Petroleum Geology Jean Piaget 2015a

Course objectives
Geology of petroleum
Petroleum geology
Dr. Lateef Akanji
Jean Piaget University Angola Training
June 5, 2015
Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk)

Course objectives
Geology of petroleum
Learning outcomes
By the end of this course, you will be able to

I appreciate the importance of multidisciplinary studies and the
benefits of the integration of geology and geophysics with other
aspects of petroleum engineering
I understand geology of petroleum and formation
I describe geological evidence for certain subsurface reservoirs
Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 1/56

Course objectives Origin and migration of oil and gas
Geology of petroleum Sedimentary rocks
Petroleum geology
I Global distribution of petroleum
Figure 1 : Distribution of world oil (≈ 1, 200BillionBbls) proved reserves

(Source: BP (2006).)

Sedimentary basins
I Oil and gas form in sedimentary basins

I Sedimentary basins are areas of crustal subsidence
I Sedimentary basins form as a results of plate tectonics
I Basins may be deformed and uplifted as a result of later plate
movements

Origin of oil and gas
I Oil and gas are hydrocarbons made of chain and cyclic carbon
compounds that form from organic materials (marine plankton,
nonmarine plankton, peats/coals) - Source Rocks
I All these materials were originally buried within sedimentary
deposits and subsequently ‘simmered’ during burial in the upper
parts of the Earth’s crust
I Optimum ‘simmering’ temperature 60 − 120o C
I They migrate from the source rocks into the reservoir rocks
(properties of reservoir rocks will be discussed later)

Origin of petroleum
I Oil and gas are generated from the organic matter in the
source rocks and migrate into the reservoir rock
I The preservation of the organic matter in the source rock is a
key factor to oil and gas generation
I About 10% − 20% of petroleum is formed directly from the
hydrocarbons produced by living organisms
I The remaining 80% − 90% of oil and gas is formed by the thermal
alteration of kerogen
I Kerogen is an organic matter in sedimentary rocks that is
insoluble in organic solvents

Origin of petroleum
I The most important factor in the generation of hydrocarbons from

kerogen is temperature
I For temperature to rise to the required level, the source rock must
be buried
I As the temperature increases, the kerogen matures
I With increasing maturity, the colour of the kerogen changes from
yellow to brown, to dark brown and finally black

Origin of petroleum
Kerogen is commonly classified into 4 types:
I Type I: derived from algal lipids (fats, waxes, fatty acids, sterols
and terpenoids)
I It is commonly lacustrine and high oil generation potential
I Type II: derived from marine organic matter consisting of animal
and plant material
I Its oil generation potential is lower than Type I but still very
important
I Type III: derived primarily from humic (terrestrial plant
material) organic matter
I It is gas prone
I Type IV: may have been derived from any source
I It is usually recycled and oxidised and is largely inert (very little
oil and gas generation potential)
Van Krevelen diagram
I Different kerogen types follow different

maturation pathways in increasing
order of maturity
I The main changes in the chemical
composition of kerogen with increasing
maturity are reduction in H − C and
O − C ratios
Figure 2 : A Van Krevelen
diagram showing the H/C and
O/C ratios of kerogen types I-IV

Origin of petroleum
Figure 3 : General scheme of kerogen evolution and the principal products

generated during each stage (Tissot, 1973).

Origin of petroleum
Figure 4 : Origin, type, source and hydrocarbon potential of different

kerogens. Organic content in gas shales is usually Type II, as opposed to
coals, which contain mostly Type III

Origin of petroleum
Figure 5 : Hydrocarbon type versus temperature defines ”oil window” and

”gas window”, with some obvious overlap (Crain’s Petrophysical Handbook)

Source of Oil and Gas
I Diatoms are an important group of phytoplankton

I They contain a silica skeleton and may reach 1 mm in diameter
I Other phytoplankton organisms have a carbonate skeleton
I Zooplankton includes planktonic foraminifera, radiolaria and
planktonic crustacea

