LANDSCAPE geomorphology (Geological Engineering)

Geomorphology UNDER THE SEA

   KIND OF LAND UNDER THE SEA / OCEAN
Heezen and Wilson (1968, from Gunter et al., 1980) classifies the land form the ocean
floor into 3 sections the most important, namely:
   Continental margins (continental margin)
   The deep ocean basins (deep-sea basin)
   Oceanic ridge middle (mid-ocean ridge)
Bloom (1978), basing the depth and shape of the geological structure of the ocean floor
landform divide into 2 provinces, namely:
   Continental margins (continental margin) smaller parts.
   Seabed in (deep-sea floor), the wider part.
Both provinces over each itemized again. In fact on the ground the boundary between
each form of land can not be specified more clearly and easily. Distinguishing between the edge
of the continent to the deep ocean floor is that the edges of the continent as a structural part
of the continent and once in contact with air at the surface for the accumulation of
sediments coming from the mainland. While the sea floor in the very opposite, having the
structure of the ocean crust and never above the sea level
Stowe (1978) argue that the conditions under the ocean in geomorphological can be
divided into: the exposure (shelf), a slope (slope), jendulan (rise), the basin of the ocean (ocean
basin), the system ridge middle of the ocean (Mid Oceanic Ridge System), and appearance
Another smaller found on the ocean floor.
   Edge Continent
The edge of the continent at the very edge of the so-called barrel continent (continental
shelf), a slope of ramps from the coast to a depth of 150-200 m. at the end of the barrel (shelf
break) a slope becomes steeper suddenly called continental slope (continental slope). The
sections below the edge of the continent that ride on top of the oceanic crust resembles the
heights called jendulan continent (continental rise). The appearance of the barrel of the
continent, the continental slope and jendulan continent shows the edge of the passive (passive
margin) of the continent in the lithospheric plates
   Laras Continental (Continental Shelf)
Approximately 15% of the landscape beneath the ocean is a continent and the continental
slope of the barrel (Menard and Smith, 1969, in the Bloom, 1978). Barrel continent defined as
plains or terraces shallow from the coast towards the sea a continent bounded by steep
slopes become suddenly with depths ranging from 20-200 m (Shepard, 1973, in Bloom,
1978). The average width of the barrel of the continent is 75 km with gradients of 0007 '(about 2
m / km). Accumulation of sediment on the barrel of his continent of 70% is the result of
deposition that occurs when sea water regresses.
   Continental slope (Continental Slope)
Continental slope is the appearance of the surface topography of the highest, steepest
and longest on the seabed (Dietz, 1964, in Bloom, 1978). Of the continent barrel limit, a depth
of about 200 m, subducting continental slope along the 1-3 km to the top of jendulan continent at
a depth of 1500 m with slopes around 4017 '(about 75m / km). Steep escarpment on the
 continental slope occurs by the control structure, some of the continental slope is the fault
escarpment.
   Seabed In
   Jendulan Continental (Continental Rise)
At the base of the continental slope, at a depth of several km, steep slopes gradually
reduced to 10 or less, toward the sea in the form of restricted hilly land edge (abyssal hills) or the
plain edge (abyssal plain). Jendulan continent accounts for about 5% of all the oceans.
Jendulan sediment accumulates on the continent with a very large number and wedge
(reaching a thickness of up to 6 km) extends up to 300-600 km counted from the base of the
slopes. Sediment comes from the barrel of the continent, and is the largest accumulation of
sediment is contained in the earth (Emery, et al., 1970, in Bloom, 1978).
   Plateau edge (Abyssal Plain) and hills edge (Abyssal hills)
Approximately 42% of the ocean floor, or nearly 30% of the earth's surface, the edge of
the plains and hills edge (Menard and Smith, 1966, in Bloom, 1978). Its depth ranges from 3-6
km below sea level with the height of the edge of a few hundred up to 1000 m of the ocean floor
and is a function of the age of oceanic crust.

Hilly edge formed by volcanism and tectonic in the middle of the expansion of the ocean
(sea floor spreading) are then carried away laterally from the ridge of the ocean by a hot plate
movement and contraction.
If pemekarannya is rapid, then the topography of hills sloping edge would, if the
expansion is slow, it will form a rough topography
Plains edge of the deposition surface are filled by clay and silt of biogenic origin
mainland (terrigoneous). The thickness reaches a few hundred meters away. Rock consisting of
clay brown, but in areas with nutrient-rich surface water will produce a precipitate which is
dominated by siliceous or calcareous foraminifera diatomea
   Central ridge ocean (Mid Ocean Ridge)
The back middle of the ocean is a mountain range beneath the ocean at a depth of
less than 4 km sea, but the sides are deeper ocean. The width of this land form altitude reaches
thousands of km dengana up to 2 km, and agihannya third of the land form the ocean (Bloom,
1978). The back middle of the ocean is the youngest part of the oceanic crust that forms the
bottom of the ocean, and only has a thin layer of sediment on it. Landform is characterized by the
presence of complex fault shear (transform faults).
The back middle of the ocean is a combined system of the back of the ocean (ocean
ridge) and jendulan ocean (ocean rise). Between the ridge and rise only distinguished on a slope,
Ridge steeper and used to mountain ranges in the middle of the Atlantic, while the protrusions
resembling rise applied to the appearance in the Eastern Pacific. At the center of the back middle
of the ocean system encountered a steep valley and the (rift valley). (Hutabarat & Evans, 1986).
   Ocean Basin (Ocean Basin)
Oceanic basins located between the continental slope and the ocean ridge system and has
an average depth of 4000 - 6000 m. This vast oceanic basins is 30% of the total area of the
earth's surface
On the basis of this ocean basin there are hundreds to thousands of abyssal hill, also
sometimes Seamount.
   Seamount and guyot (volcano under the ocean)
 A small portion of the ocean floor consists of volcanoes, isolated or a mountain that is
not part of the back middle of the ocean. Elevation looming approximately 3-4 km from the
ocean floor up to several hundred meters below sea level.
Volcano under the ocean with a peak in the form of volcanic cone called Seamount,
while culminating flat commonly called guyot (Hess, in Bloom, 1978).
In some guyot encountered shallow marine sediments such as gravel beaches and coral
sediment but is now covered by pelagic sediment because it is located at a depth of 400 - 2000
m. Flat top of this guyot apart due to erosion, can also be formed by a volcanic eruption.
   Ocean Trench (trench) and Arc Islands (Island arc)
The deepest part of the ocean is not located in the middle, but at the near edge.
About half of the edge of the continent bounded by the trough, has a depth of up to 2
times the depth of the ocean floor. Oceanic trenches is a path that is steep, narrow and elongated
at the bottom of the ocean that can reach depths of 10,000 m.
The existence of the trough is generally always associated with island arc, ie rangkaian-
islands or arc ridge which separates the shallow sea to sea, and is often the epicenter of the
earthquake and volcanic activities.
   Morphology beneath the ocean Minor
There are some parts of the bottom morphology of the ocean / sea smaller shape and size
that is plato, oceanic trenches, reef and atoll.

