulness of labels.123 Image courtesy of Kriser’s Natural Pet
Most owners feed their dogs well-known brands of commercial wet or dry dog foods. However, there is a
growing movement of pet owners who are skeptical about the quality and safety of commercial dog foods
and the effectiveness of the agencies regulating pet foods.124 This movement gained momentum in 2007,
when hundreds of pets in several countries died from melamine contamination in commercial foods. The
contamination was traced to gluten products from China.125
Today, some dog owners make their own pet food or buy dog foods marketed with claims of safer or better
ingredients. A trainer’s clients are likely to have heard about the controversies over commercial foods and
to have questions about their wholesomeness and safety. While specific questions about a dog’s diet should
be referred to a veterinarian, it is helpful for a professional trainer to be well-informed on issues related to
canine feeding.
Regulation of Dog Food Ingredients and Labeling
The ingredients and labeling of dog food are regulated in two ways. The Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) enforces laws requiring that pet foods, like foods for people, be safe to eat, produced under sanitary
conditions, free of harmful substances and truthfully labeled.126, 127
123 Coates, J., DVM. (2013, September 13). People Remain Confused About Pet Foods, petMD Survey Finds. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/centers/nutrition/nws_multi_people-remain-confused-about-pet-foods
124 Case, L. P. (2014). Dog food logic: Making smart decisions for your dog in an age of too many choices. Wenatchee, WA, U.S.A.: Dogwise Publishing.
125 U.S. FDA. (2008). Recalls & Withdrawals - Melamine Pet Food Recall of 2007. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/RecallsWithdrawals/ucm129575.htm
127 U.S. FDA. (2017, October 13). Resources for You - Pet Food Labels - General. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/resourcesforyou/ucm047113.htm
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In addition to the FDA rules, most states follow more
specific standards set by the Association of American
Feed Control Officials (AAFCO). This is a group of local,
state and federal officials that defines ingredients
and sets nutritional requirements. It also establishes
standards for pet food names, nutrition claims and
feeding directions.128
While AAFCO makes rules about ingredients and labeling, it does not have any enforcement powers and
does not actually test and certify dog foods. State feed-control officials are responsible for enforcing rules
about pet food ingredients and labeling.129
Allowed Ingredients in Dog Food
AAFCO maintains an extensive list of ingredients
allowed in dog foods, from alfalfa meal to whey. Each
ingredient used must comply with its definition on
the AAFCO list. Here’s a link to explanations of the
different allowed ingredients in pet food: http://
www.aafco.org/Consumers/What-is-in-Pet-Food
Pet food labels must list all ingredients in descending
order by weight, and the ingredients must be
referred to by their common names. Also, dog food
packaging must list the minimum percentages of
protein and fat, and the maximum percentage of
fiber and moisture in the product.130
129 AAFCO. (2012). The Business of Pet Food. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://petfood.aafco.org/
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“Complete and Balanced” Claims
One of the most important things to look for on a dog food
label is a statement that the food is “complete and balanced” (or
similar wording). A dog food that claims to provide complete
nutrition must have the proper amounts of all the nutrients
on AAFCO’s Dog Food Nutrient Profile. As an alternative, dog-
food makers can conduct feeding trials to show that their food
is adequate to keep dogs healthy. Dog foods that do not meet the nutrient profile or have not been tested
must be clearly labeled as a snack, treat or supplement.131
LIfe Stage Nutrient Profiles
AAFCO sets nutrient profiles for dogs in different stages of
life. A food meeting the basic requirements “for maintenance”
is suitable for adult dogs with a normal activity level. Dog
foods must provide higher levels of nutrients if they are
labeled “for growth”—meaning they are for puppies—or
“for reproduction”—meaning they are for pregnant or lactating dogs. You may see dog foods labeled for
other life stages, such as “senior” or for dogs of certain sizes or breeds, but there are no specific nutrient
requirements for these foods. They simply have to meet the requirements for regular adult dog foods.132
Feeding Directions
How much food does a dog need? The answer depends on many factors, including breed, size, age and
activity level. Dog foods typically have instructions on the label about how many cups to feed per pound
of body weight. These instructions are only a starting point.133 Owners should adjust the portion to the
amount the dog needs to maintain a healthy weight.
133 U.S. FDA. (2017, October 13). Resources for You - Pet Food Labels – Feeding Directins. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/resourcesforyou/ucm047113.htm#Feeding_Directions
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The best way to compare the appropriate servings of different products is to look at the calorie count.
AAFCO rules don’t require calorie information on dog food packages, but some manufacturers provide it
anyway. If a calorie statement is provided, it must be in kilocalories per kilogram. Kilocalories are the same
as the calories on labels of foods for people. A kilogram is equal to 2.2 pounds. Manufacturers also may
express the calories in more familiar ways, such as “per cup,” in addition to the required statement.134
Other Label Claims

Dog food makers use all kinds of wording on their labels to
appeal to dog owners. Some of these label claims mean
something, but others do not. For example, dog foods
that claim to be “organic” must meet the U.S. Department
of Agriculture’s rules for organic human foods. However,
dog foods that claim to be “premium,” “super-premium” or
“gourmet” are not required to contain any special ingredients.
They simply must meet the same standards as any complete
and balanced dog food.135
Natural vs. Synthetic Ingredients
Many pet food brands use the word “natural” on their labels. As defined by AAFCO, natural means a food
product has no artificial flavors, colors or preservatives. However, artificial flavors and colors are rarely used
in dog foods.136
Preservatives are used in dry dog foods to keep fats in them from turning rancid. Questions have been
raised about the safety of some synthetic preservatives. These include BHA (butylatedhydroxyanisole), BHT
(butylated-hydroxytoluene) and ethoxyquin. In the 1990s, the FDA told pet food makers to reduce the
amount of ethoxyquin in their products after tests showed the preservative could cause liver damage. The
FDA states synthetic preservatives are safe at the levels currently used in dog foods.137
134 U.S. FDA. (2017, October 13). Resources for You - Pet Food Labels - Nutritional Adequacy Statement. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/resourcesforyou/ucm047113.htm#Nutritional_Adequacy_Statement
135 U.S. FDA. (2017, October 13). Resources for You - Pet Food Labels – Other Label Claims. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/resourcesforyou/ucm047113.htm#Other_Label_Claims
137 Lee, E. (2010, May 1). How to Read a Dog Food Label. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://pets.webmd.com/dogs/guide/how-to-read-a-dog-food-label#1
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Some dog food makers have switched to natural preservatives. These natural alternatives include
antioxidants—such as vitamin E (mixed tocopherols) and vitamin C (ascorbic acid)—as well as plant
extracts. While artificial preservatives keep dry foods from going bad for up to a year, foods with natural
preservatives have a shorter shelf life. Dog owners who buy foods with natural preservatives should be sure
to check the “best by “ date on the package.138
Dog Food Names

Dog food manufacturers use appealing names to attract the attention of
consumers. But the names of dog foods can be misleading. Dog owners need
to be on their toes and carefully read ingredient lists to be sure they know what
they are getting. A professional trainer who understands how to decipher dog
food labels can be a valuable resource to clients.
Under AAFCO rules, if a food claims to be “beef for dogs” or “chicken for dogs,”
the named ingredient must make up at least 95 percent of the product, not
counting water. With water taken into account, the named ingredient must still In order for a dog food
label to state that it is a
be 70 percent of the food. Because ingredients are listed in order by weight, if a specific meat for dogs, it
must contain 95 percent
food is labeled “beef for dogs,” beef should be the first ingredient on the list.139 of that ingredient.
However, subtle differences in the product names can mean a big difference in
the ingredients. A food names with a qualifying word such as “dinner,” “platter,”
“fare,” “formula” or “entrée” must have 25 percent of the named ingredient, not
counting water, but less than 95 percent. In the case of a dog food labeled
“Beef Dinner” or “Chicken Formula,” the designated meet might make up only
25 percent of the food by weight, and appear third or fourth in the ingredients.
However, it could also contain more than 25 percent, such as 50 or 70 percent.
There is a wide gap between to the two minimums of 95 and 25 percent.140
Any dog food that includes “formula” in its name must contain a minimum of
25 percent and no more than 94 percent of the named ingredient. If two or
more are ingredients are used, their combined total must be at least 25 percent.
139 U.S. FDA. (2017, October 13). Resources for You - Pet Food Labels – Product Names. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/resourcesforyou/ucm047113.htm#Product_Name
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There’s even an exception in the AAFCO rules that allows a dog food to have an ingredient in its name even if
that ingredient makes up only 3 percent of the food. This is permitted if the maker uses the word “with” before
the ingredient in question. For instance, “Dog Food with Beef” is only required to have 3 percent beef.141
It’s important for consumers to pay attention to the full ingredient list. In some cases, dog food makers list
meat as the first ingredient in a food, but then they list several types of grain ingredients, such as different
forms of corn, right after the meat. In reality, such a product has more corn than meat.
Protein Sources
The protein in dog foods can come from animal sources, plant sources or both.
Meat and Meat Products
Africa Studio/Adobe Stock

AAFCO ingredient listings define several kinds of meat
ingredients in dog foods. First there is actual meat, poultry
or fish. The ingredient lists of better-quality dog foods often
specify the actual source of meat—beef, lamb or chicken, for
example. Some foods list just “meat,” but critics say that leaves
the consumer guessing about its source.142
Many dog foods also contain meat byproducts. These are the leftovers of animal slaughter—liver, lungs,
spleen, kidneys, brain, blood and intestines, among other parts.143 By AAFCO definition, byproducts exclude
hair, horns, teeth and hooves. Meat byproducts can be highly nutritious, which is why some brands include
them in their foods. Some critics claim that poor-quality foods have byproducts high in the ingredient list.
Many dog foods contain meat meal or bone meal. These are produced by a process called rendering. This
intensive cooking process removes the water and leaves a concentrated powder residue. Meat meal is high
in protein. However, some critics note that the meal is only as good as the meat from which it is made. They
claim that lower-quality meals are made from supermarket meats that have passed their expiration dates
or from meat of diseased or dying animals.144

142 AAFCO. (n.d.). What’s in Pet Food? Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.aafco.org/Consumers/What-is-in-Pet-Food
143 Ohio State University Veterinary Medical Center. (n.d.). Myths and Misconceptions Surrounding Pet Foods. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://vet.osu.edu/vmc/companion/our-services/nutrition-support-service/myths-and-misconceptions-
surrounding-pet-foods
144 Spector, D., DVM. (n.d.). Pet Food (What You Need to Know) for Your Pet’s Sake. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.petmd.com/dog/nutrition/evr_pet_food_for_your_pets_sake
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Grains
Grains such as corn, rice, wheat and barley can make up
Daniel Vincek/Adobe Stock

70 percent of some commercial dog foods. Critics argue
that grain is a cheap filler that is not as digestible or
nutritious as meat. They insist that dogs should be eating
more like their wild ancestors. However, research does
not support their claims; grains’ digestibility increases
with processing and/or cooking.145 In addition, the
modern dog’s digestive system is sufficiently different
from its ancestors and can now break down and absorb
grains and other starchy foods.146
Still, in recent years, a growing number of grain-free dog foods have appeared on the market. Most of
these grain-free foods—especially the dry versions—will contain carbohydrates, but they use other starchy
foods, such as white potatoes, sweet potatoes or peas. Advocates say these foods are less likely to trigger
allergies. However, studies have shown that meat and dairy are more common triggers for canine allergies
than are grains. Grain-free foods typically are more expensive than conventional dog foods.147
Gluten-free Dog Foods
In addition to grain-free foods, manufacturers are offering a growing number
of gluten-free dog foods. Gluten is a protein found in wheat and also in barley
and rye. A food may be gluten-free but not grain-free. Gluten allergies in dogs
are rare. However, gluten-free diets are popular among humans, and some dog
owners extend their own dietary concerns to their dogs.148
145 Wortinger, A., & Burns, K. M. (2015). Nutrition and disease management for veterinary technicians and nurses (2nd ed.). Ames, Iowa: John Wiley & Sons.
146 Axelsson, E., Ratnakumar, A., et al. (2013). The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet. Nature, 495(7441), 360-364. doi: 10.1038/nature11837
147 Huston, L., DVM. (n.d.). What Is Grain Free Pet Food, Really? Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/centers/nutrition/evr_multi_what_is_grain_free_pet_food_really
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Types of Dog Food

Many pet owners puzzle over whether wet food or dry food is a better choice. Each type has advantages
and disadvantages. Meanwhile, more and more dog owners are turning to raw diets as an alternative to
mainstream commercial foods. A professional trainer should understand the pros and cons of each feeding
approach.
Wet Dog Food

To make wet dog food, manufacturers grind meat
Comugnero Silvana/Adobe Stock

and meat byproducts to the desired texture. They
may add texturized vegetable protein to make
pieces that look like meat chunks. The meat products
are mixed with grains, minerals and vitamins, along
with gravy or gel to hold the mixture together. The
food is slow-cooked and then poured into cans or
pouches. A special cooker applies heat and pressure
to kill bacteria and pressure-seal the cans.149 A few manufactures also offer wet food in rolls or chubs—they
look like a large-size ground sausage roll. Some brands are shelf-stable (e.g., Natural Balance, Redbarn),
while others require refrigeration (e.g., Freshpet). As with canned or pouched varieties, the roll food is pre-
cooked before packaging.
Wet foods have several advantages over dry foods. They usually have more meat than dry foods and usually
don’t contain preservatives as dry foods do because the canning process preserves the food.150
Dogs generally find the smell and taste of wet foods more appealing. For this reason, wet foods can benefit
a dog that is a picky eater or has health problems that affect appetite. Wet foods obviously contain much
more water than dry foods, so they can be a good choice in hot weather or for dogs that don’t drink enough
water. They also are easier to eat for dogs with sore or missing teeth.
149 Case, L. P., MS, & Daristotle, L., DVM, PhD. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (Third ed.). London: Mosby/Elsevier.
150 Wortinger, A., & Burns, K. M. (2015). Nutrition and disease management for veterinary technicians and nurses (2nd ed.). Ames, Iowa: John Wiley & Sons
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However, wet foods in general are more expensive than dry foods, and while the cans and pouches (and
some rolls) can sit on the shelf for a long time, once they are opened, they are less convenient to store as
they must be refrigerated. Wet dog food shouldn’t be left in the pet’s dish for hours because of the risk of
spoilage.
Dry Dog Food

