Geographic Range

Alces alces, commonly called moose in North America and Eurasian elk in Europe, have a
circumpolar distribution in the boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere. (Eurasian elk should
not be confused with North American elk, Cervus canadensis, which are a different species.) In
Eurasia, Alces alces have a range on the west from Scandinavia, Poland and southern Czech
Republic to Siberia (Russia) in the east. Its southern range extends to Ukraine, northern
Kazakhstan, northern China and northern Mongolia. In North America, moose are found
throughout much of Alaska and Canada and just south of the border between the contiguous
United States and Canada, but extend farther southward down the Rocky Mountains to Utah and
Colorado. Factors that likely limit their northern distribution are sufficient forage and snow
depths greater than 70 cm for long periods. Warm climates that have temperatures above 27 C
for long periods likely limit their southern distribution. (Grubb, 2005; Karns, 2007; Kelsall and
Tefler, 1974)

 Biogeographic Regions
 nearctic 
 
 native 
 
 palearctic 
 
 native 
 Other Geographic Terms
 holarctic

Habitat
Moose can be found in a range of habitats in the cold, northern regions of the globe that have
seasonal snow cover. They inhabit the taiga and temperate forest biomes, including the tundra-
subalpine zone. Forest types include boreal, broadleaf and mixed (coniferous-deciduous). Within
these forests, they prefer the early successional stage, where forage is in abundance due to
disturbance. Fire, logging, flooding, or glacial action greatly increase the quality and quantity of
forage for moose and, ultimately, moose density. Besides forested habitats, moose will seek out
areas near water, such as ponds, lakes, rivers and swamps, which also have a concentration of
their favorite foods. Their large bodies, inability to sweat, and the heat produced by fermentation
in their guts mean they cannot tolerate temperatures exceeding 27 degrees Celsius for
long. (Bowyer, et al., 2003; Peek, 2007)

 Habitat Regions
 temperate 
 terrestrial
 Terrestrial Biomes
 tundra 
 taiga 
 forest 
 scrub forest 
 mountains
  Aquatic Biomes
 lakes and ponds 
 rivers and streams
 Wetlands
 marsh 
 swamp 
 bog
 Other Habitat Features
 riparian

Physical Description
Moose are the largest species in the deer family, having long, slender legs that support a massive
body, while a short, thick neck and humped shoulders that support a large head. This horse-size
species can be as tall as 2.3 m at the shoulders with long ears (250 mm) and an inconspicuous tail
(80 to 120 mm). One of the most distinctive features of this species is its long, bulbous, drooping
muzzle. The upper lip overhangs the lower lip and between its nostrils is a triangular patch of
bare skin. Under the neck hangs a flap of furred skin called the bell, which may or may not be
present in females. With no upper incisors or canines, moose must nip off plants between a bony
upper palate and their lower incisors. They have a dental formula of I 0/3, C 0/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 =
32. (Bubenik, 2007; Wilson and Ruff, 1999)

Males are distinguished by carrying the largest antlers of any mammal, which can weigh as much
as 35 kg in North American moose. Antlers are grown in the spring and shed in the winter each
year. The widest antler spread recorded is 2048 mm. Antlers of North American moose are
palmate, having a main palm and brow palm in a butterfly configuration. A cervine-shape,
without palmation, is more common in European moose (Alces alces alces) and Manchurian
moose (A. a. cameloides). (Bubenik, 2007; Engan, 2001; Novak, 1999)

Moose are sexually dimorphic, with males being more than 40% heavier than females. Live
weights of males range from 360 to 600 kg with lengths from 2.4 to 3.1 m. Females range from
270 to 400 kg with lengths 2.3 to 3.0 m. The largest subspecies of moose, Alces alces gigas,
occurs in Alaska with a maximum weight of 771 kg for a male and 573 kg for a
female. (Bowyer, et al., 2003; Bubenik, 2007)

Pelage is generally dark, black to brown or grayish brown, with the lower legs being lighter. An
all-white color phase is rare. Their underfur and long guard hairs provide excellent insulation
from cold. Young have a reddish brown pelage and are not spotted like other young in the deer
family. Individual hairs are 15 to 25 cm long and hollow, resulting in excellent
insulation. (Novak, 1999)

 Other Physical Features

 endothermic 
 homoiothermic 
 bilateral symmetry
 Sexual Dimorphism
 male larger 
 ornamentation
  Range mass
270 to 771 kg
594.71 to 1698.24 lb
 Range length
2.3 to 3.1 m
7.55 to 10.17 ft