   Plato
There are some parts of continental crust were lifted to the surface in the form of plateau
forming a small island. Height of about 1-2 km above the sea floor. The crust on the plateau is
thicker than the surrounding areas. Nature of the crust together with the continental crust. Most
of this plateau continental crust formed from the geological past, or the results of local volcanic
workmanship.
   Reef and Atoll
In areas with warm sea water conditions, seabed depths ranging from 50 m, the water
conditions clear sea, far from the delta or river it will be very beneficial for the growth of coral.
This coral colonies form a large group of so-called reef. If the reef is growing around the small
island of volcanic remnant or a plateau, then the coral colonies will grow around the island, as a
result of erosion or declining sea level, the only remaining colony of this ring-shaped coral
commonly called atolls.

DELTA AND COASTAL LANDSCAPE

   Delta
Delta is a form that juts out from the coastline (like the letter D), formed when the river
enters the sea, with a number of water-borne sediment supply river faster than the process of
distributing the processes on the beach.
   Processes Affecting Formation Delta
1. Climate
Climate influence on the physics, chemistry, and biology in all parts of the river system.
In the tropics, the supply of large volumes of surface water. Physical and chemical weathering
effect on the level of sedimentation.
2. Debit River
 River discharge depends on climate factors, affect the geometric shape of the delta. Delta
with water discharge and high and constant sedimennnya annually produce a body of sand that is
long and straight and generally forms a large angle to the shoreline. Conversely if the product is
a variation of sediment and water discharge per year is different, then the reform of bodies of
sand that had been deposited by ocean processes and tend to form the body of the delta that is
parallel to the shoreline.
3. Product Sediment
Delta will not be formed if the product is too small sediment.
4. Energy wave
Wave energy is an important mechanism to modify and print the delta sediments in the
sea into a form the body of the sand in the beach area.
5. Process Tidal
Several major deltas in the world dominated by strong tidal activity. Among them are-
Brahmanaputra Ganges delta in Bangladesh, and delta Ord in Australia.
6. Flow beach
Flow orient beach sand bodies to form a parallel or nearly parallel to the direction of
flow of the river.
7. Slope exposure
Slope of the continental shelf was instrumental in determining the pattern of
displacement delta, which happened in a long time.
8. Form basin Receiver and tectonic processes
Recipient basin forms a delta configuration and control of the pattern changes.
Tectonically active region with the accumulation of sediment is a little difficult to form the delta.
contrary to areas with passive tectonic and accumulation of sediment which formed a delta that
much good will.
   Terms formation Delta

1. At the estuary of the river flow has minimum speeds.

2. The amount of material taken as a result of erosion of the river quite a lot
3. The sea at the river mouth area is fairly quiet.
4. Relatively gently sloping beaches.
5. Materials sedimentation results are not disturbed by the activity of sea water.
6. There is no tectonic disturbance, except for a decrease in the seabed by the deposition of
river

   Basic elements of Delta

1. River: as a means of transporting materials

2. Distributary channel
3. Delta Plain: The delta located on the mainland, is generally a swamp.
4. Front Delta / Delta Slope: part of the delta that is in front of the delta plain, and is a
shallow sea.
5. Pro delta: the front part of the delta that is headed out to sea.

   Classification Delta
1. According to Fisher, et al. (1969)
 Basic classification:
   Fluvial processes and sediment influx.
   Process sea (waves and currents below the surface).

Divided into three classes, namely:

   Cuspate Delta.
   Lobate Delta.
   Elongate Delta / Delta Bird Food
   DELTA CUSPATE
2. According to Galloway (1975):
Basis: the dominance of fluvial process, wave and tidal, namely:
   Bird foot delta: if the most dominant fluvial influence.
   Cuspate delta : If the influence of the dominant wave.
   Estuarine delta: if the predominant influence of the tides.
There are two important things to note:
A. Homopyonal Flow: river and sea water density equal
B. Hyperpyonal Flow: the higher the density of river water
C. Hypopyonal Flow: the lower the density of the river water.
   Beach Landscape
The beach is an elongated track or field, height and width is influenced by the tides
of the sea, which lies between land and sea (Thombury, 1969).
Factors that affect the coastal morphology: influence diatropisme, rock types, geological
structure, changes in the rise and fall of sea level, as well as sedimentary origin of the land /
river, land erosion and wind.
The beach area which is still under the influence of sea water can be divided into 3
(three), namely:
   Beach (beach area), which is the area directly under the influence of sea water and can always be
reached by the high tide and ebb.
   Shore line (shoreline), the dividing lines are relatively shaped line and the relative is the
boundary between the sea water reached the area and who can not.
   Coast (beach), the area adjacent to the sea and still under the influence of sea water.
   Classification Beach
1. Classification Beach In Classic, Johnson (1919), divided into:
a. Beach sinks (submergence coast)
: formed since the sinking of the land or rising sea levels, characteristics:
shoreline irregular, there are islands at the front beaches, bays in and dale valley
down.
Examples of these beaches are:
   Ria coast: beaches before teggelam has eroded land, mainly fluvial erosion.
   Fjord coast: beaches before sinking experienced glaciation process (see figure VII.6.).
Appearance on topographic maps:
   Irregular coastline.
   Contour line winding irregular.
   Relatively steep coast, characterized by the contour lines are relatively tight.
   Villages around the coast is generally not parallel to the shoreline.
b. Up the coast (emergence coast)
 The beach is formed by the advance of the coastline or drop in sea level, characteristics:
relatively straight shoreline, the low reliefs, the formation steps of the beach and sandbar beach
or embankments upfront beach.
Appearance on topographic maps:
   Relatively straight coastline, marked by contour straight.
   Relatively gentle shore, indicated by the contour lines are tenuous.
   If the settlement is found generally relatively parallel to the shoreline.
c. Neutral beach
The beach is not experiencing the sinking or boosts and is usually characterized by a
relatively straight coastline, gently sloping beaches and the waves are not big.
Some examples of these beaches include:
   Delta coast
   Coastal alluvial plains
   Beach volcano
   Shore coral reefs
   Cesarean beach
Appearance on topographic maps:
   The presence of delta plain, alluvial plain, etc.
   Usually the contour lines tenuous
   Form a relatively straight coastline curved
   River estuary section has many branches, as if the river has a tree-shaped pattern (dendritic).
d. Mixed coast
Beach which has the appearance of previously established than others. Kanampakan
steps such as beaches, valleys sinking, which is a result of the rise and fall of sea levels.
Appearance on topographic maps:
   The existence of the coastal plain, terraces (emergence)
   The existence of bays with relatively tightly contour (submergence)
   Irregular settlements.
2. Classification Genetically Beach and Descriptive, Valentine (1952)
3. Classification Based Coastal Power Geomorphic
Shepard (1963) cited Sunarto (1991) classifies beaches into 2 (two), namely:
a. Primary coast (young).
Primary beaches formed by workers of the land (erosion, deposition land, volcanoes,
faults and folds).
b. Secondary coast (adults).
Secondary coast of the results of the sea, including marine erosion, deposition and
formation of organic sea.
Various Turkish Primer
   Beach due to erosion of the land. Either by river erosion and glacial before experiencing rapture.
   The beach is formed by deposition of terrestrial origin.
   Coastal results fluvial deposition, for example delta coast, coastal alluvial plains that descend
(beach semarang).
   Glacial deposition beaches, such as Henry sinking or as drumline sinking
   The beach is due to deposition of sand by wind (prograding sand dune).
   Widespread vegetation on the beach or the extensive mangrove swamps (eg beach near
Townsvill, northeast Queensland, Australia).
   Form the beach due in volcanic activity
   The beach is affected by the lava flows today. Characteristics if lavanya bases irregular shape of
the coast, if the acid form of the coast more regularly.
   Coastal subsidence and coastal volcanic caldera.
   The beach is formed due to the influence of diatrophism or tectonic
   The beach is formed due to a fault.
   Beach formed by folds
Various Secondary Coast
   Shape of the coast because sea erosion
   The beach is tortuous due to wave erosion
   Rugged coastline that is straight because of the erosion of the waves
   Shape of the coast because sea deposition
   The beach is straight because precipitation sandbank (bars) were cut bay.
   The beach is advanced because of sea deposition.
   Beach with sandbars offshore (offshore bars and longshore spit)
4. Classification beach is Klimato- Genetic
Basis: the relationship between the morphology shore wave energy, as well as attention
to the significance of historical relics and geological aspects in the evolution of the coast.
Divided into :
a. Latitude beach Low
Characteristics: low wave energy and environment trade winds. Many coastal sediments,
there is a relationship between morphological variations of the coast and rainfall region.
Mangroves grow in tropical climates hot-wet, while the coastal dune environments found in
tropical hot-dry climates.
b. Latitude central coast
There are in the neighborhood of high-energy waves. Because the wave activity and the
high-powered abrasion, the cliff and the associated formation can develop well.
c. High-latitude coastal
This beach is characterized by low energy waves. Most of the remnants of freezing. Cliff
morphology development is strongly influenced by the movement of the rock mass on a large
scale.
Processes in Pantai.
Appearance resembles a bridge on lava rock (lava bridge) due to abrasion by wave
The appearance of the cliff due to abrasion of waves on the limestone cliffs berlitologi

