I

ntr
oduct
ion
The word ‗energy‘itsel
fi sd eri
vedf rom t heGr eek word ‗en-
er
gon,wh i
ch me a ns ‗in-
work’o r workcont
ent.Th e wor ko ut
p u t
depen ds on t hee ne r
g yinput.En ergyist he mos tb asi
ci nfra-
str
uctureinputre qui
r edf ore conomicg r
owth& d e vel
opme ntofa
countr
y.Thus,witha ninc r
e asein
theli
vingstandardo fh uma nb eings,thee nergycon sump ti
ona lso
acceler
ated.
As ystemics tud yo fv ari
ousf or
ms o fen er
g y& e nergy
tr
ansformati
o nsisc a l
le de nergysc i
ence.Wh il
ef ossi
lf uel
swi l
lb e
thema infuelfort he r
ma lpo wer,thereisaf eart hattheywi l
lg et
exhaustedeventu all
yi nt hen extce nt
u r
y.The r
eforeo thersystems
basedo nnon -con ventional &renewa blesou r
cesa reb ei
ngt r
iedb y
ma nycountri
es.Th es ea reso l
ar,wind,sea,geotherma l&b i
o-mas s.

Theneedforal
ter
nati
ves:
1.Th ea verager at
eo finc r
eas eofo ilproducti
oni nt hewo rldis
decli
ning&ap eakinp roduc t
ionma ybere acheda round2 01 5.
Therea ft
erthep roductionwi l
lde cl
inegradually&mo sto fthe
oi
l r
es er
veso fthewo r
lda reli
ke l
ytob ec onsume dbyt hee nd
ofthep resentce nt
ury.Th es er
iousn atureoft hi
so bs er
va t
ion
i
sa ppa r
entwh eno nen o t
est hatoilprovi
desa b out30 %o fthe
wo r
ld‘
sn eedf orenergyf r
o mc omme rci
also urces&t hato i
l i
s
thefuelusedi nmo st ofthewo rld‘
st r
anspo r
tati
o nsystems .
2.Th ep rodu ct
iono fna t
u ralgasi sco nti
nuingt oincreasea ta
rat
eo fab out4 %e veryy ear.Un li
k eo i
l
, t
h ereh asb eenn o
si
g ni
ficantslowd owni nther ateo fincreaseo fp roduc ti
o n.
Presen tindi
ca t
ionsa ret hatap ea king asp r
o ducti
o nwi ll
comea r
oun d2 025 ,a bout1 0y e arsa f
tert hep eakino il
produc t
ion.
3.Aso il&n at
u r
a lgasb ecome ss carcer,ag r
e atbu r
d enwillfall
onc oa l
.Itisl i
kelytha tthep roduc t
iono fc oalwi l
ltouc ha
ma xi
mu ms ome wherea round2 050 .
4.F inal
ly,i
tsho ul
db en otedtha ti
na dd i
ti
ontos u pply
inge nergy,
fossi
l f
uelsareu sede xtensivel
ya sfeeds tockma ter
ialf
o rthe
ma nufactur
eo fo rgani
cc hemicals.Asr esourcesd ep l
ete,the
needf orusingfo ssi
lfue l
se xcl
u si
velyfors uchp urposesma y
becomeg reat
e r
.

I
ndi
a’spr
oduct
ion&r
eser
vesofcommer
cialsour
ces:
Coal
:Coali
sthee ndproductofan at
uralpr
ocessof
decomposi
ti
ono fveget
ablema t
terburi
edinswamps&outof
cont
actwi
tho x
yg enf
o r
t
housa ndso fyears.Thewo r
d‗ coal
‘d enot
e sawi dev ar
iet
yo f
sol
idfuels.Thev ari
eti
esina ppr
o x
imateo r
de roftheirf
ormation
ar
ep eat,l
i
g ni
te,bi
tuminou s&a nt
hraci
tecoal.
Thera t
eo fproducti
ono fcoalinIndi
ao verthelast50yearsis
showni nfig(a).Itcanb es eenthatthereh asbeena ne l
even-
f
oldincreaseinp r
o duct
ionfrom1 951to2 004&t hattheaverage
annualg r
o wthr ateh asb eena bout4 .
5%.I n2 000,Indi
a‘s
pr
od uct
ionwa s3 00mt,wh i
c hwa sa bout6 .
7%o fthewo rl
d‘s
pr
od uct
ion.Indi
ah asfair
lylar
gereservesofc oal
.

Fi
g.1.Annualpr
oduct
ionofcoali
nIndi
a[pr
oduct
ionr
ate(
Mt/
Year
]v/
sYear

Tabl
e1:Coalreser
vesinI
ndi
a(i
nMt)
Year Proved I
n di
cated&i nfer
red Tot al r
eser
ves (
reser
ves reser
ves Resources)
197 2 1360 595 90 80950
2
198 2 7912 874 90 11540 2
1
198 3 5030 120 870 15590 0
5
199 6 4800 129 000 19380 0
2
200 9 5866 157 435 25330 1
6

Oi
l:Theb el
owfig.
2.Repr
esent
sp resent
sdataontheannual
consumpt
ionofpet
rol
eumproduct
sinIndi
a(cur
ve3)f
rom1951
 onwards.I
tal
sos howst
hevar
iat
ioni
nthedomest
icproduct
ion
ofcrudeoi
l(cur
ve1)&thei
mpo r
tofcr
ude(
curv
e2 )overt
he
y
e ar
s.

Fi
g.2.Annualpr
oduct
ion,i
mport&consumpt
ionofoi
linI
ndi
a[Pr
oduct
ion
Rat
e(Mt /
Year
)v/sYear]

Curve1.Dome st
icprod uct
ionofcrude,Curve2.Importofcrude,Curve
3.Consump t
ionofp r
od ucts
Naturalgas:p r
esentsd ataont he a nnualu s ef
ulp roducti
on of
natur
algasinI ndi
af r
om 1 969on wards.In1969 ,t
hep r
od uct
ionwa s
onl
y0 .516b il
l
ion m .I
3 td i
dn otch angemu cht il
l197 3.Howe v
e r
,
subsequent
lythep r
od ucti
onincreasedrapidl
y.Itwas8 .
913b i
lli
onm 3

n1
i 989,13.5%from 198 9to1 997&3.1%f r
om 1 997to2005.

Fig.
3.Annualpr
oduct
ionofnatur
algasi
nIndi
a[Pr
oduct
ionr
ate(
109m3/
Year
)
v/sYear]
Wat
er–power:
I
tiso neoft heindi
rectwaysinwh i
chs ol
are ner
gyisb ei
ngu sed.
Water
- powe ri
sd evel
opedbyall
owingwa t
e rt
of al
lunderthefor
ce
ofg r
avit
y.I tisu sed al
mo ste xcl
usiv
e l
yf ore l
ectri
cp owe r
gener
ati
on .Dataont hei
nst
all
edc apaci
tyofhydropowerinIndia&
t
hee l
ectri
ci
typ roducedf
romitfrom1 947o nwardsispresent
edin
bel
owf i
g.4.

(
103GWh
Fi
g.4.i
nst
all
edcapaci
ty&el
ect
ri
cit
ygener
ati
onf
rom wat
er-
poweri
nIndi
a.
Nucl
earpower
:

Dat
ao nthee l
ectr
ici
typroduct
ionfr
o mn ucl
earpowerispl
ott
edi n
bel
owf ig.5.Itiss eent hatthee lect
ri
cit
yp roducedhasb een
gener
all
yin cr
easingo verthey ear
s,a s mo r
eu nit
sa r
eg ett
ing
commissioned.Theh i
gheramo unt,vi
z1 9242GWhwa sproduced
i
n2 002.Thef al
linc er
tai
ny ear
sisb ecauseo fsomeu ni
tsbeing
downforma i
n t
enance.

years
 Fi
g.5.El
ect
ri
cit
ypr
oducedf
rom nucl
earpoweri
nIndi
aMi
scel
laneous

Sour
ces:

InIndia,themi scel
laneouss ourcesar
er enewablesourcel
ike
wi
n denergy,bioma ss,smal
l hydro-
power
.Aswa sthecaseforthe
worl
d,inIndiaalso,windenergyisthemaincontr
ibutor
.Thegrowth
i
ni nst
all
edc apaci
tyfo rwinde nergy& along wit
hd atao nthe
el
ectr
ici
typ r
o ducedfr
omt hewi ndisasshowninb el
owf i
g.6.

Theg rowtho finst

all
edc apaci
tyforwi ndenergyinI ndi
ah as
beenveryimp r
essi
ve.Atth eendof1990 ,t
hec apaci
tywa sonly37
MW. 15y ear
slater
,atthee ndof2005,i
twa s5342MW &I ndi
an ow
r
an ks4hi
t nthewo r
ldintermsofwindp owerinst
all
edc apaci
ty.

Fi
g.6.I
nst
all
edcapaci
ty&el
ect
ri
cit
ygener
ati
onf
rom wi
ndpoweri
nIndi
a

Thec ont
ribut
ion ofs mallh ydr
o-power& b iomassarea l
so
si
gni
fi
cant.Table2p r
e sent
sd ataont hegrowthofs mal
lhydr
o
power&bioma sspowercapaci
tyinthecount
ry.