Reproduction
Moose are polygynous. Males and females attract each other by making vocalizations and scent
marking trees. Moose exhibit two different types of breeding strategies: tundra moose in Alaska
form harems and taiga moose form transient pair bonds. In the harem mating system, the largest,
most dominant male attempts to herd a group of females together, which he defends from all
other males. Other bulls challenge the harem master for the right to mate. Young bulls with
smaller antlers typically retreat from the dominant bull, whereas evenly sized bulls will fight.
Bulls will engage their antlers, pushing and twisting, while attempting to gore each other. In the
pair bonding system, a dominant bull stays with and defends just one cow until he can mate with
her. Afterward, he searches for other females who have not yet been bred by other
bulls. (Bowyer, et al., 2003; Schwartz and Hundertmark, 1993; Hundertmark, et al.,
2002; Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz, 2007)

 Mating System
 polygynous
Moose breed in September and October of each year. The female estrous cycle lasts 24 to 25
days, with the length of the heat being 15 to 26 hours. If the female is not bred within this time,
she will recycle through estrus in about three weeks. Gestation averages about 231 days with
cows giving birth to one calf on average, although twins are common. Calves are born at an
average weight of 16.2 kg and gain approximately 1 kg per day while they are nursing. Males
and females are sexually mature at two years of age but full growth potential isn't reached until 4
or 5 years of age. At that age females are at their reproductive peak and males have the largest
antlers. (Franzmann, 1981; Schwartz and Hundertmark, 1993; Hundertmark, et al.,
2002; Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz, 2007)

 Key Reproductive Features

 iteroparous 
 seasonal breeding 
 gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate) 
 sexual 
 fertilization 
 viviparous
 Breeding interval
Moose breed annually.
 Breeding season
Breeding occurs in September and October.
 Range number of offspring
1 to 2
 Average number of offspring
1
 Average gestation period
 231 days
 Average weaning age
5 months
 Average time to independence
1 years
 Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
16 to 28 months
 Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
2 to 5 years
Only females take care of their young for a period of one year. Females seek secluded sites to
give birth to young and remain isolated until the calves are weaned. Calves can browse and
follow their mother at 3 weeks old and are weaned at 5 months. They remain with their mother
until about 1 year after their birth, when the mother's next young is born. (Franzmann,
1981; Schwartz and Hundertmark, 1993; Hundertmark, et al., 2002; Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz,
2007)

 Parental Investment
 precocial 
 pre-fertilization 
 
 provisioning 
 protecting 
 female 
 
 pre-hatching/birth 
 
 provisioning 
 female 
 protecting 
 female 
 
 pre-weaning/fledging 
 
 provisioning 
 female 
 protecting 
 female 
 
 pre-independence 
 
 protecting 
 female 
 
 inherits maternal/paternal territory 
 maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young

Lifespan/Longevity
Many calves, as much as 50% or more, do not live beyond their first six weeks of life due to
predation by bears and wolves. Once they reach adulthood, their chances of survival are high.
Adult females have an average survival of 95%. Male survival is more variable due to hunting
and male-male competition. Adult moose are in their prime from 5 to 12 years of age but begin
to suffer from arthritis, dental diseases and wear, and other factors after about 8 years. Few
moose live past 15 years in the wild, although one cow was recorded to have lived to the age of
22. Peak reproductive age in females is 4 to 12 years of age and 4 to 8 years in males. (Bowyer,
et al., 2003; Gaillard, et al., 1998; Wilson and Ruff, 1999)

 Range lifespan
Status: wild
22 (high) years
 Typical lifespan
Status: wild
8 to 15 years

Behavior
Moose are the least social species among cervids, remaining fairly solitary except during the
mating season. They are not territorial. Outside of the rutting period, males and females are
sexually segregated: males and females are separated spatially, temporally, and/or by habitat. It
has been hypothesized that this is due to the differences in nutritional needs of the sexes due to
body size differences. Also, cows with calves at heel seclude themselves from conspecifics to
reduce the risk of being singled out by predators. Moose are crepuscular by nature, being most
active at sunrise and sunset. Despite their ungainly appearance, moose are able to run silently
through dense forests. Maximum speeds have been clocked at 56 km/hr and sustained speeds at
9.6 km/hr. Moose are also strong swimmers, being known to swim up to 20 km or up to 9.5 km
per hour. Most of their time centers around feeding. The daily pattern is traveling to a new site to
feed, avoiding predators, browsing on plants, standing, and lying down for the rumination of
their food. Moose mainly stay in the same general area, though some populations migrate
between sites favorable at different times of the year. These migrations can exceed 300km in
European populations. (Boyer, 2004; Bubenik, 2007; Wilson and Ruff, 1999)