LANDSCAPE Eolian
Eolian landscape is a landscape formed due to wind activity.
The landscape is often found in desert areas.
The desert itself is caused due to the influence of climate and is not a specific result
of certain geological agents.

PROCESSES BY WIND
The wind, though not as important geomorphic agent (topography formed by wind
is not often found), but still can not be ignored. Processes caused by wind include erosion,
transport and deposition.
Erosion by wind
 Erosion by wind can be divided into two kinds, namely deflation and abrasion or
korasi.

Deflation is the loss of land and small particles of rock transported and carried by
the wind. While abrasion is the process of grinding the rocks and other surfaces by
particles carried by the wind flow.
Transport by Wind
Means of transport by the wind basically the same as the means of transport by air,
which is floating (suspesion) and shifts in surface (traction).

In general, fine particles (dust) was taken in drift and measuring sand brought in
shifts on the surface (traction). These include transport in traction bolt (saltation) and
rolling (rolling).
Precipitation by wind
If the power of the wind that carries the material is reduced or if it rains, then the
materials (sand and dust) will be deposited.
TYPES OF LANDSCAPE Eolian
Judging from the process of its creation, the landscape can be grouped eolian
into two, namely:

1. landscape as a result of erosion by wind

2. landscape as a result of the deposition process by the wind.

Landscape Eolian
Erosion due process
The process of erosion by wind divided into two, namely deflation and abrasion.
Landscape caused by erosion process is also divided into two, namely deflation process
results landscapes and landforms result of abrasion process.
Landscape Results Deflation Process
The landscape of the results of the deflation process is divided into 3 (three),
namely:

1. Basin deflation (deflation basin)

2. Lag gravel
3. Desert varnish

a. Basin deflation (deflation basin)

Deflation basin is a basin caused by wind in areas of soft and unconsolidated or
materials cemented ugly. Basin formed by the material that is moved by the wind to other
places.
Examples of this basin are in the Gobi Desert, which is formed by the rocks have
been broken down by the weathering. This basin has a size of between 300 meters to more
than 45 kilometers in length, and from 15 meters to 150 meters deep.
b. Lag gravel
Deflation against dust and sand that is left is a coarse material (granule, pebble, and
the fragments are large), called lagstone. Accumulation like that in a long time can be a lot
and be lag-gravel or even as desert pavement, where the remnants of the fragments relate to
one another close together.
c. Desert varnish
Some lagstone thin, shiny, black or brown and the surface is covered with iron
oxide, known as desert varnish.
Results phenomenon Abrasion Process
The phenomenon of abrasion or korasi process results:

1. Bevelad stone
2. Polish
3. Grooves
4. Sculpturing (decking)

a. Bevelad stone
Some leftover rock generated by wind abrasion containing sand will form einkanter
or dreikanter which in English is called single edge or three edge.
Einkanter formed from the intersection of the pebble which has a permanent
establishment in wind direction which is fixed (constant). Dreikanter formed from the
intersection of the pebble that position overturned due to the destruction on the bottom with
the wind direction is fixed or can be caused by wind direction changing to pebble which has
fixed position so as to form a surface lot.
b. Polish
Polish is formed in rocks that have a fine grain size scoured by wind-containing
sand (sand blast) or containing silt (silt blast), which has a weak strength, so the result will
be more shiny, for example in quartzite, abrasion due to erosion will be more shiny.
c. Grooves
Wind containing sand can also scrub and sweep the rock surface to form a groove
known as grooves. In dry areas, grooves so it's very clear. The grooves show appearance
that is parallel to the side very clearly.
d. sculpturing (Decking)
Many different forms of topography caused by a combination of wind weathering
and abrasion. Including here is batujamur (mushroom rock), the stone eroded by the wind
which contains sand, so that its shape resembles a fungus (mushroom)
Landscape
Results Precipitation Wind
Results of the deposition process is divided into two, namely:

1. Dune
2. Loess

Dune
Dune is a heap that can move or migrate, the shape is not influenced by the shape of
the surface or obstacle (badhold, 1923, in Thornbury, 1964).
This dune types according Hace (1941, in Thornbury, 1964), classified into three,
namely:
a. transverse dune
 Transverse dune is a ridge-shaped sand ridge extends perpendicularly to the
dominant wind direction. This form factor is not dipengarahi by vegetation.
Transverse dune
b. Parabollic dune
Parabollic dune is a dune-shaped shovel / spoon or parabolic. This form because it is
influenced by the presence of vegetation.
c. Longitudinal dune
Longitudinal dune is a ridge-formed sand ridge extends parallel to the dominant
wind direction. Rapid sand material transported by the wind relatively fixed.
Sketch transverse dune, parabollic dune and dune longitudinal (Selby, MJ 1985)
Dune classification according Emmon's (1960)
According Emmon's (1960), dune forms may vary, depending on the amount of
sand accretion, deposition on soil, vegetation blocking and wind direction are fixed.
Based on these things, then the dune types are classified into:
Types of Dune
a. Lee dune (sand drift)
Lee dune or sand driff is dune growing elongated, a ridge of sand narrow are behind
rocks rocks or vegetation. Dune has a permanent establishment, but with the addition of
the amount of sand that much, it can also be a kind of dune that moves from the tip driff
sand.
b. Longitudinal dune
Longitudinal dune has a longitudinal direction in the direction of the wind effective
and dominant. The formation because the wind was restrained by grass or small trees.
Sometimes shaped like the slopes of a valley.
c. Barchan
Barchan formed in open areas, not limited by topography or vegetation where the
wind direction is always fixed, and the addition of sand is limited and is above the bedrock
solid. Barchan is a comma-shaped, with a gentle slope on the outside, and has a peak and
wing.
Barchan
a. Barchan formation behind small trees.
b. Barchan formation behind and in front of a stone.
Diagram showing the direction and motion of the wind during the process of formation of
barchan
d. Seif
Seif is a longitudinal barchan dune shaped with one arm much longer due to the
wind speed is stronger in the long arm. For example in the Arabian Sword, seif Associated
with and contrasts between barchan barchan be seif. Change another example of becoming
lee seif dune.
e. transverse Dune
Transverse dune formed in the region with the addition of a lot of dry sand, the
wind blows constantly, for example along the beach. Sand a lot of it will be a heap of sand
in the form of a ridge or a row of ridge transverse to the direction of the wind.
f. Complex dune
Conplek dune formed in the area with the wind changing, sand and vegetation
rather a lot. Barchan, seif and transverse dumne which are local-local will evolve to become
 full and there will be overlap so that it will lose the forms of the original and will have a
slope many kinds of. This condition is referred to as complex dune.
According to Emmons (1960, in Thornbury, 1969), this dune typically have a height
of between 6 m to 20 m, but some dune can reach a height of several tens of meters. While
the move or migration speed varies depending on environmental conditions. Usually no
more than a few meters per year, but there is also a samp0ai 30 m per year.
Table dune formation (Bloom: 339)
Loess
The extensive area covered refined materials and off called loess. Some sediment
Loess encountered in western China has a thickness of up to several hundred meters.
Whereas in most other places loess sediment only reaches a few meters away. Some
sediment loess cover a very fertile area.
Microscopic investigation showed that loess berkomposisi angular particles, with a
diameter less than 0.5 mm. Consists of quartz, feldspar, hornblende, and mica.
Most of the granules are in a state of fresh or newly exposed to weathering slightly.
This appearance suggests that the loess is the result of dust and silt sediment transported
and deposited by wind.

LANDSCAPE fluvial
   LANDSCAPE fluvial
   geomorphological unit which establishment is closely connected with the process fluviatil.
   Fluviatil process: all natural processes that occur in either physics or chemistry that results in a
change in shape of the earth's surface, caused by the action of surface water, both of which are
integrally flowing water (rivers), or water that is not concentrated (sheet water).
   fluviatil process will produce a landscape that is typical as a result of the behavior of flowing
water on the surface.
   Landscapes formed can occur because the process of erosion and sedimentation due process
performed by surface water.
   Fluviatil process varies in intensity.
Keep in mind that the surface water is one of the chains of the hydrologic cycle. The
presence of surface water is largely controlled by the presence of rainwater, while the size of the
amount of surface water is influenced by several factors, namely:

a. Value rainfall
b. The amount of vegetation
c. Slope
d. Type Lithology
e. Climate

   Hydrological cycle
   Various processes Fluviatil

1. The process of erosion

Carried out by water erosion can be done in various ways, namely:

   Quarrying, namely Pendongkelan rocks in its path.
   Abrasion, namely grinding against rocks in its path.
   Scouring, which scour the riverbed due to Ulakan stream, for example in the area of the cut-off
slope on the Meander.
   Corrosion, which is the reaction to the rocks in its path.
Under his direction, the erosion can be distinguished:
   Vertical erosion, erosion direction erect and tend to occur in the area of the upper reaches of the
river led to the deepening of the river valley.
   Lateral erosion, the erosion of the horizontal direction and predominantly occurs in part
downstream of the river, causing the river grew wide.
Erosion continues until one day will reach the limit where river water is no longer able to
erode due to have reached erosion base level.
Erosion base level can be divided into
   ultimate base level of the base level in the form of sea level
   temporary base level of the base of the local level as the surface of the lake water, marsh, and its
kind.
The intensity of erosion in a stream is directly proportional to the flow velocity of the
river.

Erosion will be more effective if the media is concerned transporting various materials.
Erosion has the ultimate goal of leveling so that approaching the ultimate base level.
2. Process Transportation
is the process of transfer / transport of materials by a dynamic body of water caused by
kinetic energy that exist in the river as the effects of gravity

In discussing the transport stream known the term:

   stream capacity: the amount of the maximum load that is able to be appointed by the flow of the
river
   competance stream: the maximum size of the load that is capable of being transported by the
flow of the river.
River transport material erosion results in general through two mechanisms, namely the
mechanism of bed load and suspended load.
Bed load mechanism: the process these materials are transported along the river, divided
into several ways, among others:
   Traction: materials transported dragged at the bottom of the river.
   Rolling: material transported by means of rolling on the river bottom.
   Saltation: material transported by means of rolling on the river bottom.
Mechanism suspended load: materials transported by means of the body floating in the
river, divided into:
   Suspension: float material transported and mixed with water, causing the river to become cloudy.
   Solution: material transported, soluble in water and form a chemical solution.
   Sediment transport mechanism
3. Process of sedimentation
Sedimentation occurs when the river no longer able to transport the material it carries. If
the carrier power on the wane, the coarse material will be deposited first and then deposited finer
material.
 The size of the deposited material is directly proportional to the amount of energy
carrier, so the direction of the grain size hillir increasingly fine precipitated material.
   Distribution Patterns
   Forms the body of water called the drainage / distribution (drainage), covering sea, lakes, rivers,
swamps and the like.
   One or more of the river and its tributaries and branches can form a pattern or system, known as
the drainage pattern / distribution patterns (drainage pattern). Drainage patterns can be divided
into several kinds. Each kind of drainage patterns can vary, and such variations among others
caused by the structure and variation of the rock where the drainage pattern there.
Various drainage patterns:
a. Dendritic: patterns of drainage with a shape like a tree, with creeks and branches have an
irregular way.
Generally develops in uniform resistance rocks, sedimentary rocks flat, or nearly flat,
massive igneous rock area, flexures, regional metamorphic complex. Control structure is not
dominant in this pattern, but usually this flow pattern will be located on an anticline ridge area.
b. Radial, is a drainage pattern that has concentric pattern or spread with one central point of
which is controlled by the slope of the slope.
c. Rectanguler: patterns of drainage where tributaries form an angle perpendicular to the main
stream, generally in the area of the fault that applying (regular).
d. Trellis, is a shape like a leaf with parallel tributaries. The main river is usually lengthwise
direction of the bedding rock stance. Generally formed in sedimentary rocks alternating between
having a low resistance and high.
Creeks will be the dominant form of erosion in sedimentary rocks that have low
resistance.
So in general, the formation of the main rivers is caused by struktrur control and the
establishment of more tributaries caused by lithological controls.

   Annular, is the drainage pattern where the river or its tributaries have spread circular
Common in adults berstadia dome area. This pattern is the development of the pattern
radier. The pattern of this circular to follow moves to the bedding rock.
   Multi basinal or sink hole is imperfect drainage patterns, sometimes visible on the surface of the
earth, sometimes invisible, known as the underground river. This drainage pattern develops in
areas of karst or limestone areas.
   Contorted, is the drainage pattern in which the flow direction turn / U-turn. Control structures
that work in the form of a pattern of irregular folds that allow the formation of a bend or bends
in the layers of sediment there.
   Various Landscape Fluviatil
a. Woven river (Braided Stream)
formed at the downstream slope is almost flat - flat, broad plot and shallow. formed due
to excessive erosion on the upper reaches of the river, causing precipitation in the groove and
form a precipitate middle charred. Due to the middle charred sediment that much, then the flow
gives the impression woven. This condition is also called anastomosis (Fairbridge, 1968).
b. Bar deposit
is a stream sediment contained on the edges or the middle of the river channel. The
precipitate in the middle of the river channel called scorched middle (channel bar) and sediment
 at the edge of the so-called scorched edges (point bars) .The bar this deposit can be gravel,
rubble, sand, etc.
c. Floodplain (floodplain) and Embankment natural (Natural levee)
Adult stadia river precipitate the majority of material transported during flood on the
right and left side of the river, along with a continuous ongoing process will form a thick
accumulation of sediment that eventually form a natural levee.
d. Alluvial Fan (alluvial fan)
If a river with large sediment load flow of hills or mountains, and into the lowlands,
there will be changes in the velocity gradient drastic, resulting in deposition of material quickly,
known as alluvial fan, in the form of a pile of loose material, shaped like a fan, usually found on
a plateau in front an escarpment. Usually on alluvial fan areas are abundant ground water. This is
because generally alluvial fan consist of perselingan sand and clay so it is a good water-carrying
layer.
e. Meander
formed on river flood plains shaped bend due to erosion of the river bank, the flow area
called Meander Belt.
Meander is formed when on a river berstadia adults / parents have floodplains are wide
enough, the river flow through it with irregular because the deflection flow This deflection
occurs because there are rocks that block so that the flow is turned and continued to scour to rock
weaker.
f. Oxbow lake
formed when curved meanders interrupted by streamlining the water.
g. Delta
landscape is the result of sedimentation of rivers downstream after entering the local base
level. Next will be discussed in Natural landscape Beach and Delta.
   Appearance oxbow lake
   Landscape Fluvial in topographic maps
   In topographic map standard, most of the fluvial landscape inexpressible, especially small ones,
for example scorched rivers, natural levee. Most of the landscape that can be expressed in a large
topographical map, such as alluvial fan.
   In a topographic map of the river flow was evident with the distinctive contour pattern,
characterized by a tapered contour upstream.
   Application
Areas including fluvial landscape is an area with huge potential to be exploited for
human life, especially around the river.

The area around the watershed is an area of potential as a provider of water for irrigation,
drinking water, sand and stone materials (BG, goals C) that can be used as building materials.
watersheds could also be sesumber disasters such as floods and landslides.

Analysis on the landscape can provide information about the geological conditions of a
region, which will be expressed in the distribution patterns and formations landscape locally,
such as alluvial fan, floodplain, and the like. The analysis will also provide information about
the stage area and stage of erosion areas related, which will contribute thought in regional
development planning.
 LANDSCAPE
•           Karst
Understanding of the topography of the karst namely: a topography that is formed in
areas with lithological form of rock soluble, showed relief is typical, distribution is
irregular, river flows suddenly into the ground and leave the dry valley and reappear
elsewhere as large springs.
•           Factors influencing Karst Landscape

1. Physical factors
2. Chemical Factor
3. Biological factors
4. Climate and Environmental Factors

•           1. Physical Factors

Physical factors that affect the formation of karst topography include:

a. The thickness of limestone, which is good for the development of karst limestone is
thick, can be massive or consisting of several layers and form a thick rock units, so as to
display before the expiry of soluble karst topography.

However, the most good is a massive rock, because there is usually a layered limestone
clay concentrated on bedding plane, thus reducing the freedom of circulation of water to
penetrate all layers.

b. Porosity and permeability, water sirkulari influential in the rock. The greater the porosity
of the water circulation will be smooth so that the process will be more intensive
karstification.
c. Intensity structure (muscular), muscular zone adlah weak zones are prone to leaching
and erosion so that the presence of burly in the rock, dissolving process intensified.

