UNIT-III

1. State the equality and inequality constraints on the optimization of product cost of a
power station.
Ans: The equality constraint is the sum of real-power generation of all the various units
that must always be equal to the total real-power demand on the system.
𝑛

𝐶 = ∑ 𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 )
𝑖=1
The inequality constraint in each generating unit should not be operating above its rating
or below some minimum generation.
i.e., PGi(min) ≤ PGi ≤ PGi(max) , for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n

2. What is an incremental fuel cost and what are its units?

Ans: Incremental fuel cost is the cost of the rate of increase of fuel input with the increase
in power input. Its unit is Rs./MWh.

3. How is the inequality constraint considered in the determination of optimum

allocation?
Ans: If one or several generators reach their limit values, the balance real-power demand,
which is equal to the difference between the total demand and the sum of the limit value,
is optimally distributed among the remaining units by applying the equal incremental fuel
cost rule.

4. On what factors does the choice of a computation method depend on the

determination of optimum distribution of load among the units?
Ans: The factors depend upon the following:
1. Number of generating units.
2. The degree of polynomial representing the IC curve.
3. The presence of discontinuities in the IC curves.

5. What does the production cost of a power plant correspond to?

Ans: The production cost of a power plant corresponds to the least of minimum or
optimum production costs of various combinations of units, which can supply a given
real-power demand on the station.

6. To get the solution to an optimization problem, what will we define an objective’s

function?
Ans: Minimize the cost of production, min C′ = min C(PGn)
7. Write the condition for optimality in allocating the total load demand among the
various units.
𝜕𝐶𝑖
Ans: The condition for optimality is the incremental fuel cost, =𝜆
𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑖

8. Write the separable objective function and why it is called so.

Ans: The above objective function consists of a summation of terms in which each term
is a function of a separate independent variable. Hence, it is called separable objective
function.

9. Briefly discuss the optimization problem.

Ans: Minimize the overall cost of production, which is subjected to equality constraints
and inequality constraints. Equality constraint is:
𝑛

∑ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷 = 0
𝑖=1
Inequality constraint is PGi(min) ≤ PGi ≤ PGi(max) , for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n

10. Define the incremental fuel or heat rate curve.

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of a small change in the input to the corresponding small
change in the output.
Δ 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Δ𝐹
Incremental fuel rate = =
Δ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Δ𝑃𝐺

11. How do you get incremental cost curve?

The incremental cost curve is obtained by considering at various points, the change in
cost of generation to the change in real-power generation, i.e., slope of the input–output
curve.

12. How you get the heat rate characteristic?

Ans: The heat rate characteristic is obtained from the plot of net heat rate in kCal/kWh
versus power output in kW.

13. Define the incremental efficiency.

Ans: It is defined as the reciprocal of incremental fuel rate and is given by
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑃
Incremental efficiency = = 𝐺
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝐶

14. State in words the condition for minimum fuel cost in a power system when losses
are considered.
 Ans: The minimum fuel cost is obtained when the incremental fuel cost of each station
multiplied by its penalty factor is the same for all the stations in the power system.

15. Define the current distribution factor.

Ans: The current distribution factor of a transmission line with respect to a power source
is the ratio of the current it would carry to the current that the source would carry when
all other sources are rendered inactive, i.e., the sources that are not supplying any current.

16. Write the expression for the total transmission loss in terms of real-power
generations when n = 2.
Ans: For n = 2,
2 2

𝑃𝐿 = ∑ ∑ 𝑃𝐺𝑝 𝐵𝑝𝑞 𝑃𝐺𝑞

𝑝=1 𝑞=1
= 𝑃𝐺1 𝐵11 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺1 𝐵12 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵21 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵22 𝑃𝐺2
2 2
= 𝐵11 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝐵22 𝑃𝐺2 + 2𝐵12 𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2

17. In the study of an optimum allocation problem, what are the considerations that you
will notice regarding equality and inequality constraints in the case of transmission
loss consideration and why are reactive-power constraints taken?
Ans: Equality constraints,
𝑛

∑ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐿 = 0
𝑖=1
Inequality constraints, PGi(min) ≤ PGi ≤ PGi(max) , for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n
QGi(min) ≤ QGi ≤ QGi(max) , for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n
Vi(min) ≤ Vi ≤ Vi(max) , for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n
Reactive-power constraints are to be taken since the transmission losses are functions of
real and reactive-power generations and also the voltage at each bus.

18. What are the assumptions considered in deriving the transmission loss expression?
Ans: The following assumptions are to be considered for deriving the transmission loss
expression:
1. All lines in the system have the same X/R ratio.
2. All the load currents have the same phase angle.
3. All the load currents maintain a constant ratio to the total current.
4. The magnitude and phase angle of bus voltages at each station remain constant.

19. Write the transmission loss expression for the kth line, if there are two generating stations
in terms of station voltages, real-power generations, and their power factors.
 𝑃2 𝑃2
Ans: 𝑃𝐿 = (𝑉 )2𝐺1 𝑁 2 𝑅 + (𝑉 )2𝐺2
(𝑝𝑓 )2 𝑘1 𝑘
𝑁2 𝑅 +
(𝑝𝑓 )2 𝑘2 𝑘
1 1 2 2
2𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2
cos(𝜎2 − 𝜎1 )𝑁𝑘1 𝑁𝑘2
𝑉1 𝑉2 (𝑝𝑓1 )(𝑝𝑓2 )
 UNIT-IV
1. Define stability.
Ans: The stability of the system is defined as the ability of the system to return to stable
operation when it is subjected to a disturbance.