The ingredients for kibble are mixed together and
Fotos 593/Adobe Stock

mashed up into dough. Then the mixture is cooked
under high heat and pressure. The cooked dough
is forced—or extruded—like Play-Doh through
holes and then cut into pieces. When the dough
emerges from the high-pressure cooker, it puffs
up. The puffed pieces are put through a drier and
then sprayed with nutrients and oil. Manufacturers
usually add preservatives to keep the dry food from turning rancid. Then the food is packaged and sealed.151
While dry foods may be less appealing to dogs than
wet foods, they are more convenient for owners.
They are generally less expensive. They can be stored
in a tightly closed bucket at room temperature for
long periods or left in a pet’s bowl for hours. Also,
dry foods may be better for a dog’s teeth because
they scrape off some tartar, although dogs tend to
Storing dry food in an airtight container with a very wolf down their food without chewing much, so
secure lid not only keeps it edible longer, it also helps
prevent mischievous canines from getting into it. this benefit is limited.152
mmilliman/Adobe Stock
151 Heldman, D. R., & Hartel, R. W. (1999). Food Extrusion. Principles of Food Processing Food Science Texts Series, 253-283. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-4584-6_10
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Comparing Wet and Dry Food Nutrition
Comparing the nutrition labels for a wet food and
a dry food is tricky because the wet food is mostly
water—usually about 75 percent—while the dry
food has only about 10 percent water. So a wet
food appears to have much lower levels of protein
and other nutrients than a dry food. To make a
meaningful comparison, consumers should convert
the nutrient levels for both products to a dry basis.153 Wet dog food typically have more protein—listed as
crude protein on the label—than dry food does when
their water and dry matter content are factored in.
A shortcut way to do this is to assume a dry food has sharafmaksumov/Adobe Stock
about four times as much dry matter as a wet food.
Suppose a wet food has 8 percent crude protein and a dry food has 27 percent. Multiply the wet food’s 8
percent by 4 and you will see that the wet food actually has a little more protein when water is removed
from the equation.154
Many owners split the difference by feeding mostly dry food because of its lower cost and greater
convenience with a bit of wet food on top as a treat for their dog.
Raw Dog Food

A raw diet for dogs has become increasingly popular
in recent years as an alternative to dry or wet foods. An
Australian veterinarian first popularized a raw diet for
dogs in the 1990s. He used the acronym BARF, which
stands for either Bones and Raw Food or Biologically
Appropriate Raw Food. The idea attracted the attention
of more dog owners after the recall of melamine-

After the Menu Foods’ melamine recall in 2007,
tainted pet foods in 2007.155 raw diets started gaining traction with pet owners.
jandix2/Adobe Stock
155 Lee, E. (n.d.). Raw Dog Food: Dietary Concerns, Benefits, and Risks. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://pets.webmd.com/dogs/guide/raw-dog-food-dietary-concerns-benefits-and-risks#1
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How Raw Food Is Prepared
Raw diets for dogs typically include muscle meats, whole
or ground bones, organ meats, eggs, vegetables and fruit.
Some owners prepare their own raw food using meat and
other ingredients from the grocery store. There also are
numerous commercial raw dog foods, usually sold frozen
(e.g., Bravo!, Primal, Nature’s Variety Instinct Raw, Northwest
Naturals) freeze-dried (e.g., Sojo’s, Stella & Chewy’s, Stewart
Pet) or dehydrated (e.g., The Honest Kitchen, Addiction Pet Raw diets frequently contain organ meats,
such as beef kidneys (above), as well as
Foods, NRG). Many brands offer raw food in more than one muscle meat, bones, eggs and produce.
PaulCowan/iStock
version—frozen, freeze-dried and/or dehydrated.
Arguments Against a Raw Diet
The FDA, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and some veterinarians warn that there are
potential problems with raw diets. A scientific analysis of homemade raw diets showed they tended to be
deficient in some nutrients and to have too much of others. There is also a danger of salmonella or listeria
poisoning to both dogs who eat raw meats and owners who handle them, the FDA and CDC warn. Bones
may damage a dog’s teeth or cause choking or internal punctures. Also, a raw diet is generally quite a bit
more expensive than a commercial dry or canned food.156, 157
Arguments for a Raw Diet
Advocates say their pets have shinier coats, cleaner teeth and more energy when fed a raw diet. They also
say it is worth the extra expense to make sure their dogs are getting wholesome and appropriate foods.
They insist that concern over food poisoning is overblown because dog owners handling raw meats know
they must follow proper safety procedures just as they would when preparing meat for people to eat.158 In
general, experts advise owners who make their own dog food to follow a recipe from a veterinary nutritionist
to make sure the food provides all of the nutrients a dog needs.159
156 U.S. FDA. (2018). Animal Health Literacy - Get the Facts! Raw Pet Food Diets can be Dangerous to You and Your Pet. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/AnimalHealthLiteracy/ucm373757.htm
157 Dzanis, D. A. (2017, June 11). CDC weighs in on raw pet food, safety. Retrieved June 16, 2017, from http://www.petfoodindustry.com/articles/6492-cdc-weighs-in-on-raw-pet-food-safety
158 Lee, E. (n.d.). Raw Dog Food: Dietary Concerns, Benefits, and Risks. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://pets.webmd.com/dogs/guide/raw-dog-food-dietary-concerns-benefits-and-risks#1
159 ACVN. (n.d.). Frequently Asked Questions | American College of Veterinary Nutrition. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.acvn.org/frequently-asked-questions/#veterinary-nutritionist
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Nutrition and Health Problems

Obesity
By far the most common nutrition-related health problem in dogs is
obesity. Dogs are considered overweight when they are 20 percent above
their ideal weight. Obese dogs are at higher risk for arthritis, diabetes,
high blood pressure and some kinds of cancer. Dogs are more likely to
become obese as they get older. Also, some breeds are prone to obesity.
These include Labrador retrievers, dachshunds, beagles, basset hounds,
collies and cocker spaniels.160 Beagles are genetically inclined

toward obesity, which is why
their owners should ensure they
The causes of obesity are not complicated. Obesity results from too get enough exercise and the
appropriate amount of food.
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much food, too little activity, or a combination of the two. Pet owners
should understand that feeding directions on dog foods are only recommendations. Owners need to
adjust their dogs’ rations until they find an amount that maintains a healthy weight. If a dog has become
obese, a veterinarian can recommend a program of gradual weight loss through reduced feeding and
increased activity.
Nutritional Deficiencies
Nutritional deficiencies are rare in dogs that eat a “complete and balanced” commercial dog food. Nutritional
deficiencies or excesses are more likely in dogs that are fed homemade diets or given large amounts of
human food. For instance, dogs that are fed mostly meat may experience a deficiency of calcium. This can
cause bone loss, skeletal abnormalities and bone fractures. Dogs that don’t get enough vitamin A may have
motor and vision problems, sores on their skin, breathing problems and a weakened immune system. Those
lacking vitamin E may experience muscle weakness and eye problems.161
For dogs eating a balanced dog food, vitamin and mineral supplements usually are not needed unless a
veterinarian diagnoses a nutritional deficiency. Because of the widespread use of vitamin supplements,
poisoning caused by excess vitamins is more common these days than vitamin deficiency.162
162 Sanderson, S. L., BS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, DACVN. (n.d.). Nutritional Requirements and Related Diseases of Small Animals - Management and Nutrition. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-
nutrition/nutrition-small-animals/nutritional-requirements-and-related-diseases-of-small-animals
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Foods That Are Harmful to Dogs
There are many human foods that can cause serious
problems for dogs. These may be given to a dog by
a well-intentioned owner, or a dog may grab the
food on its own—off a counter or out of a purse,
for instance. Most dog owners know that their pets
should not have chocolate. It contains theobromine,
which dogs metabolize much more slowly than
people do. Chocolate can cause vomiting and
diarrhea in dogs, and in extreme cases, seizures and Grapes (all kinds), coffee beans, onions, garlic,
cloves, macadamia nuts, chocolate, avocados
death. Other foods that are potentially toxic to dogs (whole and/or the pit) and raisins are among the
foods that are potentially toxic to dogs if ingested.
Monika Wisniewska/Adobe Stock
include grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, onions
and garlic. The xylitol used to sweeten sugar-free gums, candies and some peanut butters can cause liver
damage in dogs. Dog owners might be aware of some but not all of these hazardous foods. A professional
trainer can help reinforce the importance of keeping these foods where dogs cannot reach them.163
Nutrition and Canine Behavior

Scientists know that nutrition affects the way people behave. For example, diets high in vitamins, minerals
and essential fatty acids reduce antisocial behavior in children and adults. Hormones and brain chemicals
called neurotransmitters help determine behavior. Consuming more or less of the nutrients that go into
making these substances can alter the way people—and other animals—behave.
Can changing what a dog eats reduce behavior problems? The answer may be “yes” in some cases, although
the research on nutrition and canine behavior is limited. Veterinary scientists have more work to do to
confirm that changes in diet can reduce problem behaviors and make dogs more receptive to training. A
professional trainer can benefit from understanding what the research shows—and what questions remain
to be answered—about nutrition and dog behavior.164
163 Sanderson, S. L., BS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, DACVN. (n.d.). Nutritional Requirements and Related Diseases of Small Animals - Management and Nutrition. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-
nutrition/nutrition-small-animals/nutritional-requirements-and-related-diseases-of-small-animals
164 Boler, B. V. (2011, November 9). Nutrition and canine behavior. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.petfoodindustry.com/articles/4534-nutrition-and-canine-behavior
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Amino Acids and Lowered Aggression
Some amino acids affect levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. One of these neurotransmitters, serotonin,
is linked to feelings of well-being in humans. Studies have shown that diets high in tryptophan, an essential
amino acid, can raise serotonin levels in the brains of lab animals. Having more serotonin made monkeys
less aggressive and helped them recover from stress more easily.
In one limited study, aggressive dogs were fed a low-protein diet supplemented with tryptophan. The dogs
fed this diet showed less territorial aggression. Larger studies are needed to find out to what degree extra
tryptophan can reduce aggression in dogs—and to establish the optimum amount to feed them.165
DHA and Learning Improvement

Another nutrient that has been studied to see how
it affects animal behavior is the essential fatty acid
dexahexanoic acid, or DHA. In people, DHA has
been linked to reduced inflammation and improved
mental functioning. In one study, rodents fed
extra DHA became better learners, while rodents
that didn’t get enough DHA developed learning
problems.166
Studies indicate that puppies who are fed a diet that
For one large study on the effects of DHA, researchers is high in DHA tend to learn better and quicker than
those fed moderate to low amounts of the fatty acid.
demanescale/Adobe Stock
monitored 28 litters of puppies. The mothers of
some litters were fed DHA supplements during pregnancy and lactation, and the puppies got extra DHA
after they were weaned. The researchers then put the puppies through training exercises. The puppies that
got extra DHA scored higher and made fewer mistakes than those that were fed less DHA.167
165 Bosch, G., Beerda, B., et al. (2007). Impact of nutrition on canine behaviour: Current status and possible mechanisms. Nutrition Research Reviews, 20(02), 180. doi: 10.1017/s095442240781331x
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Another study, conducted in 2016, divided 48 8-week-old puppies into three groups (low-, moderate- and
high-DHA diets) and followed their progress until they reached 52 weeks of age. The high-DHA group had
better reversal task learning and obstacle navigation (among other improvements) than the other groups.168
Additional research is needed to see if adult dogs become easier to train if they consume extra DHA.
Nutrition and Mental Decline in Older Dogs

Dogs, like people, may show signs of mental decline
as they age. Some senior dogs experience a form
of dementia called cognitive dysfunction disorder.
An older dog may begin to act disoriented, lose
interest in socializing, have accidents in the house
or experience sleep disruptions.169 Owners should
report these signs to a veterinarian.
There is some research showing that nutrients

Antioxidants might help slow a senior dog’s mental
can play a role in slowing mental decline in older decline as well as prevent some behavioral changes.
claireliz/Adobe Stock
dogs. In one series of studies, researchers added
antioxidants to the diet of older dogs. The dogs were able to learn complex tasks better than a control
group could. Another study showed that older dogs fed a diet rich in antioxidants had fewer age-related
behavioral changes such as excessive licking and pacing.170
168 Zicker, S. C., & Jewell, D. E. (2012). Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexaenoic acid–rich fish oil from 8 to 52 weeks of age. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association, 241(5), 583-594. doi:10.2460/javma.241.5.583
169 Landsberg, G. M., BSc, DVM, MRCVS, DACVB, DECAWBM, & Denenberg, S., DVM, DACVB, Dip. ECAWBM, MACVSc. (n.d.). Behavioral Problems of Dogs - Behavior. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/
behavior/normal_social_behavior_and_behavioral_problems_of_domestic_animals/behavioral_problems_of_dogs.html
170 Coates, J., DVM. (n.d.). Importance of Antioxidants in Pet Food. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/centers/nutrition/evr_multi_importance_of_antioxidants_in_pet_food
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Section Review
1. List and provide examples of the five nutrient categories that are essential to keeping a dog physically
healthy: ______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the primary functions of the FDA and AAFCO in regard to dog food ingredients and labeling: _
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. List the information pet food labels must have:__________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Provide three examples of how a dog food product name determines the ingredient content: __________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. List and provide examples of protein sources in dog foods: _______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Explain how to compare the nutritional value of dry food with that of wet food: _____________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. Briefly describe the arguments for and against feeding dogs a raw diet: riefly describe the arguments
for and against feeding dogs a raw diet: __________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe the potential health dogs are at risk for if they are obese and list which breeds are prone to
obesity: ______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. List the foods dogs should never consume and they harm the can cause:: ___________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
10. Describe the effect DHA could possibly have on puppies’ ability to learn:: _________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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Canine Health
E
nsuring dogs and puppies have a thorough veterinary exam is a must before attempting to solve
common behavior issues. Always rule out any medical issues first.171 Dogs are susceptible to a variety
of illnesses and diseases, many of which can be fatal. Certified Dog Trainers have a responsibility to not
endanger their clients’ dogs by conducting classes in an environment where pathogens could be present.
For that reason, every dog should have the recommended vaccinations for their area before entering an
obedience class. This helps to maintain the safety and well-being of all the canines that attend.
Vaccine Protocols for Dogs