Stump good for karstification process is stocky pairs (muscular shear zones), because
they will be paired so that heightens muscular porosity and permeability.
However, if a very high intensity muscular rock will be easily eroded or destroyed so
that the process of karstification inhibited.
•           2. Chemical Factor

a. Chemical condition of the rock, in the formation of karst topography is required at least
60% calcite in rocks and the most well needed 90% calcite.
b. Chemical conditions of solvent media, the media karstification process the solvent is
water, this water chemistry conditions greatly affect the process of karstification

Calcite difficult to dissolve in pure water, but soluble in water containing acid.
Rainwater binding CO 2 in the air and on the ground to form a solution that is acidic
carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3).
This is an excellent solution for dissolving limestone.
•           3. Biological Factors
 Plants and microbiological activity can produce humus that covers the bedrock, causing the
condition of anaerobic so that surface water entering into the zone anaerobic, the partial
pressure of CO 2 will meninggkat thus dissolving capability also increases.
•           4. Climate and Environmental Factors
Environmental conditions that favor is the great valleys that surround the high ground
which consists of soluble rocks (limestone) which fractured intensive. Environmental conditions
in the surrounding limestone should be lower so that the water circulation run well, so the
process goes to the intensive karstification.
•           Formation Process
Topography Karst
Rock conditions that support the formation of karst topography there are four, namely:

a. Soluble and are at or near the surface.

b. Massive, thick and fractured.
c. Located in areas with high rainfall.
d. Surrounded valley

The process of dissolving the limestone, leaving the rest of dissolution morphology,
morphological development of the rest can be divided into four phases, namely:

b. A faster because the zone undergo dissolution, then this zone immediately formed a deep
valley, while Zone B is still a plateau with the symptoms of dilution in some places.

c. Dissolution of the two zones continue to run so that this phase begins to form cones karst
in zone B. At this level cone karst dissolution / erosion vertical is smaller than in the
surrounding valley.

d. Because of the lateral erosion by the river the A zone is at the limit erosion
surface and the zone B vertical erosion has run up so that only a few morphological
rest of course, the morphology of the rest is called the tower karst.

•           Landscape
The process results Karstification
Morphology that make up a karst landscape can be divided into two, namely forms of
constructional and other forms of residual dissolution
•           1. The forms of constructional
Forms konstriksional is topography formed by limestone dissolution process or
precipitation of carbonate minerals carried by water.
Based on its size can be divided into two, namely:
•           Forms of minor
•           Forms of major
Minor karst landscape is a landscape that can not be observed on topographic maps
or aerial photographs.
While the major landforms is that it can be observed from topographic maps or aerial
photographs.
 Landscape forms a minor between:

1. Lapies, namely uneven shape on the limestone due to leaching and milling processes.

2. Karst split, dissolution is a gap formed on the surface.

3. Karst trenches, which are elongated grooves on the surface to form a trench, which is
also often considered karst split lengthwise to form a trench.

Karst trenches

4. Karst trough, grooves on the surface of the rock is large and wide, formed by the
dissolution process, the depth of more than 50 cm. usually on the surface of a flat or
sloping rock is low and is controlled by the elongated structure.
5. Speleotherms, is an ornament in the cave that is precipitate CaCO 3 that experienced precipitation on
groundwater which took him into the cave. (Stalactites, stalagmites)

Speleotherms

6. Fitokarst, is a grooved surface with holes that are interconnected, formed due to the
influence of biological activity that is algae that grows in limestone. Algae closes on the
surface and go as deep as 0.1 to 0.2 mm and produce acid that dissolves the limestone.

While the forms topgrafi major karst, among others:

1. Surupan (doline), which is a closed depression dissolution results with a diameter

ranging from a few meters to several kilometers, the depth can be up to hundreds of
meters and have a round or oval shape.
2. Uvala, is a combination of several doline.

Doline

3. Polje, is depresisi large covered with a flat floor and steep walls, irregularly shaped
and usually extends unidirectional moves to the bedding, its formation is controlled
by lithology and structure, and experienced a widening when filled with water.

Polje

4. Karst window, is a hole in the roof of the cave that connects with the outside air,
formed by the roof of the cave collapsed.

5. Karst valley, is the great valley or groove, formed by runoff that erodes rocks in its
path. There are 4 kinds of karst valleys, namely:
a. Allogenic valley, karst valleys with upstream on impermeable rocks (not
limestone) which is then entered into a karst area.
 b. Blind valley, karst valleys that flow suddenly lost due into the rock.
c. Pocket valley, the valley associated with a large fountain and out of the water
impermeable rock (not limestone) under a layer of limestone.
d. Dry valley, the valley which is similar to but not as a fluviatil valley channeling
surface water because the water that goes directly to seep into the rock foundation
(as many fractures)

6. Cave, is the basement which can be reached from the surface and large enough
when traversed by humans.
7. Tunnels and bridges nature, is the hall beneath the surface formed by dissolution and
crushing ground water.

•           Time Dissolution forms

What is meant by the rest of dissolution is morphology formed by leaching and erosion
are already running very late, leaving the rest of erosion typical of karst areas.
Various morphological remainder among others:

1. Cone karst, is a cone-shaped karst hills, steep slopes and surrounded by a depression.
2. Karst tower, is the hill the rest of dissolution and erosion shaped tower with steep slopes
upright or hanging, separated from one another and surrounded by alluvial plains.

LANDSCAPE STRUCTURAL
   pembentukkannya landscape is controlled by the geological structure of the area concerned.
   The geological structure which most affect the morphology formation is secondary geological
structure, ie a structure that is formed after the rock there. Usually formed by the endogenous
process that tectonic processes that resulted in the removal, fracture, and bending, which is
reflected in the form of a distinctive topography and relief.
   Various external process that occurs is weathering (decomposition and disintegration), erosion
(water, wind or glacial) and mass movements (avalanches, creep or slump).
Appearance that can be used in the interpretation of the structural landscape
   Drainage patterns. The variation is usually controlled by variation of geological structure and
lithology in the area.
   Straightness-straightness (lineament) of the ridge (ridge), hilltops, valleys, slopes and others.
   Form - the form of hills, valleys etc.
   Changes in river flow, for example, sudden, controlled by the possibility of muscular structures,
faults or folds.
Various Structural Landscape
   Landscape by Landscape Structures (Layer Horizontal)
   Lowlands, is plain elevation between 0-500 feet from sea level.
   Plateau (plateau), is a plateau that occupies more than 500 feet of elevation above sea level,
sloping very gently sloping or flat located higher than the surrounding landscape
  Landscape with Leaning Structure
   Cuesta, a slope between the two sides of the slope are not symmetric with the angle of
bedding rock slope in the direction of less than 30 o (Tjia, 1987).
   Hogback: the angle between the two sides are relatively the same, with the angle of bedding
rock slope in the direction of more than 30 o (Tjia, 1987). Hogback has a slope scarp slope
and dip slope almost the same so it looks symmetry
Landscape With The structure folds Folds occur because of the earth's crust are subjected
to forces of compression (compression force). At a simple folds, part of the ridge called
anticline, while the valley is called the syncline.
 