2. Define steady state stability.

Ans: Steady state stability is defined as the ability of the power system to remain stable
i.e, without loosing synchronism for small disturbances.

3. Define transient stability.

Ans: Transient state stability is defined as the ability of the power system to remain stable
i.e, without loosing synchronism for large disturbances.

4. Define synchronizing or stiffness coefficient. For what value of synchronizing

coefficient the system remains stable.
Ans: The term Pmax Cos δo is called synchronizing or stiffness coefficient. The system is
stable if the synchronizing or stiffness coefficient is positive. It is positive when 0 < δo <
π/2.
5. Give an expression for swing equation.
𝐻 𝑑2 𝛿
Ans: ( )( ) = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒
𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
Since M in p.u =H/πf
𝑑2 𝛿
(𝑀) ( 2 ) = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒
𝑑𝑡
Where H= inertia constant in MW/MVA
F= Frequency in HZ
M= inertia constant in p.u

6. Define swing curve.

Ans: The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle and time.

7. What is the use of swing curve?

Ans: It is usually plotted for a transient state to study the nature of variation in power
angle for a sudden large disturbance. From the nature of variation in power angle the
stability of a system for any disturbance can be determined.
8. Define power angle.
Ans: The power angle or torque angle is defined as the angular displacement of the rotor
from synchronously rotating reference frame.
9. Name the two ways by which transient stability study can be made in a system
where one machine is swinging with respect to an infinite bus.
a) Equal area criterion
b) Point by Point method.

10. Define critical clearing angle and critical clearing time.

Ans: The critical clearing angle is the maximum allowable change in the power angle
before clearing the fault, without loss of synchronism. The critical clearing time is
defined as the maximum time delay that can be allowed to clearing fault, without loss of
synchronism.

11. What is meant by an infinite bus?

Ans: The connection or disconnection of a single small machine on a large system would
not affect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency. Such a system of
constant voltage and constant frequency regardless of the load is called infinite bus bar
system or infinite bus.

12. What is transient stability limit?

Ans: When the load on the system is increased suddenly, maximum power that can be
transmitted without losing synchronism is termed as transient state stability limit.
Normally, steady state stability limit is greater than transient state stability limit.

13. List the methods of improving the transient stability limit of a power system.
Ans: a) Increase of system voltage and use of Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR)
b) Use of high speed excitation systems.
c) Reduction in system transfer reactance.
d) Use of high speed reclosing breakers.

14. State Equal area criterion.

Ans: In a two machine system under the usual assumptions of constant input , no
damping and constant voltage being transient reactance , the angle between the machines
either increases or else, after all disturbances have occurred oscillates with constant
amplitude. There is a simple graphical method of determining whether the system comes
to rest with respect to each other. This is known as equal area criterion

Equal area criterion for stability states that the system is stable if the area under P a - δ
curve reduces to zero at some value of δ
 This is possible only if the positive area under Pa - δ curve is equal to the negative area
under Pa - δ curve for a finite change in δ. hence this stability criterion is called Equal
area criterion.
15. What are the assumptions made in short circuit studies of a large power system
network?
Ans: a) The phase to neutral emfs of all generators remain constant, balanced and
unaffected by the faults.
b) Each generator is represented by an emf behind either the sub-transient or
transient reactance depending upon whether the short circuit current is to be found
immediately after the short circuit or after about 3 – 4 cycles.
c) Load currents may often be neglected in comparison with fault currents.
d) All network impedances are purely reactive. Thus the series resistances of lines
and transformers are neglected in comparison with their resistances.
e) Shunt capacitances and shunt branches of transformers are neglected. Hence,
transformer reactances are taken as their leakage reactances.

16. How do you classify steady state stability limit. Define them.
Ans: Depending on the nature of the disturbance, the steady state stability limit is
Classified into, a) Static stability limit refers to steady state stability limit that prevails
without the aid of regulating devices.
b) Dynamic stability limit refers to steady state stability limit prevailing in an unstable
system with the help of regulating devices such as speed governors, voltage regulators,
etc.

17. What are coherent machines?

Ans: Machines which swing together are called coherent machines. When both ωs and δ
are expressed in electrical degrees or radians, the swing equations for coherent machines
can be combined together even though the rated speeds are different. This is used in
stability studies involving many machines.

1. Describe R.K method of solution of swing equation for SMIB system.

2. Derive an expression for critical clearing angle and clearing time.
3. Derive the swing equation for a single machine connected to an infinite bus system.
4. State and explain equal area criterion. Indicate how you will apply equal area criterion to
find maximum additional load that can be suddenly added.
5. A three generator delivers 1 pu, power to an infinite bus through a transmission network
when a fault occurs. The maximum power which can be transferred during pre-fault,
during fault and post fault conditions is 1.75 pu, 0.4 pu, 1.25 pu. Find critical clearing
angle.
 6. Derive the power angle equation for a (i) SMIB System. Also draw the power angle
curve.
(ii) A generator having Xd = 0.7 pu delivers rated load at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
Find Pe, Qe, E and δ.
7. Discuss the methods by which transient stability can be improved.