Tabl
e2:I
nstal
ledcapaci
tyofsmallhydr
o-poweruni
ts&biomasspoweri
n
Indi
a
Year Capa ci
ty
Sma ll
h y
d r
o-powe r Bioma sspowe r
Upt o2 001 143 8.
89 3 79.
5 0
200 80.39 1 03.
0 0
2
200 84.04 1 29.
5 0
3
200 102 .
27 1 37.
6 0
4
 200 120.
84 117.
93
5
Tot
al(upt
o2 005) 1826.
43 867.
53

El
ect
ri
cit
ypr
oduct
ioni
nIndi
a:

Theb el
owf i
g. 7.dat
as howsthattheinst
a l
l
e dcapacit
yh as
i
ncreasedfrom1 362MW i n1947attheti
meo findependencet
o
16664MW i n1973&t o124287MW in2 005.Thesecorrespondt
o
animpressi
vea v
e r
ageannualgrowt
hrateof1 0.
1% f r
om1 947t
o
1973&toar ateof6.5%fr
om1 973to2005

Fi
g.7.Thet
otali
nst
all
edcapaci
ty&electr
ici
tygener
ati
oni
nIndi
afr
om al
l
commercialsources

Annualpr
oducti
onofenergy:
Table3:Ener
gyproducti
onfr
om commer cialener
gysour
cesinIndi
a-
Year2000
Energy Produ ct
ion/co nsump tiE nerg y Pe rcent
source on equiva l
ent(in c ont
ri
b uti
on
1015J )
Coal 310Mt 8177 5 6.
16
Oil 103.44Mt 4331 2 9.
75
Na t
u r
a l 2 7 .
860×1 0m
9 3 1087 7 .
47
gas
Wa ter- 7436 2GWh 765 5 .
25
powe r
Nucl
ear 16621GWh 199 1.
37
power
Tot
al 14559 100.
00

Th ec alcul
ati
onsa re p erf
orme dfo rthey ear2 000& a r
e
pr
esentedi nt abl
e3 .I
tiss eenthattheto t
alen er
gyp roduct
ionis
14559×10 J
15 .On ceagainthed ominantrol
ep layedbyfoss i
lfuel
s
i
nt hee ner
g ysector isa pparent.93%o fInd i
a‘
sr equi
reme nto f
comme rci
ale ner
gyi sb ei
ng me tb yf ossi
lf uels,with c oal
cont
ri
b ut
ing5 6%,&o i
l&n atur
algasc ontr
ibuti
ng3 7%.Wa terpowe r
&n ucl
ea rp owerc ont
ri
buteo nlya bout 7 %t ot hetotale ner
gy
pr
odu ct
ion.Co mp ar
ingthet ot
ale nergyproductioninIn di
af r
o m
comme rci
als ourceswiththatofth ewo r
ld.Wes eethatitiso nl
y
3.
5%o fthet ot
alwo r
ldproducti
on.

I
ndi
a’sr
eser
ves&pr
oduct
ionr
elat
ivet
owor
lddat
a:

Pr
ove dr
eserves Pr
oducti
on(2004)
Energy Worl
d I ndi
a % of Wor l
d Indi
a % of
source wor
ld worl
d
Coal(Mt) 98000 9 5866 9 .
8 5 516 377 6.8
0
Oil
(bi
ll
ion 1300 5 .
75 0.
4 2 6.
36 0.25 0 .9
barrel
s)
Nat ur
a l 17500 1 101 0 .
6 2 792.
6 3 0.7751.1
gas(bil
lo 0
i
nm3)
Nu clear 3.
62 0 .
061 1 .
7 2 61918 167090 .6
powe r 0
Wa te 3×106 1 4870 5 .
0 2 74688 844953 .1
r 0 0
powe
r

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofener
gyr
esour
ces:

1.Basedonusabi
li
tyofener
gy:

a)Pri
ma r
yr esour
ces:Re sourcesavai
labl
ei nnat
u r
ei nraw
for
mi sc al
ledprimarye ner
gyresources.Ex:Fossi
lfuel
s
(coal
,oil& gas),urani
um,h ydr
oe nergy.Thesea r
ea l
so
knowna srawe nergyresour
ces.
b)I
nter
me di
ateresour
ces:Th isiso bt
ainedf r
om pri
ma r
y
ener
gyresour
cesbyo neormo rest
epsoftransf
ormat
ion&
i
su sedasavehi
cl
eo fenergy.
 c)Secondar
yr esour
ces:Thef or
mo fene r
gy,whichisfinal
ly
suppli
edtoc onsumef oruti
li
z at
ion.Ex:elect
ri
calenergy,
ther
ma lenergy( i
nt hef or
m o fs t
eam o rh otwa ter
),
chemicalener
gy(inthefor
mo fhydr
o genorfossi
lfuel
s).

Somefor
mo fenergi
esma ybec l
assi
fi
edasb othi
nter
medi
ateas
wel
lassecondar
ysources.Ex:
e l
ect
ri
cit
y,hydr
ogen.

2.Basedont r
adit
ionaluse:
a)Co nventi
on al
: e nergy r esources wh ich h ave b een
tr
ad i
ti
on al
lyu se df orma n yd ecades.E x:f ossi
lfu el
s,
nuclear&h ydrores ources
b)No n-
co nvention al
:e nergyresou r
ceswh icha r
ec onsider
ed
forlar
g esc al
e&r en ewable.Ex: sol
ar,wi
n d&b i
o -
ma ss
3.Basedont erm avai
labil
it
y:
a)No n-
renewa b l
er e sources:reso ur
ceswh i
cha refini
ted,&
don otg etr eplenisheda fterthei
rc onsump t
ion.Ex:fo ssi
l
fuel
s,u r
an i
u m
b)Re newa bler es ources:r esources whicha rer enewedb y
natur
ea ga i
n&a gain&t heirsupplyarenota f
fectedbyth e
rat
eoft heircon sump tion.Ex:s ol
ar,wind,b i
o-mass,ocea n
(therma l
,tidal&wa ve),geother
ma l
,hydro

4.Basedoncommercialappl
icat
ion:
a)Co mme rci
ale nergyr esources:thes econ dar
yu s eabl
e
ener
gyf ormss uc ha se lectr
ici
ty,petr
ol,andd ieselare
essent
ialforc omme r
c i
ala cti
vi
ti
e s.Thee conomyo fa
count
rydep endso ni t
sa bil
it
ytoc onver
tn at
uralrawene r
gy
i
ntocomme r
cia lenergy.Ex
:coal
,oi
l,gas,uran i
um, &h ydro
b)No n-comme rciale ne r
g yr esour
ces:t hee nergyd eri
ved
f
rom n atur
e& u sed –d i
rectl
y wi t
houtp assi
ngt hrough
comme rci
alo utl
et.E x:wo od,an i
mald ungc ake,crop
r
esidue.

5.Basedonorigi
n:
a)F ossi
lfuelsener
gy f
)bio-
ma ssenergy
b)Nu clearen er
gy g)geothermalenergy
c)Hy droe nergy h)t
idalenergy
d)So l
are nergy i)oceanthermalenergy
e)Wi nden er
g y j
)oceanwa veener
gy
 Consumpt
iont
rendofpr
imar
yener
gyr
esour
ces

r
enewable
(mai
nly 38%
hydr
o&

28% 21%

6%

Fi
g.8.per
cent
ageconsumpt
ionofv
ari
ouspr
imar
yener
gyr
esour
ces

Thea verage% c onsu mp ti

ont rendo fvar
iouspri
ma r
ye ner
gy
r
e sourceso fthewo r
ldi sin dicatedint hea bovefi
g,thoughthe
t
rendd i
ff
ersfromc oun t
rytoc oun t
ry.Looki
nga tfi
guretheheavy
depend enceo nfo ssi
lfue l
ss tand so utclear
ly.About87%o fthe
world‘
se nergysup pl
yc ome sma i
n l
yf r
o mfossi
l f
uel
s.Theshareo f
f
o ssi
lfuelsismo rethan9 0%i nc aseo fIndi
a.
I
mportanceofNon-
commer ci
alenergyresour
ces:

Thec oncernforenvi
ronmentalduetothee veri
ncreasi
nguse
offossi
lfuel
s&r apiddeplet
ionoftheseresourceshasleadtothe
devel
opme ntofalt
ernat
ivesourcesofenergy,whicharerenewabl
e
&envir
onme nt
a l
fri
endly
.Foll
owingpointsmayb eme nti
onedinthi
s
connect
ion.

1)Thed ema ndo fe nergyisincreasingb yl

ea ps&b o undsdue
to r api
d i nd ust
rial
izat
ion & p opulat
ion g rowth,t he
conve nt
ionals ourceso fe nergywi llnotb es uf
fici
entto
me ettheg r
o wingd ema nd.
2)Conv enti
onals our
ces( fos si
lf uel
s,n uclear)a l
soc ause
poll
u t
ion;t
he rebyt hei
ru sedeg r
ad etheen vi
ronme nt.
3) Con venti
ona lsources(ex cepthydro)aren on-r
e newable&
boun dtofini
s ho neda y
.
4)Largeh ydr
o-resourcesa ff
ectwi l
d-l
ife,cau sed eforest
ati
on
& p osev ar
iouss ocialproblems,d uetoc onstruct
ionofb i
g
dams .
5) Fossilf
uelsa realsou seda srawma ter
ial
si nthec hemical
industr
y( forc hemicals,me d i
ci
n es,etc)& n eedt ob e
conser
vedforfut
uregenerat
ions.
Duetothesereasonsi
tha sbecomeimp ort
antt
oexplor
e&
devel
opnon -
convent
ionalener
gyr esour
cestoreducetoo
much
 dependenceo nc onvent
ionalre sour
ces.Howe ver
,t he
pr
esenttrenddevel
o pmento fncesindi
cat
esthatt
h esewil
l
ser
ve a s s upplements r at
her t han substi
tut
e f or
convent
ionalsour
cesfors omemo r
etimetot
ime .

SALI
ENTFEATURESOFNON-
CONVENTI
ONALENERGYRESOURCES
Meri
ts:

1.NCE Sar
ea vai
labl
einn at
ure,f
reeofcost
.
2.Theycausen oorveryli
tt
lepoll
uti
on.Thus,
b yandl
arge,
theyar
ee nvi
ronmentalfr
iendl
y.
3.Theyareinexhausti
ble.
4.Theyhavelowg est
ationperi
od.
Demer
it
s:

1)Thou gha vai

labl
ef r
eelyinn at
u r
e,thec osto fharnessi
ng
energyfrom NCE Sishigh,asingeneral
,thesearea vai
labl
ein
dil
uteformso fenergy.
2)Un cer
tai
ntyo fa vail
abi
li
ty:thee nergyf l
ow d ependso n
vari
ousn atur
alpheno menab eyondhuma nco nt
rol.
3)Dif
ficul
tyintr
a nspor
ti
ngth i
sformo fenergy.