Newborn puppies have a natural immunity in the form of maternal
JPC-PROD/Adobe Stock
antibodies; however, as they age, that immunity is lost. Basic
vaccinations protect dogs and puppies from illness, as well from any
unvaccinated canines. When discussing vaccinations, you should
always refer your clients to their primary veterinarian.
Vaccine protocol varies by breed, age and veterinary recommendation
(e.g., canine health, location, etc.). Veterinarians typically recommend
starting a puppy’s vaccination series between the age of 6 and 8
weeks.172 The vaccinations are given in three to four week intervals
until a puppy is 16 weeks old. Depending on when the first vaccination
is given, a puppy generally receives three to four vaccinations in the
“puppy” series.
The initial core vaccine is known as DA2PP or DHPP, which contains modified-live viruses to protect against
four diseases with a single injection. DA2PP includes Distemper, Adenovirus Type-2, Parainfluenza and
Parvovirus; DHPP includes Distemper, Hepatitis/Adenovirus Type 1, Parainfluenza and Parvovirus.173
The combined vaccines can also contain Leptospirosis, but it is generally only included for areas where
these disease is prominent.
171 Landsberg, G. M., Hunthausen, W. L., Ackerman, L., & L, G. (2012). Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat (3rd ed.). Oxford: W B Saunders Co.
172 UC Davis Veterinary Medicine. (2018, January). Canine and Feline Vaccination Guidelines. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/vmth/small_animal/internal_medicine/newsletters/vaccination_protocols.cfm
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Canine Vaccinations
Core Non-Core
• DA2PP or DHPP • Bordetella bronchiseptica
› Adenovirus Type 2 or 1 (kennel cough)
(canine hepatitis virus) • Borrelia burgdorferi
› Distemper virus (canine Lyme disease)
› Parvovirus • Leptospirosis: if included in one of
› Parainfluenza virus the combo vaccines, the acronym
Background image: @chombosan /Adobe Stock
• Rabies will have an “L” (DA2LPP or DHLPP)
Source: American Animal Hospital Association: Vaccination Recommendations for General Practice
Adenovirus Type 2 and Adenovirus Type 1 (Hepatitis Vaccine)
Canine Adenovirus Type 2 (CAV-2) and Canine Adenovirus Type 1 (CAV-1) are related strains, although their
disease manifestations differ. CAV-2 infections can produce respiratory-type symptoms, including discharge
from the eyes and nose, while CAV-1 can cause abdominal pain and vomiting. Both strains are highly
contagious viruses, which are usually spread to a susceptible dog by contact with an infected individual’s
urine, stool or saliva. The DHPP vaccine contains the CAV-1 strain, aka Canine Infectious Hepatitis. The
DA2PP vaccine contains the CAV-2 strain, which also cross protects against CAV-1.174
174 Creevy, K. E., DVM, MS, DACVIM. (n.d.). Overview of Infectious Canine Hepatitis - Generalized Conditions. Retrieved January 13, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/infectious-canine-hepatitis/overview-of-
infectious-canine-hepatitis
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Distemper
Distemper is the “D” in the canine DHPP vaccine. Spread through the air and contact with infected bodily
fluids, Canine Distemper is a highly contagious viral disease that affects mostly dogs between four months
and four years of age. Symptoms can include dullness and redness of the eye, nasal discharge, vomiting
and diarrhea, coughing, fever, loss of appetite and energy, weight loss, seizures, “chewing gum fits” in
which a dog appears as though she is chewing gum, and thickened foot pads. Distemper is frequently
fatal. If a dog survives, she could live out the remainder of her life with neurological problems, such as
seizures or permanent brain and nerve damage. Vaccinating against this virus is vital, as treatments are
not very effective.175
Vaccine Types
Recombinant (aka subunit or virus-vectored): contains

selected portions of a disease-causing pathogen’s DNA
or RNA to help produce an immune response.
Example: Recombinant Canine Distemper Virus vaccine
Modified-live (aka attenuated): contains an altered or

weakened disease pathogen or is the actual pathogen
rendered inactive. This type of vaccination is known
to create a strong and long-lasting immune response.
Examples: most Canine Distemper and all Canine
Parvovirus and Adenovirus-2 vaccines. Maksym Yemelyanov/Adobe Stock
Killed (aka inactivated): contains a killed or inactivated disease-causing pathogen, making it

safe for injection.
Examples: all Canine Influenza (H3N8, H3N2), Canine Rabies and Leptospirosis vaccines
Toxiod: made from selected toxins (proteins) that have been rendered harmless yet are still
able to induce an immune response. Example: Western Diamond rattlesnake vaccine
Source: American Animal Hospital Association: Vaccine Types (September 5, 2017)
175 Creevy, K. E., DVM, MS, DACVIM. (n.d.). Canine Distemper Overview - Generalized Conditions. Retrieved January 13, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/canine-distemper/canine-distemper-overview
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Parvovirus
One of the “Ps” in the DHPP or DA2PP vaccine, parvo, is a highly contagious, potentially fatal, acute disease
caused by a virus that attacks the lining of the small intestine of all canines. Puppies are especially susceptible,
but geriatric or immune-compromised dogs are also vulnerable to this disease. The virus is passed through
the infected stool of one canine to another. Vomiting, a very distinct bloody diarrhea, fever and dehydration
are common symptoms. In young puppies, it can also affect the heart. Early diagnosis and treatment are
critical, as parvo can be fatal.176
Parainfluenza Virus
The other “P” component in the DHPP or DA2PP vaccine,
parainfluenza virus is one of the causes of kennel cough (canine
infectious tracheobronchitis). It produces a mild respiratory tract
infection and is spread through the nasal discharge of infected
animals. It is highly contagious because the virus is airborne,
meaning it is transmitted by the sneezing or coughing of an
infected dog. The most common sign is a harsh dry cough, which As an airborne virus, parainfluenza is
easily spread by coughing or sneezing.
Dogs/Adobe Stock
could be followed by retching or gagging; loss of appetite could
also occur. More severe signs, such as nasal discharge, lethargy,
fever and a productive cough usually indicate an additional infection, such as Canine Distemper Virus or
Adenovirus Type-2. In most cases, there is a history of contact with other dogs who carried the virus. The
vaccine is only available in the DA2(L)PP or DH(L)PP combination.177, 178
Leptospirosis
The “L” in the DHLPP or DA2LPP vaccine, the addition of leptospirosis varies depending on regional risk
factors; it is more common in areas with warm climates and high annual rainfall. Outdoor and working
dogs in rural areas are more at risk due to exposure to or drinking from rivers, lakes or streams; exposure to
potentially infected wildlife or farm animals; and contact with rodents or other dogs.179
176 AVMA. (n.d.). Canine Parvovirus. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://www.avma.org/public/PetCare/Pages/canine-parvovirus.aspx
177 Kuehn, N. F., DVM, MS, DACVIM, Dyer, N. W., DVM, MS, DACVP, Hauptman, J., DVM, MS, DACVS, et al. (n.d.). Tracheobronchitis (Bronchitis) in Dogs - Dog Owners. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/
dog-owners/lung-and-airway-disorders-of-dogs/tracheobronchitis-bronchitis-in-dogs#v3206765
178 McCurnin, D. M., & Bassert, J. M. (2017). Clinical textbook for veterinary technicians (Eighth ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
179 AVMA. (2017, February 15). Leptospirosis. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://www.avma.org/public/PetCare/Pages/Leptospirosis.aspx
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Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis, meaning it can
be passed on to humans from their dog, although
that risk is low. Dogs can become infected if their
mucous membranes or an open skin wound come
in contact with infected urine, urine-contaminated
soil, water, food or bedding; are bitten by an
infected animal or eat infected tissues or carcasses.

Dogs who have frequent exposure to rodents,
The bacterium attacks the kidneys and liver and such as mice or rats, are at risk for contacting
Leptospirosis if they are bitten by or eat infected
is commonly misdiagnosed as a kidney infection. wildlife and should be vaccinated against it.
wichatsurin/Adobe Stock
Signs can range from loss of appetite and excessive
water consumption to vomiting and jaundice.180
Rabies
Almost every U.S. state requires dogs to be
vaccinated against rabies, a zoonotic virus spread
through saliva and typically transmitted through a
bite of an infected animal. Rabies is an extremely
dangerous, fatal disease; there is no treatment and
it is contagious to all mammals, including humans.

181
The first rabies vaccination is generally given
between 12 and 16 weeks of age; a second does

The most common way an unvaccinated dog could
is required within one year of the initial vaccine.
contract rabies is through contact with infected
raccoons, skunks, foxes and/or bats.1
Booster shots are often administered every three wichatsurin/Adobe Stock
years thereafter. However, local governments might 1 PetMD. (n.d.). Rabies in Dogs. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/neurological/c_
multi_rabies?page=show
require more frequent boosters (e.g., yearly or every
2 years) if the area is considered high-risk.182
180 AVMA. (2017, February 15). Leptospirosis. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://www.avma.org/public/PetCare/Pages/Leptospirosis.aspx
181 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, September 28). Rabies. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/
182 American Animal Hospital Association. (2017, September 5). Vaccination Recommendations for General Practice. Retrieved January 13, 2018, from https://www.aaha.org/guidelines/canine_vaccination_guidelines/practice_vaccination.aspx
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It’s important to note that in the U.S., rabies vaccination laws vary by state, county and/or municipality.
Legal variations can include which animal species are required to receive rabies vaccination, the earliest
age at which animals may be vaccinated, the frequency of vaccination, and who is permitted to administer
the vaccine. The American Veterinarian Medical Association maintains a list of all current rabies laws by
state on its website at https://www.avma.org/Advocacy/StateAndLocal/Pages/rabies-vaccination.aspx.
Bordetella Bronchiseptica
Bordetella is one of the main causes of kennel cough, along
University of Prince Edward Island

with Parainfluenza Virus and Adenovirus Type 2. Bordetella
bronchiseptica is a highly infectious bacterium (image right)
that causes tracheobronchitis in dogs. As the name implies, it
typically affects the trachea and bronchi, causing inflammation.
The symptoms include a dry hacking cough (most common),
retching and watery nasal discharge.183
In mild cases, dogs will likely be active and eating normally. In severe cases, progressive symptoms can
include lack of appetite, fever, lethargy and a productive cough. Unvaccinated puppies, young dogs or
immunocompromised dogs might experience the most severe symptoms.184
Borrelia Burgdorferi: Canine Lyme Disease

Borrelia burgdorferi is a spirochete bacteria that causes Lyme disease. It is usually transmitted to dogs—and
humans— through the bite of certain infected tick species.185 Depending on your region, the risk of Lyme
disease is either very low or very high and can often be thwarted by preventing exposure rather than by
vaccination. In addition, most infected dogs show no clinical signs, and the majority who contract Lyme
disease respond to treatment with antimicrobials.186, 187
185 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, January 19). Lyme Disease. Retrieved July 3, 2018, from https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/index.html
186 American Animal Hospital Association. (2017, September 5). Vaccination Recommendations for General Practice. Retrieved January 13, 2018, from https://www.aaha.org/guidelines/canine_vaccination_guidelines/practice_vaccination.aspx
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Common Canine Health Problems

The following is a short list of other common canine health problems that all professional trainers should
become familiar with.
Important Note: While it is essential for knowledgeable professionals to be familiar with and have a basic
understanding of common canine ailments, as a dog trainer you must never give veterinary advice. If you
can identify warning signs of potential canine health problems, advising a client to seek out a qualified
veterinarian could save a dog’s life—or allow her to enjoy a better quality of life.
Bacterial Cystitis
Bacterial cystitis is bladder infection that can be
caused by a variety of bacteria; it occurs in both
male and female dogs, although the latter are more
prone to it. Signs of infection include frequent,
difficult or painful urination and there may be blood
in the urine.188
Cystitis is a frequent cause for inappropriate
urination. It can cause puppies and previously