Biomolecules in Living Organisms

I Lipids; mostly fats, oils and waxes, have the greatest potential to
be sources of hydrocarbon
I They are combinations of the fatty acids of the general formula
Cn H2n O2 with glycerol, C3 H5 (OH)3
I An example is glyceride C17 H35 COOCH3 formed from the stearic
acid
I Proteins are giant molecules that make up the solid constituents
of animal tissues and plant cells
I They are rich in carbon but also contain N , S and O
I Carbohydrates are based on sugars Cn (H2 O)n and their
polymers (cellulose, starch, chitin).
I They are common in plant tissue
I Lignin is a polymer consisting of numerous aromatic rings
I It is a major constituent in land plants and converts to coal through
de-oxygenation

Abundances of Biomolecules
Biomolecules Lipids Proteins Carbohydrates Lignin
Spruce wood 4 1 66 29
Oak leaves 5 6 52 37
Phytoplankton 11 23 66
Zooplankton 18 60 22
Invertebrates 10 70 20
Marine Sediments 1 40 47
Table 1 : Phytoplankton is typically 10 times more abundant than
zooplankton and 100 − 1000 times more abundant than fish

Average Composition of Biomolecules (wt. %)
Group C H O S N
Lipids 76 12 12
Proteins 53 7 22 1 17
Carbohydrates 44 6 50
Lignin 63 5 31.6 0.1 0.3
Petroleum 83-87 10-14 0.1-1.5 0.5-6 0.1-1.5

Table 2 : Note that lipids are closest to petroleum composition, but are
richer in oxygen and poorer in carbon

The Organic Matter Engine
Figure 6 : Schematic of cross-section from the ocean to the continental rise,

shelf edge and shelf showing oxygen concentrations. The open ocean waters
are generally rich in oxygen due to circulation and exchange with the
atmosphere. Upwelling of nutrient-rich water leads to high organic
productivity in the photic zone on the shelf, but lack of circulation and
organic decay may produce anoxic bottom waters there (Source: North, F.K.
(1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin).

Preservation of Organic Matter
I Access to air (oxygen) rapidly - at geological scales - oxidizes

organic matter and converts it into CO2 and H2 O
I The total carbon content in the Earth’s crust is 9 × 1019 kg (the
hydrosphere and biosphere contain less than 10−5 of this)
I Over 80% of this is in carbonates

Preservation of Organic Matter
Organic carbon amounts to 1.2 × 1019 kg and is distributed

approximately as follows:
I Dispersed in sedimentary rocks ≈ 97.0%
I Petroleum in non-reservoir rocks ≈ 2.0%
I Coal and peat ≈ 0.13%
I Petroleum in reservoirs ≈ 0.01%
This illustrates the low efficiency of the preservation process!

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

If a rock contains significant amounts of organic carbon, it is a possible
source rock for petroleum or gas
I The TOC content is a measure of the source rock potential and is
measured with total pyrolysis
I The table below shows how TOC (in weight percent) relates to the
source rock quality
TOC Quality
0.0 − 0.5 Poor
0.5 − 1.0 Fair
1.0 − 2.0 Good
2.0 − 4.0 Very good
> 4.0 Excellent
Table 3 : TOC

I Generally, finer-grained sediments contain more organic matter

than coarser-grained ones
I This is as a result of the restricted diffusion and thus the lower
amount of oxygen that can get in contact with OM.
I TOC can reach 20% or more
I Coals and oil shales are rich in OM but are called source rocks

Figure 7 : Evidence for the biogenic origin of fossil hydrocarbons (Source:

North, F.K. (1985) Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin)

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Types
TOC in sedimentary rocks can be divided into two types:

I Bitumen is the fraction that is soluble in organic solvents such as
chloroform
I Kerogen (keros = wax) is the insoluble, non-extractable residue
that forms in the transformation from OM
I It is an intermediate product formed during diagenesis and is the
principal source of hydrocarbon generation
I It is a complex mixture of high-weight organic molecules with the
general composition of (C12 H12 ON0.16 )x

Conversion of OM to HC
I The principal condition is that conversion of OM to HC take place

in an essentially oxygen-free environment from the very beginning
of the process
I Anaerobic bacteria may help extract sulfur to form H2 S and N , in
addition to the earlier formation of CO2 and H2 O
I This explains the low sulfate content of many formation waters

Conversion of OM to HC
I On burial, kerogen is first formed (general composition of