Folded bedding
   Anticline and syncline structure of the subducting
This structure is a continuation or development of mountainous folds in one
direction (cuesta and Hogback) and two-way (syncline and anticline). When the three fore
slope facing each other so called valley anticline subducting. Meanwhile, when three back
slope face each other, it is called a syncline valley subducting
   Dome
The landscape of this discrete appearance as follows:
   Positions tilted toward the outer layer (fore slope inward).
   Having a closed contour pattern.
   Distribution patterns radier and form convex hill at a young stage.
   In the adult stage dome-shaped valley with distribution patterns annular.
   Basin
This landscape has the appearance as follows:
   The position angle into the layer (back slope toward the inside).
   Having a closed contour pattern.
   At the young stadia distribution patterns annular.
   Landscape with Fault Structure
Fault (fault) occurs due to the compressive force acting on the earth's crust, causing a
shift in the location of the position of the rock layers. There are 3 types of faults (based on the
direction of motion relative), ie shear fault, reverse fault and fault down.
In general landscape is controlled by fault structure is difficult to determine the type of
fracture directly.
The general characteristics of the morphological appearance of the landscape structural
faults, namely:
   Height difference is relatively conspicuous in tight areas.
   Has resisitensi against erosion are very different in the position / elevation similar.
   The existence of the appearance of the plains / narrow elongated depression.
   Escarpment system encountered a straight (straight length contour patterns and meetings).
   The presence of steep boundary between the hills / mountains with a low plateau.
   The existence of straightness of the river through the fault zone, and swerved suddenly and
deviate from the general direction.
   Often encountered (straightness) springs on the rising / raised.
   Distribution patterns which are common in the form of rectangular, trellis, and contorted, as well
as the modification of the three.

LANDSCAPE Volcanics
The landscape of volcanic landscape formation is controlled by the discharge of
magma from the earth
 The landscape of volcanic generally associated with tectonic movement, volcanic-
volcanoes mostly found in the front zone of subduction (subduction zone)
Volcano
According to MacDonald (1972), volcanoes are places or incandescent material
discharge hole or gas that comes from the earth to the earth's surface.
Matahelemual (1982, on Anwar, et al, 1987) defines volcanoes as forms of generation
collection of materials on earth eruption originating from magma spread independently, in
groups or chain.
Meanwhile Montgomery (1989, on Anwar, et al, 1987), states that the volcano is where
the discharge of magma, ash and gases from the eruption or structure formed around the
center hole volkan as eruptive activity.
Volcano has distinctive characteristics include shape, type of eruption and the resulting
material.
This difference is closely related to the composition of the volcanic magma and layout of
the position of plate tectonics.
Types of Volcanic Eruption
Escher (1952, on Anwar, et al, 1987) makes a classification of volcanic eruptions by gas
pressure, the degree of liquidity and depth of the container magma magma itself.
The classification descriptions are as follows:
Type of Hawaii
Type of volcanic lava is characterized by a thin liquid and deep development will form
the body of a shield volcano. Highly liquid magma nature allows formed lava caused by
convection currents in the lake of lava and be fountains, where lava contains a lot of gas, so that
the light will be thrown upward while heavy after missing gas will sink again. This type is
found in Hawaii, like Mount Kilauea and Mount Maunaloa.
Type Stromboli
This type is very typical for Mount Stromboli volcano and several others are being
increased activity volkanismenya. Magmanya very liquid, towards the surface of the common
short eruptions accompanied by an explosion. Materials issued in the form of ash, bombs, lapilli
and half solid lump of lava.
Type Volkano
This type is characterized by dust clouds forming cauliflower because gas fired into the
top extends far above the crater. This type has a relatively moderate pressure of gas and molten
lava is not so. Based on the strength of eruptions, this type can be divided into types of volcanoes
strong, for example Mount Vesusius and Mount Etna and the type of volcano is weak, for
example Mount roar and Mount Bromo.
Type Merapi
This type is characterized by a thick lava, magma chamber is relatively shallow and
rather low gas pressure. Due to the nature of the magmanya, then formed stoppers or lava
dome, while the bottom of the lava plug will tend to be in a state still liquid. Lava dome that fall
will cause avalanches of hot clouds. If higher gas pressure due to pipe vents clogged, it will
cause an explosion and will form a pyroclastic cloud.

Type Pelee
 This type has a viscosity magma similar to the type of Merapi, but it has a large enough
gas pressure. His trademark is the presence of a gas eruption laterally.
Type Vincent
Type Vincent has a rather viscous lava, gas pressure being and there is a crater lake which
at times will erupt eruption spewed lava forming at temperatures of about 100o C will then be
followed by hurling loose material in the form of bombs, lapilli and incandescent cloud.
Type Perret or Plinian
This type is characterized by very strong pressure of gas and molten lava. The nature of
damaging eruptions presumably related to the development of the caldera formation.
Morphology Volcano
Volcanic morphology can be divided into 3 zones with the characteristics of the type of
lithology and morphology of different associations.
The third zone is:
Central zone eruption (Central Zone). This zone is characterized by:
  Many radial dike / sill.
  The existence of the crater stopper (plug) and crumble breccia.
  The existence of hydrothermal zones
  The nature of piroklastiknya rough.
  Form morphology with a central dome eruption.
Proximal zone, this zone is characterized by:
  Material pyroclastic somewhat oriented.
  There was weathering the lava and pyroclastic material that is characterized by thin soil.
  Often some parasitic cone.
  Many found ignimbrite and welded tuff.
Distal zone, characterized by:
  Material sized pyroclastic smooth.
  Many found lava.
Various Kinds Volcanic Landscape
The volcanic landscape can be divided into several types on the basis of the appearance
of morphologic classification. Srijono (1984, in Widagdo, 1984), described the volcanic
landscape classification based on morphology form. The classification can be broken down into:

Volcanic dome
Morphology is a volcano which has a convex shape upward. This morphology is
distinguished on the basis of the origin of events into
Bursts cone and the cone shield
This morphology is formed by the eruption of basaltic lava that is watered. Medium lava
dome is Granitis produces morphological stopper (plug dome).
Parasitic cone (Parasitic Cone)
This morphology is formed as a result of the eruption of a volcano located on the slopes
of a volcano larger.
Cinder cone (Cinder Cone)
A dome formed by a small eruption that occurred at the foot of the volcano, in the form
of a low cone with a concave top part looks flat.
Depression Volcanics
Depression is a volcanic morphology volkan section generally in the form of the basin.
 Based on the filler material, volcanic depression can be divided into:
Lake Volcanics, the volcanic depression that fills with water to form a lake
Crater, depression formed by a volcanic eruption with a maximum diameter of 1.5 km, and is not
filled by anything other than the material of the eruption.
Caldera, the volcanic formation of the depression is not necessarily by the eruption, but preceded
by subsidence on volkan complex, with a size of more than 1.5 km. At this caldera volcanoes
often appear new.
Volcanic plains
In relative terms, volcanic plains are characterized by a flat topography, with variations in
height difference (relief) is not flashy. Various volcanic plains are: lowland basalt, basalt
plateaus and plains feet volkan
Volkan Moot
Volkan is pseudo volcanic cones are similar morphology, constituent materials derived
from adjacent volkan. Can also be formed by erosion up to a long volkan showed no activity
(dead / dormant).
Examples of this are apparent morphology volkan Mount Gendol in the area Muntilan,
Central Java, on the plains volkan foot of Merapi volcano.
Volkan pseudo other types are volcanic neck (volcanic neck), the morphology formed
when a volcanic dome-shaped columns eroded so as to stay. Typically, around the neck of the
common volcanic dikes that extends (radial dike)
Environmental Impact Volcano
Volcano can affect the environment, both good influence (sesumber), as well as a bad
influence (catastrophe) for humans.
The positive impact of the presence of volcanoes is:
Geothermal, as the power source of the hydrothermal processes that occur in volcanic regions
such as cultivated in the mountains Dieng and Lahendong.
As a tourist park, developed from the potential of natural beauty and atmosphere of beautiful
nature and cool as in Kaliurang, Peak and Sarangan.
As a fertile agricultural area as often found throughout Indonesia. For example: Stone,
Kaliurang, Dieng, Wonosobo.
As the charging area (recharge) groundwater for areas around volcanoes like Mount Merapi for
sekitarYogyakarta area.
as a regional balancer / divider rain in the surrounding area.
Besides potential as a profitable area, volcano also has potential as a source of disaster. Broadly
speaking, the hazards of volcanic eruption can be divided into two, namely; immediate danger
(primary) and danger after the eruption (the secondary). The primary danger due to the volcanic
eruption include:
Lava flows
Lava flow that the flow of molten rock that incandescent and high temperature (up to
1200 0 C). Flow down a steep slope and can reach several kilometers. All objects in its path will
be charred and burned. When slide down will cause heat clouds.
Bomb volcano
Volcanic bombs intangible hot and incandescent rock measuring 10 cm - 2 m. These
rocks can be thrown from the eruption center as far as up to 10 km. This bomb could cause forest
fires, settlements and land pertanaian. When the bomb hits the ground it will backfire and will be
destroyed.
 Sand lapilli
Sand and lapilli is a mixture of materials that smaller eruption of bombs (greater than 2
mm) .Sedangkan lapilli larger than sand up to a few centimeters. When the eruption of sand and
lapilli can be thrown up to tens of kilometers. Sand and lapilli can destroy the roof of the house,
because the load can also damage agricultural land until it can kill the plant.
Incandescent clouds
Incandescent cloud is a suspension of fine material produced by the eruption of volcanoes
and blown by winds of up to several kilometers. Incandescent cloud is a concentrated mixture of
gas, vapor and fine material are high temperature (up to 1200 0C). Suspension is heavy so it
flowed down the slopes of volcanoes and as if gliding, luncurannya can reach 10-20 km and
burning everything in its path as it did in the Merapi Volcano on November 22, 1994 which
killed 60 people were burned alive and countless more livestock dead scorched by the eruption
cloud this summer.
Volcanic ash
This ash is a mixture of the most delicate material from a volcanic eruption. The
temperature can not be hot anymore. Less than 1 micron in size - 0.2 mm. The danger posed
among others, could disrupt flights as happened during Galunggung Volcano eruption, may
cause suffocation if too much suck volcanic ash and cause disease silicosis. Is a disease caused
by free silica clots in the lungs caused by volcanic ash terisapnya containing free silica.
Poison gas
High levels of gas that can cause death. Volcanoes usually emit gas CO, CO2, H2S,
HCN, H3As, NO2, Cl2, and small amounts of other gases. Threshold limit values for CO gas of
50 ppm (parts per million), 5.00 ppm CO2, whereas H3s very deadly gas at 0.05 ppm. Gases that
are emitted when the eruption is not so dangerous because the gas is burned directly in the
event of volcanic eruptions. The most dangerous is if the gas is released to the remnants of
volcanoes such as those in the Dieng Mountains. The gas BJ is larger than the free air so that its
location was in the low areas such as valleys, close to the soil surface.
The danger is no less dangerous is the danger after the eruption that is a secondary danger. The
danger in the form of lava flow hazard. Lava formed from rocks thrown from the center of the
eruption of both blocks, bombs, lapilli, tuff, ash, and an avalanche of lava dome, in the event of
heavy rain that fell concurrently or after the eruption of the deposition material from the eruption
will be transported by water flow forming material flow rombakan commonly called the lava
flow. The lava flow has great destructive power and will go through whatever is in front of him
without exception both settlements, forests, farmland and river embankments in its path.
To avoid the disaster caused by the volcanic eruption is the volcano made in every area of
hazard area maps based on the potential disasters that there are both primary and secondary. As
performed by the Department of Volcanology at Merapi.

PALEOGEOMORFOLOGI
   Branch of geomorphology especially those studying ancient landscapes (geologic time ago), not
specified by age limits.
   Ancient landscapes resulting from processes that worked in the past or shortly thereafter.
   The process of formation of the primordial landscape associated with tectonic (removal and
reduction in the earth's crust) and is associated with erotion base level that was controlling the
geomorphic processes and the process is determined by the surface gradation erotion base level
which can vary.
 Paleogeopedologi:
the study of the ancient soil, which is associated with the history-appearance
paleogeomorfik appearance.
   Various Kinds of Landscape Paleogeomorfologi
Ruhe (1965, in Thornbury, 1969) classifies the landscape paleogeomorfologi into 3
types:
   The landscape of the rest (Relict Land Forms)
   Landscape buried (Buried Land Forms)
   Landscape exposed (Exhumed Land Forms).
The landscape of the rest (Relict Land Forms)
   An ancient landscape that is formed in the pre-exiting landscape and have experienced
destruction and buried then form part of the present topography.
   Most of the rest of the landscape is the result of processes that have not been working.
   Results from the same processes that still dominates the present, but work on the climatic
conditions or control the base level different geomorphic processes that control the present.

Landscape buried
(Buried Land Forms)
   Including the original forms of erosion and deposition are buried under various types of
sediment / rock cover in the form of sediment sea or land.
   Outcrops sometimes found in the rest of the valley, road cut, and in pits, generally located below
the surface.
   Surface erosion buried unconformity form field and have economic meaning, for example:
hydrocarbon deposits, deposits of gold, tin ore deposits and as a good aquifer.
   Types of landscape buried the hydrocarbon deposits, namely:
   Landscapes that make up the buried unconformity.
   Landscape buried derived from karst landscape known as Buried paleo karst, a place
berakumulasinya hydrocarbons and contains Terrarossa.
   Traces of advanced coastal landscape with deltas buried (in the tributary channels).
   Landscape buried derived from shifting rivers bermeander the deposition channel as a
terakumulasimya minerals and groundwater.
Landscape exposed
(Exhumed Land Forms)
   Is a landscape of ancient original appearance of the surface topography is then buried under the
mass of the cover and exposed or tertoreh back.
   Classified landscape exposed back if the mass of the cover exposed widely.
   At the present time form part of the present landscape.
   Is part of the landscape originally generated by the operation of the processes of normal
gradation, then buried and exposed back.
   Identified with the ancient soil (paleosoil) and objects / ancient fossils.