Cystitis can cause even well-trained puppies and dogs
housetrained dogs to have accidents indoors to have elimination accidents. If an owner is dealing
with this problem he should first take his dog to a
and in their crates. When clients have a difficult veterinarian for an exam to rule out medical issues.
ulkas/Adobe Stock
time housetraining their dogs, refer them to
their veterinarian for a thorough exam, including
urinalysis, before addressing the issue with
behavior modification.189
189 ASPCA Virtual Pet Behaviorist. (2014). Medical Causes of House Soiling in Dogs. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://pets.webmd.com/dogs/guide/medical-causes-house-soiling-dogs#1
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Urinary Stones
Urinary stones (uroliths) are formed from naturally occurring
Om Yos/Adobe Stock
mineral salts and can appear anywhere in the system, including
kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. (The image to the right shows
small kidney stones.) There are many different types and can occur
depending on a variety of conditions, such as urine pH and/or
concentration. Diet, digestion, medication and genetics also play
a role. Small stones usually do not cause any noticeable signs,
while larger ones can cause blood in the urine and painful, slow or no urination. If a stone blocks a ureter,
symptoms can include vomiting, tiredness, and abdominal pain near the kidneys, especially if both ureters
are completely blocked. If only one side is blocked, pain might be the only symptom, which can be difficult
to detect in dogs.190, 191
Tumors
Tumors are abnormal growths of cells; they can be benign or
chalabala/Adobe Stock
malignant (cancerous). The most frequently seen tumors in
dogs are those that affect the skin or the tissue just under the
skin. The most common being lipomas: benign tumors that
consist of excess fatty tissue. Even though they are benign,
lipomas should not be ignored; nor should any unusual growth
or lump. Owners should always take their dog to a veterinarian
whenever they discover unusual lumps or growths.192
190 Fitzgerald, S. D., DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV, Sanderson, S. L., BS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, DACVN., et al. (n.d.). Noninfectious Diseases of the Urinary System in Dogs - Dog Owners. Retrieved January 18, 2018, from https://www.
merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders-of-dogs/noninfectious-diseases-of-the-urinary-system-in-dogs
192 Moriello, K. A., DVM, DACVD, Dryden, M. W., DVM, PhD, DACVM, et al. (n.d.). Tumors of the Skin in Dogs - Dog Owners. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/skin-disorders-of-dogs/tumors-
of-the-skin-in-dogs
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External and Internal Parasites

Parasites, in general, can be a problem for every living organism. If it is alive, something else has learned to feed
from it. Parasites can be bothersome and even life-threatening. Some live topically on the skin; others internally
within the body of the host (infected) animal. Parasites can also be zoonotic. External parasites include fleas,
ticks and mites. Internal parasites include heartworms, hookworms, roundworms, and tapeworms.
Fleas
Fleas, the most common external parasite, can be more than
ThamKC/Adobe Stock
just a nuisance: they can transmit diseases, including tapeworm
infections, and cause allergies or anemia. Fleas may also bite
humans and other pets; allergic reactions in both dogs and
humans are not uncommon. Signs of flea infestation include
excessive scratching and hair loss. Fleas can be eliminated
and prevented with over-the-counter products, such as dog-
specific topical preventatives (image right). Refer dog owners to a veterinarian for advice.193
Ticks
Ticks are blood-sucking parasites that attach themselves
to dogs (and humans). In addition to transmitting
serious diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever
and Lyme disease, ticks also release harm-causing toxins.
Severe infestations can lead to anemia and death. Ticks
will attach to whatever part of the body provides food.
They will continue to feed until they are engorged, at

Owners should always thoroughly check their
which point they drop off.194 If you are training in an area dogs for ticks if they spend any time in an area
where the parasites are known to be present.
where ticks are prevalent, instruct your clients to inspect DoraZett/Adobe Stock
their dogs daily for these parasites. Additionally, have
owners speak to a veterinarian for proper tick-control
remedies, such as topical preventatives.
193 Moriello, K. A., DVM, DACVD, Dryden, M. W., DVM, PhD, DACVM, et al. (n.d.). Fleas of Dogs - Dog Owners. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/skin-disorders-of-dogs/fleas-of-dogs
194 Moriello, K. A., DVM, DACVD, Dryden, M. W., DVM, PhD, DACVM, et al. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/skin-disorders-of-dogs/ticks-of-dogs
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Ear Mites
Otodectes cynotis mites infest the external part of a dog’s
lalalululala/Adobe Stock
ears, including the canals. Symptoms include vigorous head
shaking and ear scratching (image right) and dark, crumbly
reddish-brown discharge that resembles coffee grounds. They
will sometimes moan and/or whimper in discomfort when
doing so. Ear mites can spread from animal to animal and are
sometimes visible to the naked eye, appearing as tiny white
specks. Infested dogs should be referred to a veterinarian.195
Sarcoptes Scabiei Mites

These mites burrow beneath the skin, causing canine scabies, which is also known as sarcoptic mange. It is
highly contagious and can spread rapidly between dogs and also affect humans. Initial symptoms include
small, solid bumps on the skin, followed by intense scratching that results in thick crusted sores, especially
on and around the abdomen, chest, ears, elbows and legs. If untreated, a dog’s entire body can become
infected. Dogs suspected of having scabies should be taken to a veterinarian as soon as possible.196
Demodex Canis Mites

These mites also cause mange; however this type is not contagious
to other dogs or humans. Demodetic mange (canine demodicosis)
symptons include intense itching, hair loss, red or dark skin and
inflamed footpads. Demodex canis mites live symbiotically in
the hair follicles and sebaceous glands of all dogs. However, if a
dog’s immune response is suppressed, these mites can rapidly
reproduce, causing inflammation and hair loss. In dogs under 2
years of age, this condition is localized (i.e., not found on the entire
An extensive case of demodetic mange
body) and is easier to treat. Dogs with demodectic mange can still can cause a nearly total loss of fur.
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participate in any group activities.197

195 AKC Staff. (2016, February 23). Ear Mites In Dogs: What Owners Need To Know – American Kennel Club. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from http://www.akc.org/expert-advice/health/common-conditions/ear-mites-in-dogs/
196 Moriello, K. A., DVM, DACVD, Dryden, M. W., DVM, PhD, DACVM, et al. (n.d.). Mite Infestation (Mange, Acariasis, Scabies) in Dogs - Dog Owners. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/skin-disorders-
of-dogs/mite-infestation-mange,-acariasis,-scabies-in-dogs#v3207302
197 Moriello, K. A., DVM, DACVD, Dryden, M. W., DVM, PhD, DACVM, et al. (n.d.). Mite Infestation (Mange, Acariasis, Scabies) in Dogs - Dog Owners. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/skin-disorders-
of-dogs/mite-infestation-mange,-acariasis,-scabies-in-dogs#v3207302
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Heartworms
Heartworms enter a dog’s system by way of a bite from
an infected mosquito. These organisms travel through
the bloodstream and mature in a dog’s heart. They can
reach up to 12 inches in length. Infected dogs will tire
easily and suffer from chronic coughing and weight
loss. However, symptoms might not be apparent in
sedentary dogs, which is why annual screening is
recommended Heartworm infections can be life-
threatening if left untreated. Preventative medication
is available at veterinary hospitals and some over-the-

There are approximately 30 mosquito species that
counter topical parasite preventatives for dogs also can transmit heartworms to a dog, which is why
the parasites can be found in dogs worldwide.1
taaree/Adobe Stock
control heartworms. Dogs suspected of being infected
1 Ward, E., DVM. (n.d.). Heartworm Disease in Dogs. Retrieved May 31, 2018, from https://vcahospitals.com/know-
should be immediately taken to a veterinarian.198 your-pet/heartworm-disease-in-dogs
Hookworms, Roundworms & Tapeworms

Hookworms, roundworms and tapeworms are gastrointestinal parasites that commonly infest in puppies,
although they can occur in dogs of all ages. Tapeworms are contracted by dogs from fleas or prey infected
with them. Infective segments of tapeworms or tapeworm “eggs” resemble grains of rice, and can be seen
in the feces of an infected dog. Tapeworm infection usually goes undetected unless their eggs are noticed,
but it can cause a variety of clinical signs, such as weight loss, malaise and lethargy, as well as vomiting,
diarrhea or intestinal blockage. 199, 200
Roundworms, like tapeworms, pillage nutrients from their host and can cause nutritional deficiencies, which
will result in clinical signs such as weight loss, lethargy, poor coat condition, etc. Vomiting and diarrhea can
also result from an infection and, if there is a high number of roundworms, the infected puppy or dog can
also have a pot-bellied appearance or suffer from an intestinal blockage.201, 202
198 Atkins, C., DVM, DACVIM. (n.d.). Overview of Heartworm Disease - Circulatory System. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/circulatory-system/heartworm-disease/overview-of-heartworm-disease
199 Scanes, C. (2011). Fundamentals of Animal Science. Clifton Park, NY: Cengage Learning.
200 Allen, D. G., DVM, MSc, DACVIM, Moore, L. E., DVM, DACVIM, et al. (n.d.). Gastrointestinal Parasites of Dogs - Dog Owners. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/dog-owners/digestive-disorders-of-dogs/
gastrointestinal-parasites-of-dogs
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As the name implies, hookworms use mouth parts (image right)
Kateryna_Kon/Adobe Stock
to hook onto the intestines of an infected animal. In addition
to consuming nutrients from their hosts’ digestive tracts and
causing similar clinical signs to tapeworms and roundworms,
hookworms also cause blood loss that can leave a dog anemic.
If diarrhea occurs, it will often be dark and tarry.203, 204
Caution should be used when dealing with a dog who has
these parasites, as they are zoonotic. Encourage owners to
speak to a veterinarian about internal parasite prevention.
Fun (?) Facts

² Most flea-infested dogs have cat fleas (Ctenocephalides
felis), not dog fleas (Ctenocephalides cani).1
² Ticks and mites are not insects; they are arachnids

(count their legs). They are related to spiders and
scorpions.2
² All ticks are mites, but not all mites are ticks.3
1 Moriello, K. A., DVM, DACVD, Dryden, M. W., DVM, PhD, DACVM, et al. (n.d.). Fleas of Dogs - Dog Owners. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.merckvetmanual.
com/dog-owners/skin-disorders-of-dogs/fleas-of-dogs
2 PetMD. (n.d.). 10 Facts about Ticks. Retrieved May 31, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/general-health/evr_multi_10facts_about_ticks
3 IdentifyUS. (n.d.). What are ticks? Retrieved May 31, 2018, from https://identify.us.com/idmybug/ticks/tick-FAQS/what-are-ticks.html
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Canine Anatomy & Physiology
I
n addition to knowing about basic canine health,
decade3d/Adobe Stock
you should also be conversant in several aspects
of canine anatomy and physiology, including a
dog’s external structure and sensory perception, as
well as genetics and inheritable traits and diseases.
And while you will probably not be involved in the
specifics of canine breeding, you should know, at
minimum, the effects a pregnant dog could have on
a training class. The more knowledge you acquire
about dogs, the better trainer you can become.
Canine External Anatomy

As a Certified Dog Trainer, it’s beneficial to know canine
external anatomy or structure. When interpreting
canine body language, you will observe specific
aspects of a dog’s body and its movement, especially
the face, ears and tail. Additionally, knowing what to
call various body parts is essential to understanding
the AKC’s breed standard for specific dogs. Being aware
of structure and movement also helps to identify gait
abnormalities. All dog professionals, especially show

Knowing how a dog’s body is put together enthusiasts, use these terms as reference points.205
and how it moves can help you detect any
abnormalities in her gait, which could indicate a
medical issue such as an injury or other ailments.
hemlep/Adobe Stock
205 Battaglia, C. L., PhD. (2014, June). Structure And Movement – Preparation Meets Opportunity. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from http://caninechronicle.com/current-articles/structure-and-movement-preparation-meets-opportunity/
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You should observe dogs and mentally make note of their external anatomy points. With heavily coated
dogs (those with long double coats), some features will be hidden; however, if a dog is comfortable with
you doing so, you could lightly touch her to familiarize yourself with each point. By taking the time to
identify and observe dogs with different body structures, you will see a great deal of variations. Some will
have docked, curled, long or short tails; some will have cropped; pricked (e.g., German Shepard Dogs) floppy
(e.g., Rottweilers) or rose ears (e.g., Whippets).
Forehead
Crest
Ear
Canine External Anatomy
Stop
Nose Ruff Withers
Muzzle
Back Loin Croup Tail
Mouth
Flew
Throat
Shoulder
Point of Shoulder Rump
Brisket
Belly
Thigh
Forearms Elbow Stifle
Hock
Pastern
Paws
Paws
Erik Lam/Adobe Stock
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Canine Sensory Perception