(C12 H12 ON0.16 )x )
I This is then gradually cracked to form smaller HC, with formation
of CO2 and H2 O
I At higher temperatures, methane (CH4 ) is formed and HCs from
C13 to C30
I Consequently, the carbon content of kerogen increases with
increasing temperatures
I Simultaneously, fluid products high in hydrogen are formed and
oxygen is eliminated

Dehydrogenisation and Carbonisation
The dehydrogenation and carbonization of organic source material can

be illustrated with the H : C ratio during the formation of coals:
Source material H:C ratio

Wood 1.5
Peat 1.3
Lignite 1.0
Bitumen coal 0.8
Anthracite 0.3 − 0.0
Table 4 : Dehydrogenisation and carbonisation of organic source material

Deoxygenisation and Carbonisation
The deoxygenation and carbonisation of the organic source material is

illustrated with the formation of petroleum:
Source material O : C ratio

Organisms 0.35 − 0.6
Pyrobitumen (kerogen) 0.1 − 0.2
Petroleum (average) 0.004
Table 5 : Deoxygenation and carbonisation of the organic source material

Source Rock Quality
I The primary factor determining source rock quality is the level of

TOC
I In addition, the quality of the source rock is better for higher H:C
ratios before thermal maturation
I As thermal maturation proceeds and HCs are formed, the kerogen
will continuously deteriorate as a source for HC formation

Oil Source Rock Criteria
The criteria for a sedimentary rock to be an effective oil source can be

quantitatively summarised as follows:
I The TOC should be 0.4% or more
I Elemental C should be between 75% and 90% (in weight)
I The ratio of bitumen to TOC should exceed 0.05
I The kerogen type should be Type I or II (from lipids)
I Vitrinite reflectance should be between 0.6 and 1.3%

Study questions
I What organic biomolecules did your breakfast contain today?

I What is the major difference between human metabolism and that
of plants?
I Why is the open ocean less favorable for phytoplankton growth
than shelf areas?
I What happens to the carbon cycle if all the ice caps melt?
I Write down the basic chemical formulae for
I the formation of sugar through photosynthesis
I the burning of a simple lipid
I the transformation of carbonates at high temperatures

Migration of petroleum
I Once generated the hydrocarbon are expelled from the source rock
I It is generally agreed that the primary cause of the movement of
fluids from a source sediment to a reservoir rock is compaction
I Fine grained sediments initially have a high porosity and large
volumes of water
I With increasing overburden pressure resulting from burial, the
water is squeezed out and the sediment becomes compacted to a
fraction of its original volume
I The hydrocarbons move out with the compaction water

Migration of petroleum
I The movement of hydrocarbons out of the source rock into the

reservoir is called primary migration while the movement of oil
and gas within the reservoir is known as secondary migration
I The actual mechanism of primary migration is poorly understood
I It is not known whether the hydrocarbons move out of the source
rock in solution, colloidal suspension, as ‘protopetroleum’ discreet
globules of oil or by diffusion
I It is generally accepted that the main cause of secondary
migration is buoyancy of oil and gas

Petroleum system processes
Figure 8 : Petroleum system processes, (Santoso, 2011)

Fluids distribution in a reservoir
Figure 9 : Distribution of fluids in a reservoir

Hydrocarbons in traps
Figure 10 : Faults (Marshak, 2005)

Figure 11 : Folds (Marshak, 2005)

Figure 12 : Salt domes (Marshak, 2005)

Depostional environment
I Depostional environment involves all of the physical, chemical,
biological and geographic conditions under which sediments are
deposited
I Origins of sedimentary rocks may be
I Extra-basinal in which case sediments are formed from the
weathering of pre-existing rocks outside the basin and transported
to the environment of deposition
I Intra-basinal which involves formation of sediments inside the
basin mostly through chemical precipitates; carbonate rocks, and
coal
I Comparison of modern sedimentary deposits with ancient
sedimentary rocks allows the interpretation of the depositional
conditions
I There are three broad categories of depositional environments:
1. Marine environments (ocean)
2. Transitional environments (along contact between ocean and land)
3. Continental environments (on land)
Sedimentary rocks - introduction
I Sediments are solid fragments of organic or inorganic material

that come from the weathering of rock or biological processes
I Agents of deposition of sediment are wind, water or ice
I Sedimentary rocks are a product of the surface processes of the
earth (weathering, erosion, rain, streamflow, wind, wave
action, ocean circulation )
I The starting material for sedimentary rocks are the rocks
outcropping on the continents
I Processes of physical and chemical weathering break down these
source materials into the following components:
I small fragments of the source rock (gravel, sand, or silt size) that
may be identifiable rock fragments or individual minerals
I new minerals produced by weathering processes (mainly clays)