ADVANTAGES & DI
SADVANTAGES OF CONVENTI
ONAL ENERGY
RESOURCES:

ADVANTAGES:
1)Co al
:asp r
esent i
sc heap.
2)S ecur
it
y:bys t
oringcert
ainquanti
ty,
thee ner
gyavai
labi
li
ty
canb ee nsur
edf oracertai
nperi
od.
3)Co nveni
ence:i
tisveryconveni
entt
ou se.

DI
SADVANTAGES:
1)Fossilf uels gen er
a t
e p oll
utants: CO, CO2, NOX, SOX.
Parti
culate ma tt
er& h eat. The p ol
lutant
s d egr
ade the
envir
o nment,p o se h ealt
hh a zar
ds& c ausevari
ouso ther
probl
e ms.
2)Coal:itisa l
sov al
u abl
ep etro-
c hemical&u seda ssourceo f
raw ma ter
ialf orc hemical,p ha r
ma ceuti
cal
s & p ai
nts,
industr
ies,et
c.F r
oml on gtermp ointofview,iti
sd esi
rabl
eto
conservec oalf
orfuturen eeds.
3)Safetyofn ucl
earplants:i
t i
sac on t
roversi
alsubj
ect.
4)Hydroe l
ectri
calplantsarec l
ean estbutl
argeh ydro
reser
v oi
rscauset hefoll
owingp roblems
a)As largel anda reas ub mergesinto wa ter
,wh i
chl eads
todeforestat
ion
b)Cau sese col
ogicaldisturbancess ucha se ar
thquakes
c)Cause sd i
sl
o cat
iono flargep opu l
ati
on& c onsequent
lyt
heir
rehabil
it
ati
onp robl
e ms.
SOLARENERGY:
 So l
are nergyisav erylarge,inexhausti
blesou r
ceo fe nergy.
The p owe rf r
om t he Su n int
ercepted byt he e ar
th is
approxi
ma tel
y1 .8×1011MW wh i
chisma nyth ousandso fti
me
l
argertha nthep resentc onsump t
ionrateo nthee artho fall
comme r
cialenergys ources.Th us,inp r
inci
ples ol
a rene r
gy
coulds uppl
ya l
lt hep resent&f ut
uree nergyn eedso fthe
wo r
ldo nac o nt
inui
ngb asi
s.Th i
sma kesitoneo ft hemo st
promisingoftheu nconven t
ionalener
gys ources.
 Solare ner
g yisr ecei
v edint hef orm o fradiat
ion,c anb e
convert
edd i
rectl
yo ri ndi
rectl
yintoo therformso fe nergy,
sucha sh eat&e l
e ct
ri
c i
ty.Thisenergyisradiatedb ytheSu n
ase l
ectr
o magn et
icwa veso fwh i
ch9 9%h avewa velengthsin
therangeo f0.2to4mi crome ters.
 Solare nergyreachingt h etopo ftheE arth‘
sa tmo sphere
consist
sa bout8% U. Vr adiat
ion,46%o fv i
si
b l
el i
ght,4 6%
I
nfraredradiat
ion.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofmet
hodsf
orsol
arener
gyut
il
isat
ion:

Mer
it
sofsol
arener
gy:

o Itisane nvir
on mentalcleansou r
ceo fenergy
o Itisfree&a vail
ableina dequatequan t
it
iesinallmostal
lpart
s
o fworldwh erepeoplelive.
Demer
it
sofsolarener
gy:
o Itisad il
u t
es ourceo fenergyb ecausee veninhott
estregi
on
th eradiat
ionf l
uxisa vail
ableo nl
y1KW/ m2&t ot
alradi
ati
on
o verad ayis7KW/ m.
2 Th esearelowv aluesfr
omt hepoi
nto f
viewo ftechno l
ogicaluti
l
izati
on.
o Iti srequ i
redl ar
gec ol
lect
inga reasa rer equi
redinma ny
a ppli
cati
o ns&t heser esul
tsincreaseo fcost.
 o Solarener
gya vai
labil
it
yv ar
ies wi
delywi t
ht i
me,itoccurs
becauseofthed ay-
nightcycl
e&a l
s oseasonal
lybecauseof
theEar
th‘
so r
bitar
ou ndtheSun[evenlocalweat
hercondi
ti
on]
.

Sol
arappl
icat
ions:

 Sol
arheat
ing
 Sol
arcool
ing
 Sol
arpumping
 Sol
arf
urnace
 Sol
arpr
odu ct
ionofhydr
ogen
 Sol
argreenho uses
 Sol
ardi
sti
ll
ati
on
 Sol
arener
gy
 Sol
arcooki
ng

Ther
malEner
gy:

The r
ma lenergyr ef
erst ot hei nt
ernale nergyp resentina
syst
emi n as tat
eo fthermo dynami cequ i
li
bri
umb yv i
rt
u eo fit
s
temperat
ure.Thea ver
aget ransi
ti
o nalki
ne t
icen er
gyp osse ssedby
fr
eep ar
ticl
es in a s yst
e m off r
e ep ar
ti
clesint hermo dynamic
equi
li
bri
um. Thi
se nergyc ome sfr
o mt hetemp erat
ureofma tt
er.
The r
ma lener
gyisthet otalenergyofallthemo l
ecu l
esina no bj
ect
.
Thetherma lener
gyo fano bjectde pendso nthe3t hings:
1.Th enumb erofthemo l
eculesintheo bj
e ct
2.Th etemperat
ureoft heobject(aver
ag emolecularmotion)
3.Th earrangement oftheob j
ectmo lecul
es( st
ateso fma tt
er)

Ther
eare3mo desoft
hermalener
gy
1.Conduct
ion,2 .
convect
ion, 3.
radi
ati
on

1.Condu ct
ion :He atist ransfer
redf rom o ne mo l
ecul
et o
anotherwitho utthemo veme ntofma t
ter.
2.Convec t
ion:F luids( l
iqui
ds& g ases )transferheatb y
convecti
o n,ap rocesst hatcaus esmi xi
ngo fthewa rmer
regi
onswi ththec oolerregi
onso fli
quidorga s.
Th ema ind if
ferenceb etweenc onvecti
on&c onduct
ion
isth atco nvecti
oni nvol
vesth emo veme ntofma tt
er&
con ducti
o ndo esnot.
3.Radiat
ion:i
tist hetransf
erofenergybye l
ectr
oma gnet
icwaves.

ADVANTAGES:
 Itisecof r
iendl
y
 Re newa bl
es our
ces
 No /l
es spo l
lut
ion
 Byu singthisproduceelect
ri
ci
ty
 Itshelpfullf
oro i
lref
ini
nginIndust
ry&homeheat
ing
DI
SADVANTAGES:
 Pr o duci
ngg reenhousegas
 Co l
lecti
ng o fe ner
gy is a big p r
obl
em, i
trequi
res
so phi
s t
icat
e dtechnol
ogyhencecosti
smore.
Appl
icat
ions:
 St eame ngi
ne
 Ga soli
nee ngi
ne

Phot
ovol
tai
c(PV)orSol
arCel
l:

I
tisadevi
cetha tconver
tssolarener
g yi
ntoel
ec t
ri
cc ur
rent
usi
ngt hephot
oelect
ri
ce ffect
.Th efir
stPV wa sintroducedb y
Charl
esFri
l
tinthe18 80‘
s.I
n1 931aGe rmane nggDr
.BrunoL ange
devel
opedPVbyusingSil
verSolenoi
dinplaceofCopperoxi
de.

Photovol
tai
c p ower g enerat
ion e mploys so l
ar p anel
s,
comp osedo fnumberofsolarcel
lscontai
ningphotovol
tai
cma t
eri
al.
Photovolt
aicsarema deu po fsemiconductor
s&i tcon ver
tss ol
ar
radi
ati
onin t
od i
rectcur
rentelect
ri
cit
y.
Photovol
tai
csystemc onsi
stso f
a)So l
arc el
larr
ay,b)l
oa dlevel
er,c)stor
agesystem, d)tr
acking
sy
s t
em(wh erenecessary)

Wor
kingPr
inci
ple:

PV‘s ar
e ma de up ofs e miconduct
ors thatg ener
ate
el
ectr
ici
tywhentheyabsor
bl i
ght.Asp hot
onsa r
er ecei
ved,f
ree
el
ectr
icalchar
g esareg ener
atedt hatc anb ec oll
ectedo n
cont
actsappl
iedtot
hesurf
aceo fthesemiconductor
s.

Becauseofsolarcel
lsar
en otheatengi
nes,&ther
efore,do
notneedtoo per
atea thi
ghertemperat
ure,t
heya r
ea dapt
edt o
t
he weakener
gyf
luxofsol
arr
adi
ati
on,oper
ati
ngatr
oom
t
emper
atur
e.

Advantages:
o Comp aretofossilf
ue l
sn uclearener
gys our
ces ,
v er
ylit
tl
e
researchmo neyhasb eeninve st
edinthed evel
op mento f
solarc el
ls.
o I
t gi
v eslongd urat
ionp er
iod(o per
ati
on)
o Ope r
a ti
ngc ostsaree x
treme l
ylowc omp ar
edt oe xi
sti
ng
powe rte chnol
ogies.
Appli
cati
ons:
 Spacec r
aft(si
li
cons ol
arc el
l)
 I
t canb ea ppli
cabl
et oe i
thersma l
lorlar
gep owe rplant
s
 The ses ol
arc ell
sa r
eu sedt oo perateirri
ga t
ionp umps,
naviga t
ionals i
gnals,highwa ye mergencyc al
ls ystems,rai
l
roadc rossingwa r
nings&a ut
o mati
cme tr
o l
ogicalstat
ion.