Dogs have the same five senses that humans do: smell, hearing, sight, taste and touch. However, their
abilities to smell and hear are superior to ours, while their sight and taste are considered inferior.
Smell
1stGallery/Adobe Stock
Dogs are sniffing machines; they are built for it. A dog’s
sense of smell is 10,000 to 100,000 times more accurate
than a human’s. This is due, in part, to their number of
olfactory receptors; 300 million versus human’s 6 million.
Dogs are able to detect in which direction a scent is due to
their noses’ anatomy; their nostrils’ size and distance apart
enable them to inhale from two distinct areas of space.206
And when they exhale, they do so through slits located on each side of their nostrils, which in turn pulls in
fresh air. This allows dogs to smell more or less continuously. Dogs also have a scent organ that humans do
not. The vomeronasal organ’s main purpose is to detect pheromones, which indicate mating readiness and
other related states.207
Some dogs were bred to gather scent, such as
Bassets and Bloodhounds. Their long hanging ears
and skin disturb and gather scent. Because of their
extraordinary ability, dogs have been trained to
use their sense of smell to identify low blood sugar,
seizures and cancers in humans, as well as gluten in
foods or on utensils that might have residue from
containing-gluten food.208
A Bloodhound’s long ears and loose jowls help her
gather a scent a she’s tracking through the woods.
chinook203/Adobe Stock
206 Tyson, P. (2012, October 04). Dogs’ Dazzling Sense of Smell. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/dogs-sense-of-smell.html
207 Williams, C. (2011, August 17). Crittervision: What a dog’s nose knows. Retrieved from https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21128262-000-crittervision-what-a-dogs-nose-knows/
208 Whiteman, H. (2013, November 20). Medical detection dogs: How they could save our lives in a sniff. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/269099.php
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Dogs need to use their sense of smell, that’s why it’s so important for them to sniff during walks. Next time
a dog sniffs the air, you could ponder what she is sensing and from how far away.209
Hearing
Dogs also have a great sense of hearing (although not as good
michaelhansen/Adobe Stock
as cats). Their hearing range is between 67 and 45,000 Hertz
(human’s is 20 to 23,000Hz). They also have slightly greater sound
sensitivity; i.e., they can hear softer sounds. Dogs can also move
their ears independently; 18 ear muscles enable dogs to rotate
and tilt them toward a sound.210
Their hearing ability is also dependent on ear shape. For example,
German Shepherds do not have flaps that completely cover the
ear canal, compared to Cocker Spaniels whose flaps do. This is why
dogs tilt their heads and rotate their ears; they are compensating
for ear flap interference.211, 212
Those movable ears provide another advantage. By moving one ear and then the other, dogs can determine
in which direction a sound came from as well as how far away it is based on when each ear detected the
sound.213
209 Righetti, J., PhD. (n.d.). Why Do Dogs Sniff? Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.purina.com.au/dogs/behaviour/sniffing
210 Buzhardt, L., DVM. (n.d.). Why Dogs Tilt Their Heads. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/why-dogs-tilt-their-heads
211 Strain, G. M., PhD. (2015, September 18). DEAFNESS IN DOGS & CATS Information on Deafness Prevalence, Causes, & Management For Owners, Breeders, and Researchers. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/deaf.htm
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Sight
Dogs see things differently than humans do. For
decades, many assumed dogs only saw in black,
white and shades of gray, However, research
indicates that dogs can see colors, specifically
shades of blue, yellow and gray.214
We see more because our eyes have three types of
color receptors (called cones), while dogs only have
two, as do most mammals. However, dogs’ eyes—
and predators in general—have more rods, which
detect light and motion. Dogs are therefore able to
detect quick movement, such as a rodent scurrying
across a field, as well as see well in low light.215
Dogs have other advantages when it comes to sight.
Their eye position gives them greater peripheral What a dog sees versus was a human sees when it
comes to color. The top image is what a typical person
vision and their pupils’ ability to completely dilate sees: rich hues ranging from purples and blues to
greens and yellows to oranges and reds. The lower
allows more light in. A tapetum, a mirror-like image is an approximation of what a dog can see:
various shades of blues, yellows and grays.
structure in the back of the eye that bounces light Note: You can view the image in color online.
wichatsurin/Adobe Stock
waves back onto the retina, also increases their
ability to see in dim light. It also causes dogs eyes to glow in the dark.216
Taste
Dogs have a lesser sense of taste than humans do, but a greater one than cats. This is due to the number
of taste buds (receptors) each species has: Dogs have 1,700, humans have 9,000 and cats have 470. Dogs
have receptors for the basic five tastes—salt, sweet, bitter, sour and umami (savory)—however, their ability
to taste salt is the weakest.217
214 Buzhardt, L., DVM. (n.d.). Do Dogs See Color? Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/do-dogs-see-color
215 Stromberg, J. (2013, July 17). New Study Shows That Dogs Use Color Vision After All. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/new-study-shows-that-dogs-use-color-vision-after-all-13168563/
216 Buzhardt, L., DVM. (n.d.). Do Dogs See Color? Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/do-dogs-see-color
217 Lasbury, M. E., MS, MSEd, PhD. (2014, February 5). Cats Don’t Taste Sweet, But Dogs Taste Salty. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://biologicalexceptions.blogspot.com/2014/02/cats-dont-taste-sweet-but-dogs-taste.html
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They also have additional receptors for meats, fats and
meat-related chemicals; this is why dogs truly crave
meat. In addition, because meat-heavy diets are high in
salt, dogs (and most carnivores), evolved specific taste
receptors for water, which become even more sensitive
when salt is consumed. This helps ensure dogs drink
enough water to counterbalance their salt intake, which

Dogs’ desire for meat is due to their tongues:
can be dehydrating.218 they have more receptors that can taste
meats, meat chemical compounds and fats.
Touch
Before they can see or hear, puppies use touch to find
their mother for food and comfort. And throughout their
lives, dogs use physical contact with each other (and with
humans) as a form of communication. Dogs also primarily
use their face and snout to explore their world through
touch. These two areas have a high concentration of touch
receptors along with sensitive whiskers (vibrissae) on and
below the muzzle, and above the eyes. Dogs use their A dog’s whiskers are for more than just looks;
they are exploratory tools that help detect
whiskers the same way cats do; to detect the size, shape objects’ size, shape and movement.
and speed of things nearby. 219, 220, 221
Dogs typically enjoy certain touches, such as scratches along their rump, shoulders and chest, and alongside
their spine. When petting or scratching a dog, do so slowly and lightly, and only if she is comfortable with
it. Dogs tend to find pats on the head and around their face, or touching their feet very unpleasant. Some
dogs learn to enjoy head pats, but in general, most dislike them.222, 223
218 Coren, S., PhD. DSc, FRSC. (2011, April 19). How Good Is Your Dog’s Sense of Taste? Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201104/how-good-is-your-dogs-sense-taste
219 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). A Dog’s Sense of Touch. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/understanding-dogs/canine-senses/touch/
220 Kuhne, F., Hossler, J. C., & Struwe, R. (2012). Behavioural responses of dogs to dog-human social conflict situations. Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift, 125(9-10), 371-378. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://europepmc.org/
abstract/med/23045798
221 Voltolina, V. (n.d.). Why Do Dogs Have Whiskers? petMD Logo. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.petmd.com/dog/general-health/why-do-dogs-have-whiskers
222 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). A Dog’s Sense of Touch. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/understanding-dogs/canine-senses/touch/
223 Coren, S., PhD. DSc, FRSC. (2014, March 11). How to Touch Your Dog. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201403/how-touch-your-dog
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Canine Genetics
Adobe Stock
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is basically an instruction
manual for creating a living structure and is made up
of myriad combinations and sequences of four letters:
A, T, G, C. A complete set of DNA is called a genome,
which in dogs contains 2.8 billion pairs of letters (in
comparison, human DNA has 3.3 billion).224
Chromosomes are long strings of DNA; dogs have 39 pairs (humans have 23, cats 18). A dog gets one copy
of each chromosome from each parent. Genes are shorter strings of DNA, around 3,000 letters, which have
specific locations on a chromosome (or on mitochondrial DNA). Dogs have approximately 19,000 genes.
While genetics are important to reputable dog breeders, they are equally invaluable to dog trainers because
variations can not only affect a dog’s physicality but their behavior as well.225, 226
Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype is a dog’s collection of genes, which determine her phenotype: the observable characteristics of
her genes’ expression. When looking at a dog’s physical appearance, you are observing her phenotype, which
includes ear shape, eye color, muzzle length, shoulder and rear leg angulation, neck length, movement, etc.
A dog’s phenotype can also be influenced by her environment.227
While many might assume a breeding pair of dogs will pass on their exact phenotypes to their offspring, it
is each genotype that not only determines their puppies’ physical characteristics, but also behavioral ones.
Because a dog’s genotype cannot be observed with the naked eye (i.e., you cannot see the results of every
gene’s expression), breeders and owners should have their dogs’ DNA tested for inheritable problems. Many
genetic issues can be detected in a dog’s DNA. However, even though the domestic dog’s genome has been
mapped so that researchers know where every gene is, they are still figuring out many of those genes cause
diseases or health issues.228, 229
224 The Kennel Club. (n.d.). DNA, Genes and Chromosomes. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/health/for-breeders/understanding-canine-genetics/dna-genes-and-chromosomes/
225 Mulyasasmita, W. (2012, September 12). Other Genetic Principles: Do dogs have the same kind of DNA as humans? Retrieved January 19, 2018, from http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/dog-vs-human-dna
226 National Human Genome Research Institute. (2018, February 13). Canine Genome Summary. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://research.nhgri.nih.gov/dog_genome/canine_genome.shtml
227 University of California Museum of Paleontology. (n.d.). Understanding Evolution: Genotype versus phenotype. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01
228 National Human Genome Research Institute. (2018, February 13). Canine Genome Summary. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://research.nhgri.nih.gov/dog_genome/canine_genome.shtml
229 Mulyasasmita, W. (2012, September 12). Other Genetic Principles: Do dogs have the same kind of DNA as humans? Retrieved January 19, 2018, from http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/dog-vs-human-dna
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Innate and Learned Behavior

Genetics is essential to understanding canine behavior. While it’s difficult to determine the exact cause
of a specific behavior, some are innate (i.e., instinctual). This means that specific behaviors are hardwired
(i.e., genetically determined) to dogs as a species, as well as to specific dogs and/or breeds.230 Innate dog
behaviors include vocalizing, chewing, squatting to urinate, drooling for food, etc. Some breeds have
specific innate behaviors, too, such as terriers digging, herding dogs corralling sheep or pointers directing
hunters toward game. All of these behaviors occur without thought; they are instinctual.231
A Russian Study
Domesticated dogs have changed greatly over the last few centuries. Dogs were—and continue
to be—bred to specific breed standards, hence the differences between a Great Dane and
Pekingese. Breeding for one specific trait (such as a behavior characteristic) can affect others,
such as appearance.
In the later 1950s, Dmitry K. Belyaev, a Russian geneticist,

set out to create a tame fox population (image right).
Belyaev selected and bred foxes that were docile around
humans. They and their offspring were never socialized
to humans; they lived outdoors in cages. By the fourth
generation, the researchers started to see dramatic
changes: The fox cubs were beginning to behave more
like dogs. The process was surprisingly quick.
“As a result of such rigorous selection, offspring

exhibiting the aggressive and fear avoidance responses
were eliminated from the experimental population in just
two to three generations of selection,” Lyudmila Trut, who started out as Belyaev’s intern, wrote
in a study published in 2009.
While the foxes’ behavior changed; so did their observable characteristics: their muzzle, tail,
upper jaw and legs shortened, the skull widened and ears started to droop and their fur changed
colors drastically (large white patches appeared). Belyaev died in 1985, but the project is still
ongoing.
This study demonstrates the consequences of selecting for certain traits, such as behavior, and
seeing changes in others, such as physical appearance.
Source: BBC Earth: A Soviet scientist created the only tame foxes in the world.
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160912-a-soviet-scientist-created-the-only-tame-foxes-in-the-world>
230 Breed, M. & Sanchez, L. (2010) Both Environment and Genetic Makeup Influence Behavior. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):68
231 Ostrander, E. A., & Wayne, R. K. (2005). The canine genome. Genome Research, 15(12), 1706-1716. doi: 10.1101/gr.3736605
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Learned behaviors are those that are acquired
through interaction with the environment and
their resulting consequences—they are not
instinctual.232 Dogs can learn that barking at scary
strangers makes them go away, that cats have
sharp claws, and/or that chasing bicycles can be
dangerous; these learned behaviors are essential
to their survival. Teaching dogs polite manners are
examples of learned behaviors, too, as humans are Digging is an innate (i.e., instinctual) behavior for
terriers, as this Jack Russell is happily demonstrating.
Timothy/Adobe Stock
part of their environment.
When conducting private lessons or group classes,
distinguish between innate and learned behavior to
clients. Innate behaviors can be managed, which means
they will not go away but can be reduced by changing
a dog’s environment; these behaviors are genetic. As
an example, terriers like to dig. It’s impossible to stop
their instinctual urge, so it’s best to provide a digging
pit with hidden treats in the backyard. This prevents
(manages) a dog from digging in leather furniture or
flowerbeds, while providing a way to safely satisfy her
A dog who knows she will get to go outside for a innate behavior.
walk until she is waiting patiently (and quietly) by
the door is an example of a learned behavior.
Javier brosch/Adobe Stock You should also consider a dog’s genetic predisposition
(e.g., breed temperament), which can be affected either
positively or negatively. While many might assume
a dog’s reaction (such as fear or aggression) is due to
neglect or abuse, it just might be genetic.
232 Breed, M. & Sanchez, L. (2010) Both Environment and Genetic Makeup Influence Behavior. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):68
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Congenital Diseases and Disorders