Origin of sedimentary rocks
I A sedimentary rock that we can examine in an outcrop has a long

history and has been subjected to modification by various
processes
I The first process, WEATHERING, produces the materials that
a sedimentary rock is composed of by mechanical ( freezing,
thawing ) and chemical (dissolution of minerals, formation
of new minerals [clays] ) interaction between atmosphere,
hydrosphere and earth surface rocks
I The second process, TRANSPORT, moves these materials to
their final destination

I Rivers are the main transporting agent of material to the oceans

(glaciers are at times important)
I During transport, the sediment particles will be sorted according
to size and density (gold placers) and will be rounded by abrasion
I Material that has been dissolved during weathering will be carried
away in solution
I Winds may also play a role (Sahara – east/central atlantic)
I The sorting during transport is important because it is the reason
that we have distinct clastic rock types (conglomerates,
sandstones, shales )

Figure 13 : Weathering process

I The third process, DEPOSITION, of a sediment, occurs at a site

with a specific combination of physical, chemical and biological
conditions, the sedimentary environment
I Finally, after the sediment has come to rest, COMPACTION
and CEMENTATION of the sediment occur and a sedimentary
rock is formed
I Compaction is effected by the burden of younger sediment that gets
piled on top of older sediments (rearrangement of particles, packing,
dewatering).
I Minerals precipitated from the pore waters in these sediments
cement together adjacent sediment grains
I Thus, a coherent solid rock is formed

Several different types of sedimentary rocks can be distinguished

according to mineral composition and origin of the sediment
I The main groupings are:
I Clastic sedimentary rocks, are those that are composed of
fragments of other rocks (igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary )
I Depending on grain size they are subdivided into conglomerate
(grain size larger than 2mm), sandstone (size between 2mm and
0.0625mm) and shale (mudstone)
I Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks are subdivided
into: limestone/dolostone, evaporites and carbonaceous
rocks
I Carbonaceous sedimentary rocks
I Terrigeneous clastic sediments: boulders - gravel - sand -
silt - clay

Conglomerates
Figure 14 : Chert and limestone clasts bound in a matrix of sand and clay.
Conglomerate forms where a sediment of rounded clasts at least two
millimeters in diameter accumulates.

Sandstone
Figure 15 : Sandstone (Picture: Geology.com)

Pore-space of sandstone
Figure 16 : Pore-space of Sandstone Containing Fluids (Akanji, 2010)

Shale
Figure 17 : Shale: Shale breaks into thin pieces with sharp edges. It occurs
in a wide range of colors that include: red, brown, green, gray, and black. It is
the most common sedimentary rock and is found in sedimentary basins
worldwide (Picture: Geology.com)

Limestones
Figure 18 : Limestone is by definition a rock that contains at least 50%

calcium carbonate in the form of calcite by weight (Picture: Geology.com)

Dolostone
Figure 19 : Dolostone is a sedimentary rock composed principally of the

mineral dolomite [CaM g(CO3 )2 ]

Gypsum
Figure 20 : Gypsum is an evaporite mineral most commonly found in layered

sedimentary deposits in association with halite, anhydrite, sulfur, calcite and
dolomite. Gypsum ([CaSO4 .2H2 O]) is very similar to Anhydrite (CaSO4).
The chemical difference is that gypsum contains two waters and anhydrite is
without water. Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral (Picture:
Geology.com).