WATERPOWER(
HYDROPOWER)
:

Po werderi
vedf rom thee ner
gyo ffal
li
ng water& running
water
,wh i
chma yb eh arnessedforu sef
ulpu r
poses.Ina nci
ent
year
sh ydr
o-powe rhasb eenu sedf
o ri
rri
gati
on&t heo per
ati
ono f
var
iousme chani
cald evi
cess uchaswa termil
ls,saw mil
ls,t
exti
le
mil
ls,domest
icli
ft
s ,
p owerhouse&p aintmaki
n g.

Hy
droel
ect
ri
cPowerGener
ati
on
 Powerisgener atedbyharnessingt heenergyoff
all
ingwater
.
Thegreaterthedif
ferenceinwat erl
ev el,
themor eener
gy.
Ahy draul
icturbi
neconv er
tstheener gyofflowingwaterintomechanicalener
gy.A
hydr
o-elect
ri
cgener atorconver
tsthismechani calener
gyintoel
ect
rici
ty
How thege ner
atorwork s:Ahydraul
icturbi
nec onver
tsthee ner
gyof
f
lowing waterinto me chani
cale ner
gy.A h ydr
o-el
ectr
icg ener
ator
conver
tsthisme chanicalener
gyintoe l
ectri
cit
y. The op er
ati
on of
generat
orisb asedont h epr
inci
plediscover
edb yFa r
aday.Hefou nd
t
h atwh en a ma gneti
smov edp astacon ductori
tcausese l
ectr
ici
ty
t
of l
ow.

I
nalargegenerat
ore l
ect
romagnet
sa r
ema debyci
rcul
ati
ngd.c
t
hroughloopsofwi rewo undar
ounds t
acksofmagneti
c s t
eel
l
aminat
ions.Thesea r
ec al
ledf
iel
dp ol
es& aremountedo nthe
per
imeteroft
herot
o r
.

Therotorisa ttachedtothet ur
bines haf
t&r otatesa tafi
xed
speed.Whenr otortur
ns,itcausesthefi
eldpoles(el
ectromagnet
ic)
t
omo vep astthec onductor
smo unt
edint hes t
ator.Thisi
st ur
n
causeselect
rici
tytof low&av ol
tagetod evel
opatth egener
ati
on
outputt
erminals.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofhy
dropower
:

 Convent
ionalhydroelect
ri
c ,
ref
erri
ngh y
d r
oelectr
icdams
 Runoftheriverhydr
oe l
ectr
ici
ty,
wh i
chc apt
uresthek i
neti
c
ener
gyinriver
so rstr
eamswi thoutuseofd ams.
 Smallhydr
op roj
ectsare1 0MW o rl
ess&o ftenha v
en o
ar
ti
fi
cialr
eservoi
rs.
 Micr
oh ydr
op roj
ectsaf ewKW toaf ewh undredKW isol
ated
homes,vi
ll
ageso rsma l
lindust
ri
e s.

Thep owe ravail

a bl
efromf al
li
ngwa tercanb ecalcul
atedf
rom
theflowr at
e&d ensi
tyofwa ter
,theh eightoffal
l&t hel
ocal
acceler
a t
iondu etog r
a v
ity
.
P=ƞρQgh
Wh er
e,P–Powe ri
nWa tts
Ƞ-dime nsionlesseff
ici
encyo fthe
tur
bineρ–d ensi
tyofwa t
erinKg /m3
Q- Fl
owi nm /
3 sec
g-Accelerati
ond uetogravi
ty
h-He i
ghtd i
ff
erencebetweeninlet&outl
et

WI
NDENERGY:

Ener
gyofwi
ndcanbeeconomi
cal
lyusedf
ort
hegener
ati
onofel
ect
ri
ci
ty.

Windsarecausedfrom 2ma i
nfactor
s:
1.Heati
ng& c o ol
ingo ft hea t
mo spher
e wh i
chg ener
ates
convect
ioncurrents.Heati
ngisc ausedb ytheabsorpt
ion
ofso l
arener
g yonth eEart
h‘ssurf
ace&i ntheat
mo spher
e.
2.Therotat
iono ftheE ar
thwithrespecttoatmospher
e&i ts
mo t
ionaroundthes un

Theener
gyavai
labl
eint
hewi
ndovert
heEar
th‘
s
sur
facei
sest
imat
edt
obe1.
6×107MW
 I
nI ndi
a ,hi
g hwin dspeedsa reo bt
ainabl
einc oastalareaso f
Saurashtra,We st
ernRa j
asthan&s omep art
so fCentralI
ndia.
Winde nergywh i
chi sa ni ndi
rectsourceo fs ol
a ren er
gy
conversionc anb eu ti
li
zedt or unwi nd mil
l,whichi nt ur
n
dri
vesag ener
a t
ortop r
o duceelect
ri
cit
y.
Thec omb i
na t
ion of wi ndturbi
ne& g enerat
oriss ome t
imes
ref
erreda sanAERO- GENERATOR.
As tepu pt r
a nsmissi
oni su suall
yr equi
redt o ma t
cht he
rel
ati
velys l
ows p eedofthewi ndrotortotheh i
ghers peedo f
ane l
ectri
cg enerator
.
Dataq u ot
edb ys omes cienti
ststhatforInd i
awi nds peed
valueli
e sbetwe en5Km/ hrto1 5-
20Km/ hr
Windf ormsa reo perat
ings uccessf
ull
y& h avea l
readyf ed
over15 0lakhu ni
tsofelectr
ici
tytotherespecti
vestategrids.
Winds p eedincreaseswi t
hh eight
.

Thepoweri
nwi
nd:

Wi ndp ossessese ner

gybyv i
rt
ueo fi
tsmo t
ion.Therea r
e3
f
actorsd et
e r
mineth eoutputf
rom awinden er
gyconvert
er,1]the
wi
nds pe ed,2]Thec rosssect
ionofwindswe ptbyrot
or&3 ]The
over
allconv er
sioneffi
ciencyoftherot
or,t
ransmissi
ons yst
e m&
gener
a t
oro rpump .

 Only1 /
3rdamo untofairi
sd eceler
ati
ngb yther otor
s&6 0%o f
theavail
ab l
ee ner
gyinwindi nt
ome chani
calenergy.
 We lldesignedb l
adeswillextr
act7 0%o fthetheo r
eti
calma x,
butlos sesincurredinty pi
call
yt heg earb ox,transmissi
on
system &g enerat
o rorp ump c oul
dd ecr
easeo ver
allwind
tur
binee f
fici
encyto3 5%o rl
oss.
 Thep owe ri
nt hewindc anbec omp utedbyu si
n gtheco ncept
ofkineti
cs.Th ewindmi l
lwo r
kso nthep ri
ncipl
eo fcon v
e r
ti
ng
ki
n et
icene r
gyo fthewindtome chan i
calenergy.

Ki
neti
ce ner
gy=k.E=½mv 2

Butm =ρAv
Avai
labl
ewindPower=Pa =1/8ρπD2V3 Wat
ts

Maj
orf
act
o r
sthathaveleadt
oaccel
erat
eddevel
opmentoft
he
wi
ndpowerareasfol
lows:

 Avai
labi
li
tyofhighst
rengthfi
bercomp osit
esforconstr
ucti
ng
l
argelow-costr
otorbl
ades.
 Fal
li
ngp r
icesofpowerelect
roni
cs
 Vari
abl
es peedo per
ati
o nofe l
ectr
icalgenerat
orsto
capt
urema xi
mu me ner
gy
 I
mp rovedplantoperat
ion,pushi
ngthea vail
abil
it
yupt o95%
 Economyo fscal
e,asthetur
bines&p l
a nt
sa r
eg et
ti
nglarger
i
ns i
ze.
 Accumul
atedf
iel
de xper
ience(t
helearni
ngcurveef
fect
)
i
mp r
ovi
ngthecapacit
yfactor
.
 Shor
tener
gypayback(orener
gyrecov
e r
y)per
iodofabouty
e ar
,

Fig.
9.Basi
ccomponent
sofwindelect
ri
csystem
Appl
icati
o ns:
A] App l
icati
onsr
equ i
reme chani
c alpower
i
]Wi ndpower, i
i
] Heat
ing ,
ii
i]Sea
t
ranspor
tB]Asofgr
idel
ect
ri
calpowersour
ce
Ty
p esofwindtur
bines:
1]Ho r
izont
alaxi
swind
tur
b i
nes2]Vert
icalaxi
swi
nd
tur
b i
nes
BI
OMASS:

 Bio-ma ssme a nso rganicma tter.

 The ener
gyobt ained f
rom organicmat t
er,deri
ved fr
om biol
ogi
cal
organi
sms(plants&animals)i
sk nownasbio-massenergy.
 Th eaveragee ffici
encyo fpho tosynt
he si
sc onversionofsolar
en er
gyintob i
oma sse nergyise st
ima t
edt ob e0.5%- 1.
0%.
 To u se b i
o ma ss e nergy,t he i nit
ialb ioma ss ma y
b e
tr
a nsformed b y c hemi calo rb iologi
ca lp rocesses to
pro duceinterme diat
eb i
o-fuelssu cha sme thane,pr
o ducer
ga s,et
ha nol&c har
co alet
c .
 I
tise sti
ma tedthattheb ioma ss,wh i
chi s90% nt ress,is
equiv
a l
entt othep r
o venc urr
en textractabl
ef ossi
lf uel
reser
vesi nthewo rld.Th edryma tt
erma sso fbiol
ogical
ma t
eri
a l
c y
cli
nginb i
os pher
eisa bout 250×1 09tons/Y.
 Animals feed on p lants,& p l
ants g row through t he
photosynt
hesis p r
o cess u sing s ol
ar e nergy. Th us,
photosynt
hesisp r
oce ssi sp ri
ma ri
l
yr esponsi
blef ort he
generat
ionofbioma ssenergy.
 I
n s imp l
est form t he r eacti
o n is t he p rocess o f
photosynthesi
sint hep resenceo fso l
arradiati
on,canb e
repr
esen t
eda sfol
lows

H2O+CO2 CH2O+O2

 I
nt hereact
ion,wa t
er&c ar
b ondioxi
dearec onver
tedinto
organcma
i ter
iali
.e.
, CH2O, whi
chi st
h ebasi
cmo l
ecul
eo f
f
o r
mingc ar
boh y
d r
ates tabl
ea tlowtemperatur
e, i
tbreaks
athightemperatur
e, rel
easi
n gana mountofh eatequalto
112,
000Kc al
/mo l
e(4 69KJ /
mo le)
.
 CH2O+O2 CO2+H2O+112Kcal
/mol
e

 Thebiomasse ner
gyi
suseddi
rect
lybyburni
ngoris
fur
therpr
ocessedtopr
oducemoreconveni
entl
iqui
d&
gaseousfuel
s.