Congenital diseases and disorders are inherited from parents and grandparents; they are present before
or at birth. For many purebred and mixed-breed dogs, a congenital disease or disorder will manifest at
some point in their lifetime, even as young puppies. Many congenital diseases cause extreme pain and are
deadly, that’s why is vital that afflicted dogs are removed from a breeding program.233
Canine hip dysplasia is the most commonly
inherited orthopedic disease in dogs. It is a
common source of lameness, especially in large
dogs. Basically, a dysplastic dog has an abnormal
hip joint. Symptoms can appear as early as 4 to
9 months of age and include hip pain, a limp or
swaying gait, difficulty rising from a sitting or lying
position, and a lack of endurance. Dogs with this
disease tend to develop arthritis of the hip joint. To German Shepherds are genetically predisposed
to hip dysplasia, which can result in permanent
alleviate some of these symptoms, weight control osteoarthritis that in turn causes debilitating pain.
jodi mcgee/Adobe Stock
and curtailing the amount of exercise a dysplastic
dog gets are helpful, as is, keeping her living area warm and dry. Surgery can also be an option. If a clients’
dog behavior suddenly becomes aggressive, refer him to a veterinarian immediately. Many dogs display
aggressive behavior when they are in pain; always rule out medical issues first.234, 235
The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) maintains a database whose purpose is to lower the
incidence of inherited disease and improve the overall health of companion animals. Covering all dog and
cat breeds, it helps breeders improve animals’ genetic health through better breeding practices. Within
this vast database, breeders can research specific dog or cat health clearances before deciding to breed
a litter. Dog owners can also research parents, grandparents and great grandparents’ health clearances
before purchasing a specific puppy.236
233 Ostrander, E. A., & Wayne, R. K. (2005). The canine genome. Genome Research, 15(12), 1706-1716. doi:10.1101/gr.3736605; Retrieved on 2018, May 10, from https://genome.cshlp.org/content/15/12/1706.full
234 Orthopedic Foundation for Animals. (n.d.). Hip Dysplasia in Dogs. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://www.ofa.org/diseases/hip-dysplasia
235 Antech Imaging Services. (n.d.). Introduction to Hip Dysplasia. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://info.antechimagingservices.com/pennhip/navigation/hipDysplasia/introduction.html
236 Orthopedic Foundation for Animals. (n.d.). Who We Are - The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA). Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://www.ofa.org/about
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In addition, the OFA evaluates X-rays and tests blood and DNA samples for numerous inherited diseases.
It is generally a good rule to never purchase a purebred dog unless the parents, grandparents and great
grandparents have been evaluated by the OFA and found to be free of any inherited disease or disorder. As
such, reputable dog breeders will not consider allowing a female to have puppies before both parents have
been evaluated and OFA certified.237
OFA certifications include hip and elbow dysplasia; heart, thyroid and eye health; shoulder osteochondrosis
and much more. To get OFA results sent to the AKC for inclusion in pedigrees, a dog must be permanently
identified—either by tattoo or microchip. These tests are not a guarantee a puppy will be free of defects;
however, breeders can limit, reduce or eliminate defects in multiple generations.238
The OFA will not certify dogs younger than 2 years of age for certain health clearances that might not appear
in younger puppies.239 However, Antech Diagnostics Inc.’s PennHip Program , can certify hips in dogs as
young as 16 weeks. The text must be performed by certified veterinarians who have completed specialized
training and quality-control exercises.240 For more information, visit https://info.antechimagingservices.
com/pennhip/index.html
Proper breeding is a practice that requires much
study, care and consideration. Reputable breeders
study pedigrees, belong to parent breed clubs,
follow strict breeding guidelines per those clubs
and compete in conformation shows. Using the
OFA database, they selectively breed for the
betterment of the dogs. Reputable breeders also
do health testing, which cannot occur until a canine
has reached 2 years of age. Additionally, they offer A reputable breeder will match breeding pairs to
ensure their offspring are as free as possible from
lifetime contracts and will always take back a puppy potential genetically inheritable health issues.
Grigorita Ko/Adobe Stock
or adult dog.241
237 Orthopedic Foundation for Animals. (n.d.). Why OFA? Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://www.ofa.org/why-ofa
238 Orthopedic Foundation for Animals. (n.d.). CHIC Program. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://www.ofa.org/about/chic-program
239 Orthopedic Foundation for Animals. (n.d.). Hip Dysplasia in Dogs. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://www.ofa.org/diseases/hip-dysplasia
240 Antech Imaging Services. (n.d.). PennHIP. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://info.antechimagingservices.com/pennhip/
241 American Kennel Club. (2014, December 19). Responsible Breeders – American Kennel Club. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/press-center/articles/responsible-breeders/
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Canine Reproduction
As a trainer you will most likely have limited exposure to
breeding canines, however you might have a pregnant
dog in a training class. Use your best judgment to
determine if the class is the best learning situation for
the dog. You should also take into consideration how far
along she is. As stated early in this stage, a pregnancy
typically lasts between 59 to 65 days. Pregnant dogs

Pregnant dogs who are very near their delivery
should not engage in any difficult activity 2 weeks prior date, such as this Dogue de Bordeaux, should not
engage in any strenuous activity.
to expected delivery.242 jandix2/Adobe Stock
The age at which a dog reaches sexual maturity depends on the breed. Large breeds tend to mature slower
than small ones. In general, male puppies usually become fertile after 6 months of age and reach mature
fertility by 12 to 15 months. Sexually mature males can remain active and fertile up to 8 to 10 years of age.
During this fertility period , a male is able to mate at any time.243
Females, however, have specific periods (known as in heat or in season) during which they are fertile and
will accept a male. The heat cycle is divided into two active periods: proestrus and estrus and two inactive:
diestrus and anestrus. Proestrus is the period during which a female is attractive to males. There is vaginal
discharge and the vulva is swollen. Proestrus lasts approximately 9 days (the range is 3 to 17 days). During
this time, a female will not allow coitus or any attempt of it by a male. Estrus also lasts approximately 9 days
(range is 3 to 18 days), during which a female will accept a male. Ovulation usually occurs within the first
48 hours, although it can vary. Fertilization takes place during this period.244
Diestrus, which follows estrus, is when the female will no longer accept a male and typically lasts just
under 60 days. Anestrus is the period between the end of diestrus and the next proestrus cycle; it lasts
approximately 4 months. In total, an active heat cycle lasts, on average, between 12 and 21 days. Most
females come into season approximately twice a year. 245
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In-Heat Dogs in Training Classes

When a female is in heat, neutered dogs can be somewhat
confused by the scents they are not able to identify as sexual
stimulants. Intact males can easily identify when a bitch is
coming into season. The closer she comes to her target breeding
period, the more adamant an intact male will be about getting
close to her. At this point, a normally docile male could display
some aggressive behavior (growling, lunging, biting). A female

If all of the male dogs in a training class
will often flirt with males when she is at her prime breeding are neutered, you could allow a female dog
who is in heat to participate.
elen31/Adobe Stock
point. When she is not, she is often moody and does not want
males near her rear-end. She might display aggressive behavior to prevent a potential breeding situation.246
If you have no intact males in class, it is reasonable to allow a female in heat to participate, provided she
wears an appropriate sanitary garment that completely covers the genital area. If there are intact males in
class, they should be kept as far away from her as possible. If aggression issues arise, you should excuse the
female from class. Safety must always be your first concern. Remember it is not just the female dog who will
be affected by her hormones. If necessary, reschedule her training for when she is no longer in heat.
Neutering
If clients have intact dogs, you could suggest they discuss
neutering with a veterinarian. There are health benefits to
altering canines. Females experience a reduction in mammary
cancer and an elimination of pyometra (a uterine infection).
In males, testicular and prostatic diseases are prevented.247
In addition, some aggressive and/or dominant behaviors
are reduced in males; estrus-induced interdog aggression

Neutering dogs helps shelters by reducing
is eliminated in females. 248
Of equal importance, neutering the number of potential intakes, which in
turn lessens the euthanasia rate.
reduces the pet overpopulation problem.249 agnormark/Adobe Stock
247 Warnes, C., MSc CCAB MRCVS. (2018). An update on the risks and benefits of neutering in dogs. The Veterinary Nurse, 9(3), 150-155. doi:10.12968/vetn.2018.9.3.150
249 Costa, E. D., Martins, C. M., et al. (2017). Impact of a 3-year pet management program on pet population and owner’s perception. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 139, 33-41. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.01.001
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Recommended Reading
K9 Structure and Terminology

Authors: Edward Gilbert, Jr. & Thelma Brown
Published by Howell Book House; 1st edition (December 1, 1995)
Written for the lay person, this detailed guide combines art and science to illustrate, describe
and explain canine anatomical structures
Dog Anatomy: A Coloring Atlas

Authors: Dr. Robert A. Kainer DVM, MS & Thomas O. McCracken, MS
Published by Teton NewMedia; spiral-bound edition (September 26, 2002)
Dog trainers, breeders and show judges can benefit from this canine anatomy coloring atlas,
which explains anatomic and physiologic concepts and discusses diseases common to each
region.
Inside of a Dog: What Dogs See, Smell, and Know

Author: Alexandra Horowitz
Published by Scribner; trade paperback edition (September 28, 2010)
The author introduces readers to dogs’ perceptual and cognitive abilities and then draws a
picture of what it might be like to be a one.
Genetics: An Introduction for Dog Breeders

Author: Jackie Isabell
Published by Alpine Publications Inc. (August 1, 2002)
A comprehensive yet easy-to-understand guide on the nature of heredity, evolutionary and

behavioral genetics, the application of genetics to specific breeds, current genetic research,
terminology, and a catalog of known congenital and hereditary disorders by breed.
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Section Review
1. List the core vaccines for canines and the diseases they prevent: ___________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. List the non-core vaccines for canines and the diseases they prevent: _______________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3.List and briefly describe four common canine health problems_____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain the benefits of knowing canine external anatomy: ________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. List the five senses canines have and explain how they compare to humans: ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe the placement and function of dogs’ whiskers: __________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. Explain the difference between a dog’s genotype and phenotype: __________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Define innate behavior and provide three examples: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Define learned behavior and provide three examples: ____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
10. Explain why the OFA database for purebred dogs is important: __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
11. Briefly describe how a female dog in season could affect a group training class: ____________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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Canine Communication
S
uccessful trainers are fluent in dog body language.
Dogs do communicate; you just need to understand
what they’re trying to tell you. Every flick of the ear, tail
or tongue means something. Dogs do not bite “without
warning.” If their communication signals are ignored or
misinterpreted, they will bite to stop something that
scares or upset them. Interpreting dog body language is
a learned skilled; the more it’s practiced, the better you

Dogs use body language to communicate their
will be able to detect subtle nuances to help prevent emotional state: relaxed, alert, frightened, etc.
Carolyn/Adobe Stock
unwanted behavior.250
Regardless of a dog’s breed or size, they all speak the same language. A dog’s body language informs other
canines (and people) if she wants to greet or ignore them. Unfortunately, many owners misinterpret their
pet’s body language and assume she wants to engage with the other dog(s), which could result in a fight.251
As you begin to interpret a dog’s body language, you should first look at her entire body (refer to Canine
External Anatomy). Trying to determine a dog’s emotional state (or frame of mind) by only focusing on her
tail is equivalent to attempting to understand a sentence that is missing words. Always look at the entire
dog.252 You also need to consider what is a normal display for a dog’s breed or type, such as having a tail that
curls over the back, floppy ears that cannot “stand” up or heavy jowls that constantly drool.
Recognizing different canine body postures and behavior patterns is critical to understanding a dog’s
emotional state. Canine emotional states include happiness, fear, contentment, excitement, etc.253 A dog’s
emotions can affect and be affected by temperament, personality, mood and motivation.254 The following
posture descriptions will help you interpret dogs’ body language and determine their emotional state.
Important Note: A dog might not display every listed indicator in a body posture. However, she will exhibit
the majority of them.
251 Yin, S. A., DVM, MS. (2009). Low stress handling, restraint and behavior modification of dogs & cats: Techniques for developing patients who love their visits. Davis, CA: CattleDog Pub.
252 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Reading a Dog’s Body Language. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/understanding-dogs/canine-body-language/
253 Coren, S., PhD. DSc, FRSC. (2013, March 14). Which Emotions Do Dogs Actually Experience? Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201303/which-emotions-do-dogs-actually-experience
254 Komulainen, E., Meskanen, K., et al. (2014). The Effect of Personality on Daily Life Emotional Processes. PLoS ONE, 9(10). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110907
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Relaxed Body Posture

Ears up and moving back and forth
DenisNata/Adobe Stock
Head high
Corners of mouth relaxed
Soft eyes (minimal white showing)
Stands equally on all four legs (weight

evenly distributed)
Tail held in a relaxed position or softly

and slowly wagging.
A relaxed body posture indicates a dog is relaxed and comfortable with her surroundings, such as when at
home or in a class to which she is accustomed. Relaxed dogs show their emotional state in several ways. A
very comfortable (and relaxed) dog will sleep in her home with her eyes shut—canines can sleep with eyes
partially open. When awake, a relaxed dog is not moving with any degree of urgency. None of her muscles
are tense. The tail is in a relaxed position for her breed type. The head and neck are relaxed but held upright.
The mouth can be open and even smiling.255
When viewing a relaxed dog from a distance, she will have a round
and curved body outline; she’s wiggly, bending back and forth at
the waist between body and loin, (referred to as “cashewing” in the
training world), and dancing around (image left). This is a dog who is
content in her environment and is enjoying her surroundings.256

Nicolas/Adobe Stock
255 Stilwell, V. (2016). The secret language of dogs: Unlocking the canine mind for a happier pet. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
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Alert Body Posture
dmussman/Adobe Stock
Tail straight out or stiffly wagging
Eyes focused
Corners of mouth held tightly
Body leans forward but moving
Ears forward and moving
Mouth closed or opened
Stands tall on toes but may move around
Piloerection (raised hackles)
An alert body posture indicates a dog is aware of something, but has not yet decided what to do about it.
This posture is usually a prelude to other behaviors. What happens next depends upon how she reacts to
the stimulus that interests her. A dog will give stress signals before she becomes engaged or as she focuses
on the stimulus (see the section on Stress Signals further on in this stage).257
Noticing an alert body posture is important for effective training; as it can occur just before a dog actually
reacts aggressively or fearfully to whatever she has noticed. When this happens, you should redirect the
dog’s attention with food treats, toys, sound and movement. This prevents her from going from alert body
posture to some inappropriate behavior.258
What is Piloerection?
Piloerection (or raised hackles) is an involuntary reaction in

which the hairs down a dog’s spine, across the shoulders and/
or above the tail “stand up” due to a sympathetic nervous
system reflex (see image right). Many dog trainers and owners
assume piloerection only happens when a dog is scared or
aggressive; however, it can happen also when a dog is excited
or aroused (e.g., just heard another dog bark, etc.)1
plysuikvv/Adobe Stock
1 ASPCA Pro. (n.d.). 7 Tips on Canine Body Language. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://www.aspcapro.org/resource/7-tips-canine-body-language
258 Yin, S. A., DVM, MS. (2009). Low stress handling, restraint and behavior modification of dogs & cats: Techniques for developing patients who love their visits. Davis, CA: CattleDog Pub.
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Offensive Threat Posture