Halite
Figure 21 : Naturally occurring sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl)

crystallizing in the cubic (isometric) system. Halite, also known as rock salt,
is colorless or white (sometimes blue) when pure but may be colored pink,
red, gray, or brown by the presence of impurities. It is found in evaporite
sedimentary rocks, often found in association with gypsum and anhydrite, in
salt domes and dried lakes. (Credit: Mineral Information Institute )

Chert
Figure 22 : Most chert forms when microcrystals of silicon dioxide grow

within soft sediments that will become limestone or chalk (Picture:
Geology.com)

Carbonaceous sedimentary rocks
I Carbonaceous Sedimentary Rocks are those that contain abundant

organic matter in various forms
I Although they make only a small fraction of sedimentary rocks,
they are important energy resources
I Coal, for example is a carbonaceous rock that consists of the
altered (due to increased pressure and temperature) remains of
trees and other plant material
I Coal has been used since the last century for energy production
and in chemical industry

Carbonaceous sedimentary rocks
I Oil shales are black mudstones that contain abundant organic

matter that has been altered into solid (kerogen) or very viscous
hydrocarbons (bitumen) that can be extracted from the rock
through heating
I Tar sands are sandstones whose pore spaces are filled with heavy
crude oil and bitumen
I Oil shale and tar sands are attracting interest because some
occurrences are reaching the point where exploitation is becoming
economically viable
I Unconventional energy sources are now becoming more important
as we see oil supplies dwindle

Sedimentary structures
I Sedimentary Structures are another feature of sedimentary rocks

that allows distinction between different rock units
I Sedimentary structures are a consequence of the depositional
process at a site of deposition
I The investigation of these structures in ancient rocks allows us to
reconstruct physical conditions in the past, such as velocity and
direction of depositing currents, emergent or submerged
conditions, frequency of depositing events (storms, tides) and in
that way may allow reconstructions of climate and
paleogeographic setting

Literature
1. BP, Beyond Petroleum. (2006, June). BP statistical review of

world energy, June 2006. London: Author
2. Geological museum, 1988. Britain’s Offshore Oil and Gas London,
British Museum (Natural History), 48 pp.
3. Selley, R. C. 1985: Elements of Petroleum Geology. W. H.
Freeman, New York.
4. Stoneley, R. 1995: Introduction to Petroleum Exploration for
Non-Geologists, Oxford University Press, 119 pp
5. Press, F., Siever, R. et. al. 2003: Understanding Earth. 4th
Edition, Freeman, 121 pp.
6. Hyne N. J. (2001). Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology,
Exploration, Drilling, and Production

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Course objectives

Dr. Lateef Akanji

Jean Piaget University Angola Training

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk)

By the end of this course, you will be able to

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 1/56

Figure 1 : Distribution of world oil (≈ 1, 200BillionBbls) proved reserves

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 2/56

I Oil and gas form in sedimentary basins

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 3/56

Origin of oil and gas

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 4/56

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 5/56

I The most important factor in the generation of hydrocarbons from

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 6/56

Van Krevelen diagram

I Different kerogen types follow different

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 8/56

Figure 3 : General scheme of kerogen evolution and the principal products

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 9/56

Figure 4 : Origin, type, source and hydrocarbon potential of different

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 10/56

Figure 5 : Hydrocarbon type versus temperature defines ”oil window” and

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 11/56

Source of Oil and Gas

I Diatoms are an important group of phytoplankton

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 12/56

Biomolecules in Living Organisms

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 13/56

Biomolecules Lipids Proteins Carbohydrates Lignin

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 14/56

Average Composition of Biomolecules (wt. %)

Petroleum 83-87 10-14 0.1-1.5 0.5-6 0.1-1.5

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 15/56

The Organic Matter Engine

Figure 6 : Schematic of cross-section from the ocean to the continental rise,

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 16/56

Preservation of Organic Matter

I Access to air (oxygen) rapidly - at geological scales - oxidizes

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 17/56

Preservation of Organic Matter

Organic carbon amounts to 1.2 × 1019 kg and is distributed

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 18/56

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 19/56

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

I Generally, finer-grained sediments contain more organic matter

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 20/56

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

Figure 7 : Evidence for the biogenic origin of fossil hydrocarbons (Source:

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 21/56

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Types

TOC in sedimentary rocks can be divided into two types:

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 22/56

I The principal condition is that conversion of OM to HC take place

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 23/56

I On burial, kerogen is first formed (general composition of

Petroleum geology (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 24/56