 Key Behaviors
 cursorial 
 terricolous 
 diurnal 
 crepuscular 
 motile 
 migratory 
 sedentary 
 solitary 
 dominance hierarchies
Home Range
Home range size of moose varies between 3.6 to 92 km2. During their first year of life, young
moose occupy the same home range as their mother and do not establish their own home range
until the age of two. Home range size of males tend to be larger than females. Some moose
migrate seasonally, up to 179 km in North America and 300 km in northeastern
Europe. (Hundertmark, 2007; LeResche, 1974; Pulliainen, 1974)

Communication and Perception

Moose are not as vocal as other members of the deer family, such as elk (Cervus elaphus). Most
of their vocalizations occur during the rut. Females make a long, quavering moaning call when in
estrus, which attracts males and can be heard up to 3.2 km away. Males make a grunt to court
females or challenge other bulls. Both sexes are capable of making a loud, guttural “roaring”
sound as a threat. Moose will also communicate chemically by scent-marking trees. They strip
trees and shrubs of their bark and rub their foreheads and preorbital glands into the bare spot to
advertise their presence to the opposite sex. Moose are not known to have good eye sight.
Confirmation of this is not available due to a lack of studies, although it is known that they
depend less on sight than their sense of hearing or smell. Moose have very acute hearing due in
part to the large external surface area of their ears. Their ears are capable of rotating
independently, giving them stereophonic hearing. Their sense of smell is exceptional due to the
large surface area of their nasal cavities, which are lined with millions of sent-smelling
cells. (Bowyer, et al., 2003; Bubenik, 2007; Franzmann, 1981)

 Communication Channels
 visual 
 tactile 
 acoustic 
 chemical
 Other Communication Modes
 pheromones 
 scent marks
 Perception Channels
 visual 
 tactile 
 acoustic 
 chemical

Food Habits
The word “moose” comes from the Native American tribe, the Algonquins, which means “twig
eater” in their language. It is an appropriate name because moose primarily browse upon the
stems and twigs of woody plants in the winter and the leaves and shoots of deciduous plants in
the summer. For moose in Poland, 87% of their diet consisted of trees and shrubs with the most
important species being pine (Pinus silvestris), which represented 52% of their diet. In North
America, moose have been observed to consume as many as 221 plant species and genera, and in
Russia 355, although only a select few comprise a significant portion of their diet. Willows
(Salix spp.) are the most preferred forage where available. In interior Alaska willows accounted
for 94% of the biomass consumed in the winter. Other species that are consumed are paper birch
(Betula papyrifera), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), and balsam fir (Abies balsamea).
Moose also consume aquatic vegetation during the summer because it is highly digestible and
abundant in some areas. An adult requires about 20 kg food per day. (Bowyer, et al.,
2003; Franzmann, 1981; Renecker and Schwartz, 2007)
  Primary Diet
 herbivore 
 
 folivore 
 lignivore 
 Plant Foods
 leaves 
 wood, bark, or stems 
 flowers

Predation
Wolves, brown or grizzly bears, black bears, and cougars are major predators of moose, and to a
lesser extent coyotes and Amur tigers. Major predators can have such an impact on moose
populations that they can slow their population growth and hold them below the carrying
capacity of the habitat. Whether or not predators can hold (regulate) a moose population at an
equilibrium point is controversial. Predation by bears tends to be the highest in the spring when
calves are the most vulnerable. Predation by wolves is higher in the winter when snow depths are
high enough to impede the movement of moose. Moose aggressively defend themselves and their
young with their robust antlers and sharp hooves. (Ballard and Van Ballenberghe, 2007; Bowyer,
et al., 2003; Franzmann, 2000; Miquelle, et al., 1996)

 Anti-predator Adaptations
 cryptic
 Known Predators

 gray wolves (Canis lupus)

 brown bears (Ursus arctos)
 coyotes (Canis latrans)
 Amur tigers (Panthera tigris)
 black bears (Ursus americanus)
 cougars (Puma concolor)
 humans (Homo sapiens)

Ecosystem Roles
Moose can have a significant impact on ecosystems because of their daily activities of feeding,
trampling, defecating, and urinating. One researcher estimated that the Swedish moose
population contributed 300,000 metric tons of feces each year to the land. This equals about
5,600 tons of nitrogen, which is essential for plant growth. Moose can affect the rate of nutrient
cycling, floral composition, rate of forest succession, and biological diversity of a forest. For this
reason, they are considered to be a keystone species. (Kie, et al., 2003; Kielland and Bryant,
1998; Molvar, et al., 1993; Persson, et al., 2000)