Tail up and stiff, may be stiffly wagging
Ivan/Adobe Stock
Piloerection (raised hackles)
Pupils dilated
Ears forward and stiff
Nose and/or muzzle wrinkled
Corners of mouth forward and

held tightly
Mouth closed
Furrowed brows and forehead
Stands tall and forward on toes
May learn forward (distributing weight onto the forelegs)
Eyes focused and/or staring
Body standing still or moving very slowly
An offensive threat posture indicates a dog is aggressive and ready for attack, and will more than likely do
so at the slightest provocation. A growl often accompanies this posture. A dog will exhibit this posture if
someone or something is ignoring her stress signals. Dogs will flee or fight, and if they’re unable to do the
former, they will do the latter. If something frightening is approaching a dog, she will defend herself.259
The offensive threat posture is also a learned behavior. Dogs learn that threatening frightening things can
make them go away.260 This is a behavior you do not want a dog to learn. The difference between “alert” and
“offensive” body language is movement. Alert dogs will jump around, move back and forth and shift their
feet. Offensively aggressive dogs are usually still, frozen or moving forward purposefully. When viewing
offensively aggressive dogs, their outline resembles straight lines.261
259 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Fear Aggression in Dogs. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-behavior/aggression/fear-aggression/
260 Horwitz, D., DVM, DACVB, & Landsberg, G., DVM, DACVB, DECAWBM. (n.d.). Behavior Counseling Aggression - Introduction. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/behavior-counseling-aggression-introduction
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If A Dog Becomes Offensively Aggressive
If a client’s dog becomes offensively aggressive (image right), have
Duncan Noakes/Adobe Stock

him immediately leave the area and redirect his dog with high-
value food treats; this can make it easier to get her to look at him.
Food treats also help a dog make positive associations to previously
viewed negative experiences.
The client should also get in the habit of moving in the opposite
direction of any distractions, which helps direct his dog’s attention to
him. The client should not place his dog in the situation again and
instead focus on desensitizing and counter-conditioning her reaction
to the stimulus, letting her set the pace.262 (We discuss counter-
conditioning in Stage 2: Learning Theory.)
Never Give Corrections
If a dog is barking and/or growling while showing signs of offensive threat posture, you should instruct the
owner to not give any type of correction—even a verbal “No”—to stop it. A physical or verbal correction
could cause the dog to redirect her aggression toward the owner or to become even more aggressive in
general.263 Instead, have the owner move the dog away from the threatening object or situation so that she
can no longer see it; This will allow her to relax. 264 In addition, dogs of this nature should wear a well-fitted
front-clip harness or head collar, which provides their owners with better control and also prevents them
from wiggling out of a loose-fitting collar.
262 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Dog/Dog Aggression. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-behavior/aggression/dog-dog-aggression/
263 Yin, S., DVM, MS. (2009, March 9). New Study Finds Popular “Alpha Dog” Training Techniques Can Cause More Harm than Good. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://drsophiayin.com/blog/entry/new_study_finds_popular_alpha_dog_training_
techniques_can_cause_more_harm_t/
264 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Fear Aggression in Dogs. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-behavior/aggression/fear-aggression/
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Defensive Threat Posture

Whale eye (whites of eyes showing)
Conny Hagen/Adobe Stock

Tail down or fully tucked
Piloerection
Ears back or flatten against head
Pupils dilated
Corners of mouth pulled back
Body lowered
Body leaning backward
A defensive threat posture indicates a dog is being self-protective. This is seen in a dog who is fearful and
would prefer to run away from the situation, but may bite if provoked or cornered. Stress signals were
offered in the beginning, however ignored and the dog is showing extreme fear.
Stop the Stimulus

Whatever is happening at the moment, her owner needs to make it stop immediately. He should move his
dog away from the frightening stimulus (she no longer sees it) and toss her treats. Immediately pairing
good things (treats) with fearful things will change a dog’s emotional state. A fearful dog might have a
difficult time eating treats because she is terrified; however, she knows they are available. Her owner must
not place her in this situation again; instead he should focus on desensitizing and counter-conditioning her
reaction to these stimuli at the dog’s pace.265
Avoid Corrections
If a dog is barking and showing signs of defensive threat posture, her owner should not correct her barking
in any way. It will make her even more fearful. 266 In addition, recommend the owner use a well-fitted front
clip harness or head collar, which will give him better control over his dog.
265 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Dog/Dog Aggression. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-behavior/aggression/dog-dog-aggression/
266 Yin, S., DVM, MS. (2009, March 9). New Study Finds Popular “Alpha Dog” Training Techniques Can Cause More Harm than Good. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://drsophiayin.com/blog/entry/new_study_finds_popular_alpha_dog_training_
techniques_can_cause_more_harm_t/
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Submissive Body Posture

Tail completely tucked
Jörg Hüttenhölscher/Adobe Stock

Round eyes
Whale eyes (whites of eyes showing)
Eyes looking away
Corners of mouth pulled back
Ears pinned back
Rolls onto back
Grovels (moving close to the ground)
Freezes
Urinates or defecates
Expresses anal glands
A submissive posture indicates a dog is afraid. If a
oleghz/Adobe Stock
dog is displaying fearful behavior (image right) and
rolls onto her back, her owner (or anyone else) must
never approach or attempt to pet her. Her owner
should stop whatever is happening immediately and
then toss several high-value treats in the opposite
direction of the frightening stimuli. Dogs flop on to
their backs when scared, this usually happens if they
are unable to flee. Dogs will offer this behavior before engaging in a fight (offensive alert posture); however
if the frightening stimulus continues, dogs will quickly learn to flee.267
267 Horwitz, D., DVM, DACVB, & Landsberg, G., DVM, DACVB, DECAWBM. (2012). Canine Communication - Interpreting Dog Language. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/canine-communication-
interpreting-dog-language
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Play Bow Posture
Yuval Helfman/Adobe Stock

Tail up and wagging
Ears up
Mouth is open with tongue visible
Front end lowered
Friendly eye contact (if the dog is confident)
A play bow indicates a dog would like to play with a person or
another dog. Owners can imitate a play bow by placing their hands
simultaneously on the ground or their knees to elicit similar responses
from their dogs.268
Interpreting Puppy Play
With the increasing popularity of having playtime during
oleghz/Adobe Stock
puppy group classes, it is vital that you know what
appropriate play looks like. In addition to being fun, play
builds a bond between puppies (or dogs) and provides
plenty of mental and physical enrichment. As a Certified
Dog Trainer, it is your job to set up a safe environment for
appropriate play and immediately interrupt inappropriate
behavior. You must remain vigilant at all times, keeping all of your attention on the puppies instead of
chatting with owners or fellow dog trainers.
Appropriate Puppy Play

Puppies prefer to play in pairs with equal “give and take” between them. Each puppy should take turns
chasing the other, or being on top or bottom of the puppy pile. When puppies play appropriately, their body
outlines should look round, soft and fluid as they bounce, pounce, chase, tumble and wrestle. Humping
may occur, which is completely appropriate play even if humans find it distasteful.269
269 Becker, M., CBCC-KA, CPDT-KA, CDBC. (2012, March 19). Is Your Puppy Playing Nicely? Is He Being Bullied? Here Are 5 Things To Look For. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/is-your-puppy-playing-
nicely-is-he-being-bullied-here-are-5-things-to-look-for
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Appropriate play can include growling that sounds
fierce as well as face biting; however, both puppies
should still be having a great time. Puppies should enjoy
sharing their toys by tugging together or allowing the
first one who reaches the ball to grab it. Puppies learn
quickly who they like to play with and will seek them
out. When one puppy needs a break, the other respects

In general, puppies prefer to play as a duo, taking
her decision and also rests, or finds something else to turns chasing and being chased, and being first on
the top and then the bottom while wrestling. The
play with. When a play session ends, puppies usually latter could include playful biting and growling.
hemlep/Adobe Stock
“shake off” their excitement and relax.270
Inappropriate Puppy Play

When inappropriate play happens, it can permanently
scar a young puppy, especially if she’s within a fear
period. Puppies should never single out a specific
playmate. They should not chase another puppy around
the training area, pin her down (using their bodies or
mouths), bite at her hocks, body slam her (slamming

If a puppy becomes a constant target for her
playmates, you should not let it continue as it into her with their entire bodies), lunge toward her,
could cause permanent emotional damage.
ScullyPictures/Adobe Stock bark in her face or bite others.271
Never allow puppies to “work it out,” as it never ends well. If you allow it happen, the bullying puppy will
learn that his behavior is fun and rewarding, while the victim learns that other puppies and dogs are scary.
When bullying, a puppy’s body is stiff and straight, he freezes and stares a lot, and his tail is held tightly over
his back. The bullied puppy is running for her life, rolling over and exposing her belly, yelping has wide eyes
and her ears plastered back.272
270 Becker, M., CBCC-KA, CPDT-KA, CDBC. (2012, March 19). Is Your Puppy Playing Nicely? Is He Being Bullied? Here Are 5 Things To Look For. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/is-your-puppy-playing-
nicely-is-he-being-bullied-here-are-5-things-to-look-for
271 AKC Staff. (2015, November 5). Are My Dogs Playing Rough or Fighting? Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/basic-training/are-they-playing-or-fighting/
272 AKC Staff. (2015, November 5). Are My Dogs Playing Rough or Fighting? Retrieved May 14, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/basic-training/are-they-playing-or-fighting/
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Interrupting Puppy Play
When in doubt, interrupt puppy play. Make a
“smoochie” or clapping sound and call both
puppies to you. If this does not work, you will need
to briefly pick up the bullying puppy and then put
him back down. If the puppies were actually playing
nicely, they will likely continue doing so after your
interruption. If they were not, the bullied puppy will

If you are unsure as to whether or not a puppy
run for safety. is being bullied by another during a play session,
you should first try to interrupt them with sound
(e.g.,clapping and calling them to you). If they are
If this happens, pick up or leash the “bully” puppy not paying attention, you should remove the bullying
puppy for a very short period and then put him back.
and give him a time out with his owners, such as a
potty break. Some puppies will be too rambunctious
for a playgroup class, particularly if none of the others have a similarly rough play style. You will need to
explain to the owner why her puppy cannot play in this session.
If a playgroup class has an odd number of puppies, pick up the left-out puppy and allow the others to play
for a few minutes. Next, place the puppy down and pick up another one. Continue rotating the puppies in
the playgroup. If a puppy becomes overstimulated and starts humping another one, simply interrupt the
session. Puppies will soon learn that humping and bullying make the fun stop.273
273 Hunthausen, W. L., DVM. (2014, August 13). Counseling new puppy owners: Normal play vs. aggressive tendencies. Retrieved May 14, 2018, from http://veterinarymedicine.dvm360.com/cvc-central-2007-highlights-counseling-new-puppy-owners-normal-
play-vs-aggressive-tendencies
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Stress Signals
Licking lips and/or nose (quick or exaggerated)
Tongue flicks
Blinking
Averts eyes (no direct eye contact)
Turning head or body away

This dog is clearly stressed: her head is turned
as she looks away and she is frozen in place.
Yawning carol_anne/Adobe Stock
Sniffing the ground
Walking slowly
Holding one paw up
Sitting or lying down
Freezing
Walking in a curve
Shaking off (dog shakes like she is wet even though she is dry)
If a dog is yawning at an
unusual time (such as during
Extreme Stress Signals play or other interactions),
she is most likely stressed.
nspooner/Adobe Stock
Drooling
Sweaty pads
Round eyes
Whale eye (whites of eyes showing)
Panting
Shaking
A full-body shake-off when dry

could indicate a dog is stressed.
lisa_L/Adobe Stock
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Dogs will display one or more of the listed signals when they’re in a
stressful situation. Just as humans might talk excessively, bite their
fingernails, fidget, twist their hair, look away or freeze when in a
stressful situation, dogs respond in similar ways. Dogs prefer to avoid
conflicts and will indicate their current emotional state to others—dogs,
people and other animals. Think of stress signals as a warning that a
thunderstorm is approaching. When a dog looks away, flicks her tongue
or yawns, she is politely telling you that she is uncomfortable and you
need to stop what you are doing. If the frightening thing continues, a A tongue flick is one way a dog
will show she is uncomfortable.
dog will fight if unable to flee.274 Benson Photography/Adobe Stock
Canines have an incredibly rich vocabulary and their stress signals vary from dog to dog. As humans, we need
to be able to read canine stress signals and act accordingly; immediately moving away from and/or stopping
the frightening thing. Being able to do this prevents a dog from learning that biting will stop the stimulus.275
Unfortunately, many owners misinterpret stress
signals, assuming their dog “knows what she did
wrong because she acts guilty.” Dogs will often
display “guilty signs” (e.g., softening or squinting
their eyes, turning their heads away or moving
slowly) when their owners discover the results of
some type of “bad behavior,” such as destructive
chewing or inappropriate elimination. Upon seeing
the deed, the owners will be angry, frustrated or What an owner might assume is a “guilty” look is
really a frightened one. The dog is scared of his owner
both. Their dog will respond to their reactions with and is trying to calm her down with stress signals.
markcarper/Adobe Stock
the appropriate stress signals in an attempt to calm
them and show she’s now scared of them.276
274 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Reading a Dog’s Body Language. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/understanding-dogs/canine-body-language/
275 Rugaas, T. (2013). Calming Signals - The Art of Survival. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from http://en.turid-rugaas.no/calming-signals---the-art-of-survival.html
276 Silva, T. D. (2014, February 26). Do dogs feel shame? You may be surprised. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/dogs-feel-shame-may-surprised
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Owners misread these signals as signs of guilt and incorrectly assume their dog understands what she did
wrong. If owners think their dog understands a rule and purposely breaks it in their absence, their response
could likely involve some type of punishment. Dog owners assume their dog is acting guilty or spiteful
based on her fearful body language, which is not true. Dogs do not and cannot feel guilt, shame, spite or
seek vengeance.277
When dogs display extreme stress signals, they are very scared and one small step away from displaying
offensive or defensive body postures. As with other stress signals, you need to immediately stop whatever
is happening at that moment and move the dog away from the stimulus.278
For additional information on canine body language,