Bio-ma ssr esour

c esfall
intothreecategor
ies:
1]b io-
ma ssinitstradi
ti
o nalsol
dma ss(wo od&a gri
cult
ural
resi
d ue)
, &
2]bio-ma ssinn on-tr
aditi
onalform(convert
e dintoli
qu i
dfuels)
o Th ef i
rstcategoryistobu r
ntheb i
o-ma ssdirect
ly&g et
thee ne r
gy.
o Inth ese condc at
eg or
y,thebio-
ma ssisc onvert
edi nto
etha nol&me t
h anolt
ob eu sedasli
quidf uel
sine ngines.
3]The3 dc
r ategoryistof er
me nttheb i
oma ssa na erobi
call
y
t
oobta i
nag aseo usfuelcall
edb io-gas(bio-
gasc ontai
n s55to6 5%
Met
ha ne,30-40%CO2&r estimp ur
it
iesi.
e.,
H2,H2S, &so meN2) .
Bi
o-massr
esour
cesi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

1]Co ncentrat
edwa st
e--mu ni
cipalsol
ids,sewagewo od
products,
industr
ialwaste,
andma nureo fl
argelot
s.
2]Dispersedwa st
eresi
due—cropresi
due,leggi
ngresi
due,
disposedma nur
e.
3]Ha r
vestedbio-
ma ss,
standbybio-
ma ss,bio-
masse ner
gypl
ant
ati
on.
ADVANTAGES:
1]I
t i
srenewablesource.
2]Thee ner
gys t
orageisa nin-
buil
tfeat
ureo fi
t.
3]I
t i
sanindigenoussourcerequi
ri
ngli
ttl
eorn ofor
eignexchange.
4]Th efor
estry&a gri
cul
turali
ndustr
iesthatsupplyfeedst
o cks
alsoprovi
des ubstant
ialeconomicdevelopme ntoppor
tuni
ti
esin
rur
a l
a r
eas.
5]Thepol
lut
antemissionsf
romcombust
ionofbi
omassar
eusual
ly
l
o wert
hanfossi
lfuel
s.

DI
SADVANTAGES:

1]Itisdisper
sed&landintensi
ve
sou r
ce.2 ]Lowenergydensi
ty
3]L a bourintensi
ve& t hec ostofc ol
lect
ingl
argequant
it
ies
f
o rco mme rci
alappl
icat
ionsaresigni
fi
cant
.

Bio-
ma sscon ver
siontechnol
ogi
es:
A]Inci
nerati
o n,
B]Thermo -
ch emical
,
C]Bio-
chemic al
i
]Ethanolfer
me nt
ati
on,ii
]Anaer
obi
cfer
ment
ati
on.
OceanTher
mal
Ener
gy
OceanThermal EnergyConv er
sion( OTEC)andi sstil
lini
tsinfantst ages.
Theconcept ual desi
gnsofsmal lOTECpl antshav ebeenfinal izedandt hei
rcommer ci
al
prospect
sar equi t
euncertai
n.Thepot entiali
slikel
ytobemor et hant hatoftidalorwav e
energy.
Theoceant hermal energyconv ersi
onpl antconv er
tstheheatoft heoceani ntoelect
ri
cal
energywit
ht hehel poftemper aturedifference.
Thelargetemper at
uredifferencebet weenwar m surfaceseawat er(25-30°C)andcol d
deepseawat er(5-12°C)isusedt ogener ateelectr
ici
tywiththehel pofoceant hermal
energyconv ersi
onsy stem
TI
DALENERGY:

Theti
d esi
nth eseaa r
et her
e sul
toftheu ni
versalgravi
tati
onal
ef
fectofh eavenlybodiesli
keSUN&MOONo nt heEarth.
 Per
iodi
cri
se&f al
loft
hewaterl
evelofseai
scall
edTIDE.
 Thesetidesc anbeu sedtoproducee l
ectr
icalpowe rwhichis
knowna stidalpowe r
.
 Whe nthewa teri
sa bovetheme ans ealevelcal
ledfloodti
de.
 Whe nthewa teri
sb el
o wtheme ans eal
evelc al
ledeb bti
de

Basi
cpri
nci
paloft
idalpower
:
Ti
d esarep roducedmainl
yb yt
heg r
avit
ati
onalatt
racti
onto
themo on&t hes uno nthewat
erofsol
idear
th&theo ceans.About
70 %o fthet i
d ep r
o duci
ngf or
ced uetothemo o n&3 0 %tothes un.
Th emo oni sth usthema jorfact
o ri
ntheti
d efor
ma tion.
Surf
a cewa terisp ull
eda wayfrom thee ar
tho nthes i
de
facingt hemo on&a tthes amet imet hes oli
de art
hisp ull
ed
awa yf r
o mt hewa teront heo pposi
teside.Thu shight i
deso ccur
inthe setwoa reaswi thlowt i
desa ti
nter
me diatep oi
n t
s.
Ast hee a r
thr ot
a t
es,thep osi
ti
ono fag i
v ena rearel
ati
veto
themo onc han ges,&s oalsodot heti
des.
 Th ed if
f er
e nceb et
we enh i
gh& low wa t
erl eveliscall
edthe
r
a ngeoft hetide.
Limit
ati
onsoftidalener
gy:

1)Economicreco v
e r
yo fenergyfromtidesisfeasi
bleon l
ya tthose
si
teswh er
ee ner
gyi sc oncentr
atedinthef or
mo ftidalrangeo f
about5 m ormo re,& g eogr
aph yprovi
deaf avorabl
es it
ef or
economiccon st
ructi
ono fti
dalplant
,thusi
t i
ssit
es peci
fi
c .
2)Duetomi s-
ma tcho flunard ri
venp er
iodo f12h rs2 5mi n&
human(solar)peri
odo f2 4hrs,t
h eopt
imumt idalpowerg enerat
ion
i
sn oti
np hasewithd eman d,
3)Changi
ngtidalrangein2we eksperi
odp r
oducesc hangi
ngp owe r
,
4)Theturbinesarerequir
edt ooperateatvar
iabl
ehead.
5)Re qui
rementoflargewa t
ervolumef l
owatlowhead
necessi
tatesparal
leloper
ati
ono fma nyti
mes&
6)Tidalpl
antdisr
uptsma ri
nelif
eat t
helocat
ion&cancause
potent
ialharmtoe col
ogy.

 To ha r
dne sst het ides,a d am wo ul
db eb uil
t,acrosst he
mo uthoft heb ay.Itwil
l havelargeg atesinit&a lsolowh ead
hydraul
icrev er
sibleturbi
n esa r
ein st
all
edi nit
.
Thec o nst
ructedb asi
ni sf il
ledd uri
ngh i
ght ide& e mp t
ied
duri
ngl owtidep ass i
ngth oroughs l
u i
cestu r
binerespe ct
ivel
y.
 By u sing r e v
e r
s i
ble wa ter turbine,t urbine c an r un
conti
n uousl
y ,bothd ur
ingh igh&lo wt i
de.
 Thet urbi
nei sc ou pl
edt og enerator,po t
entialenergyo fthe
wa t
ers t
oredi ntheb asina swe l
la sene r
gyd uringhightide,i
s
usedt od ri
v et het ur
b i
n e,wh i
chi sc oup l
edt og e ner
ator,
generateelectri
c i
ty.
 Ab ovea rr
an geme ntofh arnessi
ngt idalenergyc all
eds ingl
e
basinplant.Th ep lantc onti
nuesg ener
atep owe rtil
lthet i
de
reaches,i
tslowe rl
evel.
 Byu si
ngb yp assva l
vetod rainthere maini
n gba si
nwa tertosea.
 Singl
eb as i
np lant canno tgeneratep owe rcon t
inuou sl
y.
 Thep o t
enti
a lino cea nt i
desr esou r
cei se sti
ma teda s5 50
bi
ll
ionKWh /year[120 ,
000MW p o wer.]
WAVESENERGY:

o Wavesar ecausedbyt hetransferofener

gyfrom sur
facewindsto
sea.Ther at
eofe nergytransf
erd ependsu ponth ewinds peed
&thed ist
anceov erwhichinter
ac t
swithwa t
er.
o Thee nergyfluxinwa vesismo ret hanthata vai
labl
ef r
om
sol
ar,wi nd& o therre newables ources.Thep owerint he
wavesi sp roport
ionaltot hes quareifit
sa mp l
it
ude&t othe
peri
odo fit
smo t
ion.Th ee ner
g ystoredisdissi
patedthrough
fr
ict
ion a ts hor
e & t urbulence a trates d ependi
ng o n
characteri
sti
cso fwa ve&wa t
e rdepth.
o Wa vee nergyino peno ceansi sli
kelytob einaccessi
ble.The
resourcep otent
ialnea rcoastli
nesi sesti
ma t
eda sine xcess
of20 ,00,000MW. Wa vep owerisu sual
lyexpressedinKW/ m,
repr
es si
n gther atea twh i
che ner
gyi stransf
erreda cr
ossa
l
ineo f1m l engt
hp arall
eltothewa vefront.
ADVANTAGES:
 Thea v
a i
l
a bi
li
tyofl
argeener
gyfl
uxes
 Producti
vi
tyofwa v
ec ondi
ti
onsoverper
iodsof

days,
DIFFI
CULTI
ES:

 I
rregul
arit
yo fwa vep at
ternsinamp li
tude,phase& d i
rect
ion,
whichma kesitd i
ff
icultt
oe xt
ractpowe reff
ici
entl
y
 Thep o were xtracti
ons yst
em i se xposedt oo ccasional
extr
emes tormyc ond i
ti
ons.
 Peakp owe rofd ee pwa terwavesi sa vai
labl
eino pens ea,
whereisd i
ffi
culttoc onst
ruct,oper
ate&ma int
ainasystem&
tr
ansmitp owe rtothes t
ore,
 Thes l
ow&i rregularmo ti
ono fwaveisr equi
redtobec oupl
ed
tob ee l
ectri
calg enerat
o rrequi
ri
ngh i
gh& c onstantspeed
mo t
ion.