Moose are affected by several diseases and parasites. "Moose disease", fatal to moose, is caused
by a brainworm which most commonly infects white-tailed deer. Moose can become severely
infested with winter ticks and death can sometimes result in winter as a result of blood loss and
nutritional stress. (Wilson and Ruff, 1999)

Ecosystem Impact
creates habitat 
keystone species
Commensal/Parasitic Species

 winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus)

 brainworm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis)
 tapeworms (Taenia krabbei)
 hydatid disease (Echinococcus granulosus)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Moose are hunted throughout much of their range and provide millions of pounds in meat to
humans each year. In 1983, 152,000 moose were harvested in Sweden, representing 14% of the
total meat consumption of the country. Moose hunting also generates a considerable amount of
money to local economies. Moose hunters contribute $31 million annually to Alaska’s economy
and $50 million to Canada’s. Moose also draw many tourists for wildlife viewing opportunities.
Moose milk is harvested from captive moose in some areas, including Russia and
Sweden. (Bowyer, et al., 2003; Novak, 1999; Regelin and Franzmann, 1998)

 Positive Impacts
 food 
 body parts are source of valuable material 
 ecotourism 
 produces fertilizer

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Vehicle collisions with moose are a serious problem in North America and Europe. In North
America, nearly 3,000 occur each year. In Sweden alone, 4,500 occur per year on average, as
well as 10 to 15 human fatalities. Beyond the incalculable cost in terms of human life, moose
collisions cause significant property damage, escalate insurance premiums, can cause a local
moose population to decline and reduce recreational opportunities. Moose can also be a pest to
agriculture and forestry in some areas. Moose foraging can inhibit the growth of young trees. In
Russia, damage to the forestry industry was estimated in millions of rubles, during the
1950's. (Child, 2007; Kuznetsov, 2002; Seiler, 2005)

 Negative Impacts
 injures humans 
 crop pest

Conservation Status
IUCN lists moose as a species of “Least Concern” because a majority of populations are
expanding and extremely abundant despite heavy hunting pressure in parts of their range. The
Eurasian populations are estimated to be 1.5 million individuals, one-third of which consists of
the European populations. In 2002, populations of the United States and Canada were estimated
at 1,000,000. Some exceptions to this favorable assessment are moose in Manchuria and
Mongolia (A. a. cameloides), which are scarce, and a population in Nova Scotia (A. a.
americana), which Canada has deemed endangered. (Geist, et al., 2008; Henttonen, et al.,
2008; Novak, 1999; Timmermann, 2003)

 IUCN Red List

Least Concern
More information
 IUCN Red List
Least Concern
More information
 US Federal List
No special status
 CITES
No special status
 State of Michigan List
Special Concern

Other Comments
Alces, which has been traditionally classified as a monotypic genus, has been recently divided
into two species by some researchers: the European species, Alces alces, and the North American
species, Alces americanus. Such a division has caused confusion and does not represent the latest
genetic research. The division of moose into European and North American species was believed
to be supported by morphological differences and evidence that European moose have 68
chromosomes and North American moose have 70. It is now known that moose in Central Asia
(Yakutia) also have 70 chromosomes and share mitochondrial DNA halotypes with European
and North American moose. Furthermore, moose exhibit low variability in mitochondrial DNA
worldwide and have relatively low overall genetic diversity compared to other mammals. It is
more likely that all extant lineages of moose originated from Central Asia within the last 60,000
years, supporting a single species hypothesis rather than a two or three species
hypothesis. (Grubb, 2005; Hundertmark and Bowyer, 2004; Hundertmark, et al., 2002)

Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.

Daniel De Bord (author), University of Alaska Fairbanks, Link E. Olson (editor, instructor),
University of Alaska Fairbanks.