you need to: 1) log into the Student Center; 2) click Video
Instruction; and 3) choose on of the following videos.
ü How Dogs Communicate: Canine Body Postures
ü What to Observe: Canine Body Postures
ü Observing the Tail Carriage: Canine Body Postures
ü Observing the Ears: Canine Body Postures
ü Observing the Eyes and Gaze: Canine Body Postures
ü Observing the Mouth: Canine Body Postures
Canine Vocalizations
In addition to communicating through body language, dogs also use vocalizations, such as barking,
growling, whining and howling. Understanding why a dog is vocalizing and what she’s trying to convey is an
essential part of becoming fluent in canine communications. Note: When interpreting a dog’s vocalization,
you should always view her entire body language first.279
277 Silva, T. D. (2014, February 26). Do dogs feel shame? You may be surprised. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/dogs-feel-shame-may-surprised
278 Rugaas, T. (2013). Calming Signals - The Art of Survival. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from http://en.turid-rugaas.no/calming-signals---the-art-of-survival.html
279 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Dog Vocalizations. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/understanding-dogs/canine-vocal-language/
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Barking is a natural behavior and many dogs have different
barks, depending on the situation. They will bark when
they are excited, fearful, stressed or bored. Dogs use quick,
high-pitched barking or yodeling sounds when excited,
such as when their owners come home. When barking at
suspicious stimuli, dogs will use deep, long barks. Often,
they will stop barking and listen for any other sounds.
Some dogs will “woof” once as a warning that something
is stirring but they are not quite sure yet. Single “woofs” A dog’s barking will typically be long and
deep-sounding when she is confronted with
can lead to barking quickly. Certain dog breeds (such as questionable stimuli, such as a the approach of
a suspicious-looking or threatening stranger.
santiago silver/Adobe Stock
Beagles) will bay, producing long singing barks when they
are aroused.280, 281
Dogs growl for many reasons. It is normal behavior when they are playing. Most frequently, dogs will growl
when they are afraid. Never punish a growling dog, this is a warning signal. If a dog is punished (physically
or verbally) for growling, she will skip the warning and go directly to biting. Pay attention to a dog growl, it
means she is uncomfortable in a situation.282
Dogs whine and whimper for a variety of reasons; however, it usually means something is wrong or that
they want something. Some will whine (high-pitched shrieking) or softly whimper when left alone in a
crate, when scared or in pain. Dogs might also whine when excited about something, such as going for a
walk; the difference is the pitch at the end. Ending on an up note usually indicates stress; ending on a down
note or staying at the same pitch typically indicates excitement.283, 284
Wolves use howling to communicate and so do some dogs. They might howl when left alone. Some will
howl when they hear a siren or other similar sounds; howling is thought to be a contagious behavior among
dogs. Some breeds don’t howl, others, such as Huskies, do so frequently.285
280 Hecht, J. (2013, August 08). What Do You Hear in These Dog Sounds? Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/dog-spies/what-do-you-hear-in-these-dog-sounds/
281 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). Dog Vocalizations. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/understanding-dogs/canine-vocal-language/
282 Benal, J., CPDT-KA, CBCC-KA. (2010, March 8). What to Do If Your Dog Growls or Snaps. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/pets/dog-behavior/what-to-do-if-your-dog-growls-or-snaps?page=all
283 Burke, A. (2018, February 21). Dog Sounds. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/dog-sounds-meaning/?utm_source=akc.org&utm_medium=blueconic&utm_campaign=blueconic-content-page-bottom-related
284 AKC Staff. (2014, August 28). How the Sounds Dogs Make Reveal Their Emotions – American Kennel Club. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/how-the-sounds-dogs-make-reveal-their-emotions/
285 Burke, A. (2018, February 21). Dog Sounds. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/did-you-know/dog-sounds-meaning/?utm_source=akc.org&utm_medium=blueconic&utm_campaign=blueconic-content-page-bottom-related
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Recommended Reading
Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook

Author: Barbara Handelman
Published by Direct Book Service (June 1, 2008)
Outstanding photos and detailed explanations will improve dog-reading skills for canine
professionals as well as enthusiasts.
Canine Body Language: A Photographic Guide

Author: Brenda Aloff
Published by Dogwise Publishing; 1st edition (November 1, 2005)
This well-organized book on canine body language is loaded with photos and detailed
explanations to help readers interpret dogs’ emotions.
Canine Play Behavior: The Science of Dogs at Play

Author: Mechtild Kaufe
Published by Direct Book Service; 1st edition (September 11, 2014)
Findings from researchers worldwide who study why dogs play, the benefits they get from play
and how to recognize the rules of play dogs follow to keep their play behaviors fun and safe.
On Talking Terms with Dogs: Calming Signals

Author: Turid Rugaas
Published by Direct Book Service; 2nd edition (December 14, 2005)
The author provides readers with written and pictorial explanations of the 30-plus signals that
dogs use to communicate with one another.
1-116
A Bit About Dominance Theory in Dog Training
I
n the dog training world, the word “dominance” usually instigates a passionate debate between proponents
and opponents—and those who fall somewhere in between. And for good reason. Those who support
the dominance theory state it is the fastest, most effective way to train a dog; those who oppose it state it
is too aversive and can have serious behavioral consequences.
Dominance in training (in that a trainer forcefully compels a dog to perform a behavior) dates back to
German military dogs at the turn of the 20th century. In “Training Dogs: A Manual,” published in 1910,
Colonel Konrad Most explains why compulsion—through the use of spike collars and switches—should be
used along with positive reinforcement to train dogs.286
However, it wasn’t until the late 1940s that the overall concept of canine dominance theory gained ground.
The theory stems from separate studies on captive wolves by Rudolf Schenkel, a Swiss zoologist, and
Konrad Lorenz, an Austrian ethologist and zoologist, in the 1930s and ‘40s.287 After lengthy observations,
Schenkel surmised in his 1947 report, “Expression Studies of Wolves,” that the captive wolf packs had a firm
domination hierarchy. He also reported similar social roles in domestic dogs.288
Lorenz’ research also came to a similar conclusion except
he stated that the domination hierarchy was completely
rigid. In his book “Man Meets Dog,” published in 1949,
Lorenz equated this inflexible hierarchy to domestic
dogs. An owner’s relationship with his dog is nearly
identical to a wolf pack leader’s to a pack member. In
short, a dog’s owner is the pack leader and should use
force when necessary to achieve a desired result.289 Later
on, this theory was also used to explain (erroneously)

Researchers have shown that the now-disproven
non-captive wolves’ social structure. 290
theory of canine dominance and its hierarchy is
also not relevant to the social order of wild wolves.
Xaver Klaussner/Adobe Stock
286 Most, K. (1954). Training Dogs: A Manual (1st American ed.). London, UK: Popular Dogs Publishing.
287 Sax, B. (2009). Animals in the Third Reich: Pets, scapegoats, and the Holocaust. Mount Vernon, VA: Decalogue Books.
288 Schenkel, R. 1947. Expression studies of wolves. Behaviour, 1:81-129.
289 Lorenz, K. (1954). Man Meets Dog(1st English ed.). London, UK: Methuen &.
290 Fox, M. W. (1972). Socio-Ecological Implications of Individual Differences in Wolf Litters : A Developmental and Evolutionary Perspective. Behaviour,41(3), 298-313. doi:10.1163/156853972x00077
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This history is why dominance training exists even though the theory has been disproven by scientific
research conducted by animal behaviorists, biologists and ethologists.291 (Ethology is the scientific and
objective study of animal behavior, especially under natural conditions.292) Even groups of free-roaming
dogs do not adhere to the dominance theory’s social structure. Observations indicate that leadership is very
fluid, changing within a pack based on which dog can offer the most for a given situation or circumstances. 293
The same applies to wild wolves.294
Recent scientific studies have shown that
humans are not pack leaders or the alpha; they
are not dominant over dogs. Unfortunately,
some pet professionals continue to adhere to
the dominance theory, making it confusing for
some owners and other trainers to determine
the best way to teach a dog new behaviors or
modify existing ones.

Training does not equate to dominating canines; instead,
it involves using the least intrusive, minimally aversive
Yes, there will be times in human-canine methods to teach them how to best live with humans.
Nicky Rhodes/Adobe Stock
relationships when owners and their dogs
want different things (e.g., a dog wants to run
into the street but her owner knows this is a dangerous move). This occurs in every unequal relationship
(e.g., parent-child, teacher-student, employer-employee). When owners and trainers tell dogs what to do
or prevent them from doing something, they are not trying to be dominant or the alpha, they are making
educated decisions based on the situation.
When a “conflict of desire” occurs, it is ultimately the owner or trainer’s responsibility to decide how to
proceed. Each decision should consider a dog’s point of view; however, the final call will always be an owner
or trainer’s. The best ways to handle these scenarios are explained in detail throughout this program.
291 Coren, S., PhD. DSc, FRSC. (2010, July 20). Canine Dominance: Is the Concept of the Alpha Dog Valid? Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201007/canine-dominance-is-the-concept-the-alpha-dog-valid
292 Ethology [Def. 2]. (2018, June 18). In Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved July 27, 2018, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethologist
294 Mech, L. D. (1999). Alpha status, dominance, and division of labor in wolf packs. Canadian Journal of Zoology,77(8), 1196-1203. doi:10.1139/z99-099
1-118
When dogs lean against, jump up on or sleep in the bed with humans, it has nothing to do with dominance.
Neither does having an owner walk through doorways first or asking a dog to sit before giving her a treat.
Instead, these actions teach dogs to wait before going out the door (preventing them from running into the
street) and other polite behaviors so they can peacefully—and safely—coexist with humans.295, 296
If clients ask about dominance and dogs, politely explain that this theory was disproven decades ago. You
can tell your clients that your dog training methodologies are based on up-to-date scientific research by
animal behaviorists, scientists and ethologists.
As you proceed through this program’s stages, many of this stage’s topics are more thoroughly examined.
As a new trainer, it is your job to learn and seek out as much information as you can. The basics covered in
this stage are just the beginning. Dog training can be more than a job; it can be work you love to do. A dog
trainer can positively affect how humans and canines live together.
Deliverable
Complete and submit Stage 1 exam.
payamona/Adobe Stock
296 Victoria Stilwell Positively. (n.d.). The Truth About Dominance. Retrieved May 11, 2018, from https://positively.com/dog-training/myths-truths/the-truth-about-dominance/
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Section Review
1. Explain how to begin interpreting a dog’s body language: ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe an alert body posture and what it indicates: ____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe a defensive threat posture and what it indicates:_________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe a submissive posture and what it indicates: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Briefly describe appropriate puppy play: _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Explain how to interrupt inappropriate puppy play: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. List six stress signals and four extreme stress signals describe what to do if a dog displays them: ______
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Explain how owners misinterpret their dogs’ stress signals as guilt: ________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Briefly describe some of the reasons why dogs bark: _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
10. Briefly describe what to say/do if a client asks about dominance: _________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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Dog Obedience Instructor

Stage 1: A Basic Overview of Canines

Animal Behavior College Core Program

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR COLLEGE

25104 Rye Canyon Loop

Santa Clarita, CA 91355

Copyright © 2020 by Animal Behavior College Inc.

Cover image: dagabu/Adobe Stock

Other Registries & Kennel Clubs.................................................................................................1-30

Canine Behavioral Developmental Periods................................. 1-34

Puppy Socialization.................................................................................... 1-44

Canine Nutrition Basics................................................................ 1-52

Nutrition and Health Problems.................................................................. 1-68

Nutrition and Canine Behavior.................................................................. 1-69

Canine Anatomy & Physiology..................................................... 1-86

Canine Reproduction.................................................................................. 1-97

Canine Communication.............................................................. 1-102

Never Give Corrections....................................................................................................................................................1-106

Defensive Threat Posture........................................................................................................... 1-107

Submissive Body Posture........................................................................................................... 1-108

Interrupting Puppy Play..................................................................................................................................................1-111

Stress Signals ................................................................................................................................ 1-112

Stage 1: A Basic Overview of Canines

socialization, vaccination recommendations, disease awareness prevention and canine communication.

and vocalizations is essential to becoming an effective trainer.

➤ Cite examples from each of the seven AKC Breed Groups

➤ Identify general characteristics of the seven Breed Groups

➤ Know what constitutes a reputable breeder

➤ Identify developmental periods and explain the characteristics of:

» The first fear period

» Optimum bonding period

» General socialization period

➤ Understand the essentials of puppy socialization

➤ Understand basic canine nutrition

➤ List canine dietary requirements

➤ Understand canine food labeling

➤ Identify canine nutrition health problems

➤ Know the core and non-core canine vaccines for canines

➤ Explain the diseases for which general vaccines are given

➤ Explain various canine infections, diseases and other health problems

➤ Recognize symptoms for various canine diseases

➤ Identify canine external anatomy

➤ Understand basic canine genetics, including genotype and phenotype

➤ Explain the differences between innate and learned behavior

➤ Explain the purpose of the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals

➤ Describe the components of canine reproduction

➤ Interpret canine communicative behavior

➤ Identify and describe canine body postures

➤ Identify and describe canine vocalizations

Dog Breeds and Groups

that specific knowledge indicates their level of expertise.

 Mutt/Mongrel/All-American: Dogs whose parents who have

 Hybrid/Designer Dogs: A hybrid is the offspring of two

American Kennel Club

familiar with the different types or breeds that are recognized by

National individual breed clubs set the AKC’s breed standards.

For example, the Schipperke Club of America sets the standard

for the breed. Proposed changes to a current accepted standard

Mutt/Mongrel/All-American: Dogs whose parents who have

Hybrid/Designer Dogs: A hybrid is the offspring of two

Field Trials: tests the working ability of Gundogs in competitive conditions.16

Earthdog: tests the working ability and instincts of small terriers.17

Barn Hunt: Dogs and their handlers work as a team to locate

Diving Dogs: Dogs take a running leap from a dock into a

Flyball: Dogs race over low hurdles to a box to launch a ball