GEOTHERMALENERGY:

 Geotherma lener
g yisenergyco mingo utofthemo lt
eni nt
erior
(i
nt hef orm o fh eat)o ft hee artht owa r
d sth es urface.
Volcanoes,Ge ysers,Ho ts pri
n gs& b o i
li
ng mu dp o t
sa r
e
vi
sibl
ee vi
de nceoft hegreatreservoir
so fhe atthatli
eswi thi
n
theearth.
 Mo stGe ot
h er
ma l energyprodu ceslowg r
a deh eata tabo ut
50-70˚cwh i
chc anb eu sedd i
re ct
lyfortherma lap pl
ications.
 Occasional
ly,g eothermalh eati sa vai
lablea tt emp eratur
e
about90 ˚
c&s oelectr
icalpowe rproducti
onf r
o mt urbi
n escan
beco nt
emp lat
e d.
 Becauseo fn on-homo geneousi nt hee ar
thc rust,there a r
e
nume r
o uslocalh ots pot
sj ustb el
owt hes urfacewh erethe
temperatur
ei sinf actmu chh i
g herthant hea veragev al
ue
expected.Gr ound wa tercome sintoc ontac twitht heh ot
rocksinso meo ftho selocat
ions&a sar esult
,drys team we t
&h otwa tero rho twa t
era l
on eisf ormed .A we lldril
l
e dto
theselocationsc ausest hes team/ watertoe me rgea tthe
surf
acewh er
ei t
se nergyc anb eutil
isedeitherforg enerati
ng
el
ect
ri
ci
tyorf
orspaceheat
ing.
Twowaysofel
ect
ri
calpowerpr
oduct
ionf
romgeot
her
mal
:

1]Heate ner
gyistransformedt oawo rki
ngf l
uidwhichoperat
es
thepo wercycl
e.Th i
sma yb ep art
icul
arl
yu sefulataplaceo f
fr
eshv ol
cani
ca ct
ivi
ty.Wh erethemo lt
eninter
iorma ssofeart
h
ventstot hesurfacet hr
o ughfissur
es& s ubstant
ial
lyath i
gh
temperatur
e,sucha sb etween4 50to5 50˚ ccanb efound.By
emb eddi
ngc oi
lofp i
pe s&s endi
ngwa terthr
ou ghthemc anbe
rai
sed.

2]Hotg eot
hermalwa ter& ors team isu sedtoo per
atethe
tur
binesdi
rect
ly.Fr
omt hewellheado fthesteamistr
ansmitt
ed
bypipeli
nesu pto1m ind i
ao v
e rdist
anceu ptoabout3Km to
thep owerstat
ion.Wa t
e rsepar
a t
orsa reu sual
lyrequi
redto
separ
a t
ethemo i
stur
e& s ol
idparti
clesfr
oms team.

on.
in
 Th
fl
o
ee
wst
ar
th
ot
‘
h
on.
sh
es
i
e
n
a
u
tc
rfa
o
c
nt
eb
enti
yc
sa
on
b
du
o
c
u
t
t1
io
03

na
1J.
tar
Th
at
i
sh
eo
ea
f4
tn
4.
atu
2Te
r
al
t
l
y
r
a
wa t
ts.
 Theh eatinsi
det hee arthisintensee nought ome ltrocks.
Thosemo l
tenrocksa rec all
edMa gma.Be causema gmai s
l
essd enset hant her oc kss oi tr i
sest ot h es ur
face.
Some t
imesma gmae scapest hroughc racksint h ee ar
th‘
s
crust
,emp t
ingouto fvolcanoesasp artoflava.
 Butmo sto ft hetime ma gma s t
aysb enea t
ht hes ur
face,
heati
ngs urroundi
ngr o cks& t he wa t
ert hath asb ecome
tr
apped wi t
hinthes erocks.So meti
me st hatwa terescapes
thr
oughc racksinth ee ar
tht oformp oo l
so fh otwa ter[hot
spri
ngs]orburstofh otwater&s team[ geyser
s].
Therestoft
heh eat
edwa terr
emainsi
npool
sundert
heear
th‘
s
sur
faceiscal
ledgeother
ma lr
eser
voir
s.

Ty
pesofgeot
her
malr
eser
voi
rs:

a]Dryst
eampowerpl
ant
, b]Fl
ashst
eampowerpl
ant
,c] Bi
nar
y
cycl
epowerpl
ant
.

ADVANTAGES:

 I
tisreli
abl
es ourceofenergy
 I
tisavail
able24h ours/
da y
 I
t i
sa vai
labl
eisindep endentofwe at
her
 I
t hasaninherent st
oragefuture,
son oext
rast
orage
faci
li
tyisrequi
red
 Geotherma lpl
antsrequir
elit
tl
eland

ar
ea.DI
SADVANTAGES:

 General
ly,
energyisavai
labl
ea slowg r
adeh eat
 Conti
nuouse xt
racti
onofheatedg r
oundwa termayleadst
o
subsi
dence[set
tingorsl
ump i
ngo fland]
 Geotherma l
flui
da l
sobri
ngswi t
hitthedissol
vedgases&
sol
ute[ashighas2 5Kg/m3]wh i
chleadstoa i
r&land
pol
lut
ion.
 Dr
il
li
ngo perat
ionleadst
on oisepoll
uti
on
 Ther
ma lenergycannotbed i
str
ibut
ede asi
l
yo verl
ong
di
stances[l
ongerthan̴ 3 0Km]
 Corr
osive&a brasi
vegeothermalfl
u i
dreducestheli
feofpl
ant
s.

Appl
icat
ions:

1]Di
rectheatuse, 2]El
ect
ri
cpowergener
ati
on.
TARSANDS:

Fig.
10.pr
oductionofsyntheti
ccrudeoilfr
om tarsands
 Tarsan doroi lsan dsisane xpressi
onu sedtod e scr
ibep orous
sandstoned epos i
tsimp regnatedwi thh eavyv i
scou soilsc all
ed
bit
ume nors i
mpl yde posit
sofh eavyoil
s .
 Thea boves c hema ti
cd iagram i nd i
ca t
ingt h ep r
oce sses
i
n vol
vedinp ro ducings yntheti
cc rudeo ilfromt ars andsma de
upo fs ands toned epos i
tsc ontaini
ngb i
tume n.
 Thes andso btai
n ed f r
o ms urf
a cemi ni
nga r
ef irstpa ssed
thr
o ugh ac ond i
ti
o ni
ngd rum wh erewa t
e r
, st
e am &c a usti
c
sodaa rea dde d&s lurr
yi sf orme d.Th es l
u r
ryp ass esintoa
separati
ont an kwh eret hec oa r
ses an ds ett
lesa tth ebo t
tom
&af rothofb i
t ume n,wa t
er&f i
nemi neralma tt
e rformso nt he
top.
 Thefrothisd i
l
u tedwi hn
t aptha&s ubj
ec t
e dtoc entr
ifugalacti
on .
Asar esult,fi
n emi neralma tter&wa t
e risremo v ed.Afterthis,
thenap t
hai sre covered&r e cycl
ed ,
&t h ebitume no btai
ne dis
 subj
ect
edtohydr
op r
ocessi
ng&desul
phur
izat
iont
opr
oduce
sy
n t
het
iccr
udeoil
.

OI
LSHALE:

Fi
g.11.
a.Oi
lshal
e Fi
g.11.
b.Pr
oduct
ionofcr
udeoi
lfr
om oi
lshal
e

Oilshal
e[as edi
me nt
aryr
ock]ref
erstoaf i
nelytext
uredrock
mixedwithas ol
idorgani
cma t
eri
alcal
ledkerogen.Whenc rushed,
i
tcanb ebur
ntd i
rect
ly[
li
kecoal
]&h asaheati
ngv al
uerangingfr
om
2000to1 7,
000KJ /
Kg.Itisusedint hi
sma n nerforgenerati
ng
el
ectr
ici
ty&supplyi
ngheat.

Alter
nativel
y,t
heoi lshal
ec anbeconvert
edtooil
.Th i
sisdoneby
heat
ingc r
u shedoilshal
etoa bout500˚cintheabsenceofair
.Under
t
hec ondi
tions,py
rolysi
soc cur
s&t heker
ogenisconver
tedtooi
l.
Demer
it
s:

1]Theu seofo i
lshal
eisthee nvi
ronmentaldegr
adati
ona ssoci
ated
wit
hs ur
facemi ni
ng&wi t
ht hedisposalofl
a r
geamo untsofsand&
spentshalerockwhichr
ema insaft
erthec r
udeoili
so bt
ained.
2]A lar
gea mo untofe ner
gyi sc onsumedi nproduci
ngo ilfr
om
thesesources.

NUCLEARPOWER:

Nucl
earpoweri
stheuseofnucl
earr
eact
ionst
opr
oduceel
ect
ri
cit
y.

Nucl
earpowercanbeobt
ainedf
rom nucl
earf
issi
on,
nucl
eardecayandnucl
earf
usi
on
r
eact
ions.

Present
ly,
thev
astmaj
ori
tyofel
ect
ri
cit
yfr
om nucl
earpoweri
sproducedbynucl
ear
fi
ssion(
thespl
it
ti
ngat
oms)ofurani
um andpl
utoni
um i
nnucl
earpowerplant
s.