Glossary
Nearctic
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This
includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far
south as the highlands of central Mexico.
Palearctic
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern
Africa.

acoustic
uses sound to communicate
bilateral symmetry
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-
image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as
anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

bog
a wetland area rich in accumulated plant material and with acidic soils surrounding a
body of open water. Bogs have a flora dominated by sedges, heaths, and sphagnum.

chemical
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

crepuscular
active at dawn and dusk

cryptic
having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be
camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

diurnal

1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.

dominance hierarchies
ranking system or pecking order among members of a long-term social group, where
dominance status affects access to resources or mates

ecotourism
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of
natural areas or animals. Ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit
from the appreciation of natural areas or animals.

endothermic
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently
of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it
may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not
distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.

fertilization
union of egg and spermatozoan
 folivore
an animal that mainly eats leaves.

food
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.

forest
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount
of precipitation and seasonality.

herbivore
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

holarctic
a distribution that more or less circles the Arctic, so occurring in both the Nearctic and
Palearctic biogeographic regions.

Found in northern North America and northern Europe or Asia.

iteroparous
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple
seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by
definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
 keystone species
a species whose presence or absence strongly affects populations of other species in that
area such that the extirpation of the keystone species in an area will result in the ultimate
extirpation of many more species in that area (Example: sea otter).

marsh
marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.

migratory
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds

motile
having the capacity to move from one place to another.

mountains
This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or
covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.

native range
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

pheromones
chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other
animals of the same species

polygynous
having more than one female as a mate at one time

riparian
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always,
a river or stream).

scent marks
communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface
whether others can smell or taste them

scrub forest
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.

seasonal breeding
breeding is confined to a particular season
 sedentary
remains in the same area

sexual
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male
and a female

sexual ornamentation
one of the sexes (usually males) has special physical structures used in courting the other
sex or fighting the same sex. For example: antlers, elongated tails, special spurs.

solitary
lives alone

swamp
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often
dominated by woody vegetation.

tactile
uses touch to communicate

taiga
Coniferous or boreal forest, located in a band across northern North America, Europe,
and Asia. This terrestrial biome also occurs at high elevations. Long, cold winters and
short, wet summers. Few species of trees are present; these are primarily conifers that
grow in dense stands with little undergrowth. Some deciduous trees also may be present.

temperate
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees
South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

terrestrial
Living on the ground.

tundra
A terrestrial biome with low, shrubby or mat-like vegetation found at extremely high
latitudes or elevations, near the limit of plant growth. Soils usually subject to permafrost.
Plant diversity is typically low and the growing season is short.

visual
uses sight to communicate

viviparous
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body
and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.

young precocial
young are relatively well-developed when born

References
Ballard, W., V. Van
Ballenberghe. 2007.
Predator-Prey
Relationships. Pp.
247-273 in A
Franzmann, C
Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
Management of the
North American
Moose. Boulder,
Colorado: University
Press of Colorado.

Bowyer, R., V. Van

Ballenberghe, J. Kie.
2003. Moose: Alces
alces . Pp. 931-964 in
G Feldhamer, B
Thompson, J
Chapman, eds. Wild
mammals of North
America: Biology,
management and
conservation.
Baltimore, MD: John
Hopkins University
Press.

Boyer, R. 2004.
Sexual segregation in
Ruminants:
definitions,
hypotheses, and
implications for
conservation and
management.. Journ
al of Mammalogy,
85: 1039-1052.

Bubenik, A. 2007.
Behavior. Pp. 173-
221 in A Franzmann,
C Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
Management of the
North American
Moose. Boulder,
Colorado: University
Press of Colorado.

Child, K. 2007.
Incidental mortality.
Pp. 275-301 in A
Franzmann, C
Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
Management of the
North American
Moose. Boulder,
Colorado: University
Press of Colorado.

Engan, J. 2001.
Changes in the
relationship between
palmate and cervine
antlers in moose in
southeastern
Norway. Alces, 37:
79-88.

Franzmann, A. 1981.
Alces
alces. Mammalian
Species, 154: 1-7.

Franzmann, A. 2000.
Moose. Pp. 578-600
in S Demaris, P
Krausman,
eds. Ecology and
management of large
mammals in North
America. Upper
Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.

Gaillard, J., M. Festa-

Bianchet, N. Yoccoz.
1998. Population
Dynamics of Large
Herbivores: Variable
Recruitment with
Constant Adult
Survival. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution,
13: 58-63.

Geist, V., M.
Ferguson, J.
Rachlow. 2008.
"Alces americanus"
(On-line). IUCN Red
List of Threatened
Species. Accessed
November 16, 2008
at http://www.iucn
redlist.org/detai
ls/818.

Grubb, P. 2005.
Artiodactyla:
Cervidae:
Capreolinae. Pp. 652-
653 in D Wilson, D
Reeder,
eds. Mammal species
of the world: a
taxonomic and
geographic
reference. Baltimore,
MD: The Johns
Hopkins University
Press.