Amaj orenvi
ronment
alconcer
nrel
atedtonuclearpoweri
s t
hecr
eat
ionofradi
oacti
ve
wastes whi
chcanremainradi
oact
iveanddangeroustohumanheal
thfort
housandsof
year
s.

Ur
anium minesoperateinmanycount
ri
es,butmor
et han85%ofurani
um i
spr
oducedi
n
si
xcountr
ies:Kazakhstan,
Canada,
Austr
ali
a,Nami
bia,Niger
,andRussi
a
 Indi
ah asmo destr
eser
vesofur
ani
um,most
lyl
ocat
edat
Jadugoda,Jhar
khand.

Th or
iumisavai
labl
eina bundancei
nInd i
aint
hef
ormof
monazi
te(or
e)int
hesa ndbeachesofKer
ala.

Forthe devel
opmentofthenucl
earener
gyt echnol
ogy,a
resear
chf aci
li
tyIGCAR (Indi
ra Ga ndhiCentr
ef orAt omic
Research)hasb eenest
abli
shedin1971a tKalpakkam,Tamil
Nadu.

Outofthetotalel
ectr
icalpowergener
ati
on,2.
8%isbei
ng
gener
atedbyn ucl
earme ans. Nu clearpowergener
ati
onis
pl
anned20,
000MW b y2 030

Undert
henucl
earopt
ion,t
he2al
ter
nat
ivesunderst
udyar
e,

1]Nucl
earFi
ssi
on,

2]Nucl
earf
usi
on

1]Nucl
earFi
ssi
on:

Fi
ssi
onoccur
swhenan eut
ronsl
amsintoal
argerat
om,
f
orci
ngitt
oexci
teandspl
iti
ntot
wosma l
l
e rat
oms.

Wh eneachat
omspl
it
s,at
remendousamountofener
gyi
s
r
eleased.

Urani
um andp l
utoni
um a r
e mostc ommonlyusedfor
f
issi
onreacti
onsinnuclearpowerreact
orsbecauset
heyar
e
easytoi
nit
iat
eandcont
rol
.

Th ee ner
gyr el
easedbyfi
ssi
onint hesereact
orsheats
wateri
n t
os t
eam. Thesteami
susedtospi
nat ur
binet
oproduce
car
bo n-
freeel
ectr
ici
ty.

Thisisactu all
yc ar
riedo ut i
ntheb reederreact
or.Inorderto
under
standthewo rki
ngo fab r
eederr eact
or,itisn ecessar
yt o
under
standt hef i
s si
onr eac ti
ons.Na t
ural
lyo ccur
ri
ngu rani
um
cont
ains3i sotop es,U234,U235 & U 238.Ther el
ati
ve% o ft hese
i
sotopesisU234–0 .
006%, U235-0.711% &U 238-99.
283%o fthese
i
sotopes,onl
yU u
235 ndergoess pontaneousfissi
onwh ens ubj
ected
t
ob omb ar
dme ntb yslown eutrons.Itisinfactthatonlyn at
ural
ly
occur
ri
ngfissi
lema ter
ial
.
 Fi
g.12.Fi
ssi
onr
eact
ionofU235

Theb re ak-
upo fU235wh ens ubjectedn eutr
on s&t her elease
ofal argea mo untofe nergya shea t[
8.2× 10 KJ
7 /
g mo fU ]
235.Th e
neutronsa res lowe dd ownb yamo derator,&u sedt ob o mb ard
t
h eU235 n ucleusa ga i
n,th er
eb ys etti
n gu pac ontroll
edc hain
r
ea cti
on .Althou ghU238 isn o taf issi
lema ter
ial
,iti saf erti
le
ma teri
al,i
.e.,i
tc anb ec onvert
edb yn eutr
o nb omb ar
d me ntintoa
f
issile ma te r
ial
,p l
uton i
um- 239.S imilar
ly,n atural
ly-occu r
ring
t
h ori
um- 232i sa lsoaf ert
il
ema teri
al.Itcanb ec onvertedi nto
U wh
233 i
chi saf i
s si
lema teri
al.
I
twi llbes eent hatthen eut
ronsg eneratedb yt hef ission
r
ea cti
ons er
v etwo p urposes.Th eyh el
pi nc o nver
ti
n gaf er
ti
le
ma t
e r
ialto af i
ssil
ema ter
ial&a l
sos ustai
nt hefissi
onr eacti
o nfor
t
hef i
ssil
ema teri
alforme d.Thea bovereactionsarec al
ledb reeder
r
ea cti
onsifth eyproducemo refi
ssil
ema t
eri
a lt
hant heycon sume&
t
hen ucl
e arreactorinwh i
cht heya r
ec ausedt oo ccurisc a l
leda
br
e ederreactor.
Breedingisa chievedb yh avi
ngb othfissi
le&f ert
il
ema teri
als
i
nt hereactorc oreun dercondit
ionswh i
c hprovideenou ghne utrons
t
op r
opa gatec hai
nr eacti
onsi nthefissil
e ma teri
ala swe llast o
convertmo ref er
ti
lema teri
alintofi
ssil
ema t
erialt
hanwa soriginal
ly
pr
e sent.

Fi
g.13.Br
eederr
eact
orf
orU238&Th232

React
orsworki
ngo nvar
iousbreedercycl
esh avebeenbui
lt
.
However
,thema j
ore f
for
thasb eeno nliqui
d-metalcool
ed,f
ast
br
eederr
eactor
sworki
ngo nt
heU238t
oPu 239cy
cle.

NUCLEARFUSI
ON:

Fusi
ono ccur
s whentwo at
oms sl
am t
ogethert
of or
m a
heavi
erat
o m,l
ikewh entwohydr
ogenatomsfusetofor
m o ne
hel
iumat
om.

Thisisthes amep r
ocesst hatpowersthes una ndc r
eates
hugeamo unt
so fenergy—severalt
imesg r
eaterthanfi
ssi
o n.I
t 
also
doesn’
tproducehi
ghlyradioact
ivefi
ssi
onp r
odu ct
s.

Fusionreacti
o nsareb ei
ngs t
udi
edb yscient
ist
s,butar
e
di
ff
icul
tt os ustai
nf orlongp er
iodsoftime becauseo ft
he
t
remendo usamo unto fpr
essureandtemper
atur
e neededt
ojoi
n
t
hen ucl
eitoget
her.

Inn ucl
earfu si
on,energyisr el
easedb yjoini
ngv er
ylight
at
oms .Ther eact
ionso fi
nter
e sti
nvolvethefusingoftheh eavy
i
sotopesofhydrogen[deut
eri
um D&t r
it
ium T]i
ntothenextheavi
er
el
eme nt
,vi
z,hel
ium. Theyar
ea sfol
lows.

D+D T+P+4.
0MeV [
1]
D+D He3 +n+3.
2MeV [
2]
D+T He4+n+17.
6MeV [
3]
D+He3 He4+p+18.
3MeV [
4]

6D 2 He4+2p+2n+43.
1Me
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
[5]

Equat
ion[1]&[2]sh owthat2n ucleiofdeuter
iumc anfusein
2wa ys.Bothwa ysa r
ee quall
yp r
obab l
e.Inthefir
st,tr
it
ium &o ne
prot
ona reformed,wh i
leinthes econd,heli
um-3&o nene ut
ronare
for
me d.Thee nergyreleasedb ythef usi
o nreact
ionisi ndi
cat
ed.
Tri
ti
umi su nst
able&c omb ineswithd euter
iumtof or
mh el
ium-4&
onen eut
ron,Equati
on[3 ]
,whil
eh el
ium-3c omb i
neswithd eut
eri
um
tofor
mh el
ium-4&o neproton,Equat
ion[4].ThenetresultEquat
ion
[
5 ]
,ist hea ddit
iono fa l
lt he4r eacti
ons.Itindicat
e sthat6
deuter
ium nucleiar
ec onvert
edto2h e l
i
u m-4n uclei
,2protons&2
neutr
onswitha nenergyrel
easeo f43.1Me V.

Deut
eri
umo ccur
sn at
u r
all
yinseawater&iti
se st
imat
edt
hat
t
hefusi
ono fallt
hed eut
eri
u minjustonecubi
cmetreofseawat
er
woul
dyiel
de ner
gyo f12×109KJ.

Thed evel
opme nt o f n ucl
earfu si
on reactoraret he
at
tai
nmentofth erequi
redhightemperat
ureb yi
nit
ial
lyheat
ingthe
f
uelchar
ge&t heconfi
neme ntoftheheatedfuelf
oral ongenough
t
imeforther
eacti
ontob ecomes el
f-
sust
aini
ng.

Ther esear
chb ei
ngc onduct
edt os ol
vethesep r
oblems is
pr
oceeding broadl
ya l
ong 2 c oncept
uald i
rect
ions- magnet
ic
conf
inement&laserinducedf
usion.

I
nthef
ir
stconcept
,thef
u elchar
ge[ i
nthefor
mo fachar
ged
par
ti
cl
egascomposedofposi
ti
velychargednucl
ei&fr
eeel
ect
rons]
i
sc ont
ainedinah er
me t
icall
ys eal
edv acuumc hamb er&ish eated
t
ot her equi
redh i
g htemp eratur
eb yp assi
nga ne l
ectr
icc ur
rent
t
h r
oughi t
.At t hi
st emp erat
ure,thefusionr eact
iontakesp lace
successf
ull
yo nl
yifthega sisconfi
n edwit
hinac ert
ainvol
u mefora
speci
fi
edt i
me&n ota l
lowedt oc omeintoc ont
actwi t
hc ontai
ning
chamber‘
swa l
l
s.Th i
sc onfi
n ementi sachievedb ytheapp l
i
cation
ofaverystrong,speci
all
ys hapedma gneti
cfiel
d.