Henttonen, H., M.
Stubbe, T. Maran, A.
Tikhonov. 2008.
"Alces alces" (On-
line). 2008 IUCN
Red List of
Threatened Species.
Accessed November
16, 2008
at http://www.iucn
redlist.org/detai
ls/41782.

Hundertmark, K.
2007. Home range,
dispersal and
migration. Pp. 303-
335 in A Franzmann,
C Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
management of the
North American
moose. Boulder, CO:
University Press of
Colorado.

Hundertmark, K., R.
Bowyer. 2004.
Genetics, evolution,
and phylogeography
of moose. Alces, 40:
103-122.

Hundertmark, K., G.
Shields, I. Udina, R.
Bowyer, A. Danilkin,
C. Schwartz. 2002.
Mitochondrial
phylogeography of
moose (Alces alces):
late Pleistocene
divergence and
population
expansion. Molecula
r Phylogenetics and
Evolution, 22: 375-
387.

Karns, P. 2007.
Population
distribution, density,
and trends. Pp. 125-
139 in A Franzmann,
C Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
Management of the
North American
Moose. Boulder, CO:
University Press of
Colorado.

Kelsall, J., E. Tefler.

1974. Biogeography
of moose with
particular reference
to western North
America. Naturaliste
Canadien, 101: 117-
130.

Kie, J., R. Bowyer,

K. Stewart. 2003.
Ungulates in western
forests: Habitat
requirements,
population dynamics,
and ecosystem
processes. Pp. 296-
340 in C Zabel, R
Anthony,
eds. Mammal
community dynamics
in western coniferous
forests: Management
and conservation.
Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins
University Press.

Kielland, K., J.
Bryant. 1998. Moose
herbivory in taiga:
effects on
biogeochemistry and
vegetation dynamics
in primary
succession. Oikos,
82: 377-383.

Kuznetsov, G. 2002.
Moose and forest
problems in
Russia. Alces
supplement, 2: 65-70.

LeResche, R. 1974.
Moose migrations in
North
America. Naturaliste
Canadien, 101: 393-
415.

Miquelle, D., E.
Smirnov, H. Quigley,
M. Hornocker, E.
Nikolaev, E.
Matyushkin. 1996.
Food habits of Amur
tigers in Sikhote-Alin
Zapovednik and the
Russian Far East, and
implications for
conservation. Journa
l of Wildlife
Research, 1: 138-
147.

Molvar, E., R.
Bowyer, V. Van
Ballenberghe. 1993.
Moose herbivory,
browse quality, and
nutrient cycling in an
Alaskan treeline
community. Oecolog
ia, 94: 472-479.

Novak, R.
1999. Walker's
Mammals of the
World. Baltimore,
MD: The John
Hopkins University
Press.

Peek, J. 2007.
Habitat relationships.
Pp. 351-375 in A
Franzmann, C
Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
management of
North American
moose. Boulder, CO:
University Press of
Colorado.

Persson, I., K.
Danell, R.
Bergstrom. 2000.
Disturbance by large
herbivores in Boreal
forests with special
reference to
moose. Annales
Zoologici Fennici,
37: 251-263.

Pulliainen, E. 1974.
Seasonal movements
of moose in
Europe. Naturaliste
Canadien, 101: 379-
392.

Regelin, W., A.
Franzmann. 1998.
Past, present and
future moose
management and
research in
Alaska. Alces, 34:
279-286.

Renecker, L., C.
Schwartz. 2007.
Food habits and
feeding behavior. Pp.
403-439 in A
Franzmann, C
Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
Management of the
North American
Moose. Boulder, CO:
University Press of
Colorado.

Schwartz, C. 2007.
Reproduction,
natality, and growth.
Pp. 141-171 in A
Franzmann, C
Schwartz,
eds. Ecology and
Management of the
North American
Moose. Boulder, CO:
University Press of
Colorado.

Schwartz, C. 1992.
Reproductive biology
of North American
moose. Alces, 28:
165-173.

Schwartz, C., K.
Hundertmark. 1993.
Reproductive
characteristics of
Alaskan
moose. Journal of
Wildlife
Management, 57:
454-468.

Seiler, A. 2005.
Predicting locations
of moose-vehicle
collisions in
Sweden. Journal of
Applied Ecology, 42:
371-382.
Timmermann, H.
2003. The status and
management of
moose in North
America circa 2000-
01. Alces, 39: 131-
151.

Wilson, D., S. Ruff.

1999. The
Smithsonian Book of
North American
Mammals.
Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian
Institution Press.