Inthes econ dc oncept,t

hef uelchargeinthef ormo fv er
y
sma l
lpell
ets.Thesea reposit
ionedoneb yonea taspe ci
fi
clocati
on
&s ubj
ectedtoi nt
e nsefocusedlaserbeamswh i
chh eatthep el
let
s
tothereq ui
redtemp eratur
e&c ausefusiontoo ccur.Bya dopti
ng
thi
sme thod,thec o nf
ineme ntti
mei ssu bst
anti
all
yr educed&t he
needf ora ma gneti
cf iel
di sr
emo ved.
Oft her eact
ionsg iv
e nin
equati
on[ 1]to[ 4],the D-Tr eact
ionta kesp l
acea tt helowe st
temperatur
e;a bout10 K.
7 si
ncetri
ti
umd oesn otoccurn at
ural
ly,
the
D-Tr eact
ions hou l
db es uppl
eme nt
edb yo neu si
ngl i
thi
um a s
fol
lows:
D+T He4+n+17.
6 .
..
..
..
..
..
..[
6]
MeV
N+Li
6 .
..
..
..
..
..
..[
7]
He4+T+4.
8MeV
D+Li
6 2He4+22.
4MeV [
8]
 Sol
arRadi
ati
on

Solarradiationistheelectr
omagnet i
cr adiati
onemittedbythesun.
Thisradiationcanbeconv er t
edtousef ulformsofenergy,suchasheatand
el
ectri
citybyt hedi ffer
entt ypesoft echnol ogi
es.
Asweknowt hatthesolarenergyr eachingt hetopofeart
h'satmosphere
contai
nabout8%ul tr
av i
oletradiati
on
46%v isi
blel
ight
therest46% isinfraredradiation.

Assolarradiat
ionpassesthroughtheearth’
satmosphere,
1.Theult
rav i
olet(
UV)raysar eabsorbedbyt heozone
2.Theinf
raredraysareabsorbedbyt hecarbondioxi
deandmoi st
urei
n
theatmosphere.
Watervapouranddustpr esenti
nt heeart
h’satmospherescatt
eraport
ion
oftheradi
ati
on

Sol
arRadi
ati
onOut
sideTheEar
th’
sSur
face:

Sunisal ar
gesphereofveryhotgases,t
heheatbei
nggenerat
edby
6
vari
ouskindsoffusi
onreacti
ons.I
t’
sdiamet
eris1.39X10km,whi
le
thatoft
he
Absorpti
onoccur sprimarilybecauseoft hepresenceofozoneand
waterv apourint he atmospher e and l
esserext entdue to ot her
gases(li
keCO2, NO2,CO,O2andCH4)andpar t
icul
atemat ter.I
tresults
i
nani ncreaseintheinternalenergyoftheatmospher e.Ont heot her
hand,scat t
eri
ngoccur sduet oallgaseousmol eculesaswel las
part
icul
ate mat t
erint he at mosphere.The scattered radi
ati
on i s
redi
stri
butedinal ldi
rections,somegoi ngbackt ot hespaceand
somer eachingtheeart
h’ssur f
ace.

Solarr adi
ati
onr ecei
ved attheear th’
ssur facewi t
houtchangeof
dir
ectioni.e,i
nl i
newi t
ht hesuni scal leddi r
ectradiat
ionorbeam
radiat
ion.Theradiati
onreceiv
edatt heear t
h’ssurfacefrom al
lpart
s
ofsky ’
s hemisphere(afterbeing subj ected to scatt
eri
ng inthe
atmospher e)i
scal eddi
l ff
user adiati
on.Thesum ofbeam r adi
ati
on
anddif f
useradiat
ioniscal
ledast otalorglobalradi
ation.
Ext
rat
err
est
ri
alr
adi
ati
on

Solar radi
ati
oni nci
dentont heouteratmosphereoft heearthis
knownasext r
at err
estr
ialradi
ati
on.Aty
picalspect
raldi
str
ibut
ionof
extrat
err
est
ri
alradiat
ionisshowninFi
g.3.3.
Thecur vei ncreaseswithwav elengt
handat tendt hemaxi mum v al
ue
2
(2070W/ m/ µm)atawav elengthof0. 48µm.Theni tdecreasest o
zero.Thear eaundert heent ir
ecurv ei s t hesol arradiati
on.The
ultr
av iol
etr egioncontained8. 73%oft otalener gyreleasedbyt hesun,
visi
bl eregion cont ain38.15%andi nfraredr egioncont ai
n53. 12%of
totalener gy .Theear t
hr evolves aroundt hesuni nell
ipt
icalorbitso
thedi stancebet weenthesunandt heear thv ari
es,accor dingl
y,the
ex t
raterrestrialradi
ati
onv aries.Theext raterr
est r
ialsolarradiat
ionis
entirelydirectorbeam r adi
at i
on.

I
nst
rument
s used f
or measur
ing sol
ar

r
adi
ati
on:Py
ranomet
er:

A pyranometerisani nstr
umentwhi chmeasure’
seitherglobalor
di
ffuseradiat
ionfal
li
ngonahor i
zont
alsur
faceoverahemi spher
ical
fi
eldofv iew.
A sketchofonet ypeofpy r
anometerasi nst
all
edf or
measur i
ngglobalr
adiat
ionisshowninthefol
l
owingfi
gure.
1.
Blacksur
face,
2.Gl
assdomes,

3.Guar
dpl
ate4.Lev
eli
ngscr
ews,

5.
mount
ingpl
ate,
6.
Gr
out
edbolt
s,

7.
plat
for
m.

Pyranomet erconsi st
s ofa bl ack sur face whi ch heats up when
exposedt osolarradiati
on.It’
st emper atureincreasesunt i
ltherat
eof
heatgainbysol arradiat
ionequal sther ateofheatl ossbyconv ecti
on,
conduction and r adiat
ion.The hotj uncti
ons oft her
mopile are
attachedtot heblacksur f
ace,whi l
et hecol dj uncti
onsar elocated
underaguar dplat
esot hattheydonotr eceivet heradiat
iondir
ectly
.
Asar esultanemfi sgener ated.Thi semfwhi chisusual l
yint he
rangeof0t 010mvcanber ead,r ecordedori ntegr at
edov eraperiod
oft i
meandi sameasur eofgl obal r
adiation.

The py ranometercan al so be used formeasur ementofdi ff

use
radiat
ion.Thisisdonebymount i
ngitatthecenterofasemici r
cular
shadingr i
ng.Theshadi ngri
ngi sfi
xedinsuchawayt hatit
’spl
anei s
parall
eltot heplaneofpat hofsun’sdailymovementacr ossthesky
and itshades t he thermopile el
ementand t wo gal ss domes of
pyranomet eratallt
het imesfrom dir
ectsunshine.Consequent l
ythe
pyranomet ermeasuresonl ythedi f
fuseradi
ati
onr eceiv
edf r
om the
sky.

Py
rhel
iomet
er:

Thisi saninstrumentwhi chmeasur esbeam r adiat

ionf all
i
ngona
surfacenormalt ot hesun’srays.Incont r
asttoapy ranomet er,the
blackabsorberplate(wi
thhotjuncti
onsofat her
mopileattachedt oit
)
i
sl ocatedatthebaseofacol li
matingt ube.Thetubeisal i
gnedwi th
thedi r
ecti
onoft hesun’sr ayswi t
ht hehel pofat wo-axistracking
mechani sm andal i
gnmenti ndi
cator.Thust heblackpl atereceives
onlybeam r adi
ationandasmal lamountofdi f
fuseradiati
onf all
ing
withintheacceptanceangleoftheinstrument.

TheFol
l
owi
ngf
igur
eshowsapy
rhel
i
omet
er.
 t
1.ubebl
ackenedon
i
nsi
desur
face,

baf
2. fl
e,3.
Ali
gnmenti
ndi
cat
or,

4.Bl
ackabsor
ber

pl
ate5.
ther
mopi
l
e

j
unct
ions

6.
two-
axi
str
acki
ngmechani
sm

Shadi
ngr
ingpy
ranomet
er

Shadingoft hepy ranomet erfrom di r

ectsolarradiat
ionisdoneei t
herbyadi scwhichis
madet omov ewi t
ht hesunsoasal way stocastitsshadow onthepy ranomet er
,orbymeans
ofashadowr i
ng.
Aphotogr aphofthet ypical shadowr ingi nstal
lati
onisshowninfigur e.Inthelatt
ercaseasmal l
corr
ectionfactorisappl iedf orthepar tofthedi ffuseradi
ati
onwhi chiscutofff r
om thesensor
bytheshadow r ing.
Thiscorrecti
oncanei t
herbecomput edordet erminedexperi
mentall
y.
Thecor recti
onfact orcanbeexper iment all
yobt ai
nedbysuccessivemeasur ementswi t
hthe
ri
nganddi scofsui tabledi amet er
.
Theamountofdi ffuser adiat i
onwhi chi scutoffi saddedt otheresul
tsobt ai
nedwi t
ht heri
ng

Sunshi
ner
ecor
der

Thisinst
rumentmeasuresthedurat
ion
i
nhour s,ofbr
ightsunshi
neduri
ngthe
courseoftheday.
Itessenti
all
yconsi
stsofaglass
sphere(about10cm indiameter
)
mountedoni tsaxi
sparal
lel
tothatof
theearth,wit
hinaspheri
calsect
ion
bowl)asshowni nFig.
Thebowl andglassspher
eisar
ranged
i
nsuchawayt hatsun'sr
aysar
e
focusedsharpl
yataspotonacard
heldinagrooveinthebowl.
Thecardispreparedf
rom aspeci
al
paperbear
ingat i
mescale.
Asthesunmoves,
thef
ocusedbri
ght
sunshi
nebur
nsapathalongt
his
paper.
Thelengt
hofthetr
acethusobt ai
ned
onthepaper
,ist
hemeasur eofthe
dur
ationoft
hebri
ghtsunshine.
Threeover
lappingpairsofgroov
esare
provi
dedinthespheri
calsegmentto
takecar
eoft hediffer
entseasonsof
theyear
.